Psych Chapter 3-5 Midterm Notes PDF

Module 3.1 Sensation  Process in which Senses detect visual, auditory, and other sensory stimuli.  Then transmit stimuli to brain for perception to happen (front end) (means nothing until its perceived  Perception  Sensory information is actively organized, inter...

Module 3.1 Sensation  Process in which Senses detect visual, auditory, and other sensory stimuli.  Then transmit stimuli to brain for perception to happen (front end) (means nothing until its perceived  Perception  Sensory information is actively organized, interpreted by brain. S.B. born blind, got cornea transplant at 50, it got better but couldnt recognize things he hadnt touched before, couldnt perceive distance. The world looked drab, he preferred darkness. He died three years later. Three types of sensory perceptors Exteroceptors: receive data from external world. Our 5 senses, sensors in ears, skin, ect. Interoceptors: information inside body. Heart, liver, intestines, send messages to brain about hunger, thirst, pain, fatigue. Proprioceptors: sense our body and limb positioning, where you are in time and space. Your arm is in the air. vesicular system, skin, muscle and joints Eye tap,(in class) perceiving light, stimulating sensory receptor in eyeball saying I'm stimulated so there must be light there. Fooling the brain Absolute Threshold -Difference between not being able to perceive stimulus and being just barely able to perceive it. -The smallest intensity of stimulus (sound, touch) that you can sense -Minimum amount of sensory stimulation detected 50% of time. -Hearing music means absolute threshold has been crossed. -Motivation, interest changes your threshold Difference Threshold -Measure of smallest increase/decrease in physical stimulus required to produce JND. -J N D “just noticeable difference” = smallest change in sensation detected 50% of time. -Example; If you are holding a 2 k g. weight and added 500 grams, you will notice the difference. However, you will not notice the addition of 500 grams to a 50 k g. weight. Why? Because of Weber’s Law. Weber’s Law  -Ernst Weber established Weber’s Law more than 150 years ago. -Weber’s Law states JND depends on percentage change in stimulus. -Greater original stimulus, more increase needed for JND. -has to be a plus or minus 2% to feel change in weight -for taste its 20% -1/3% for tone Signal Detection Theory -Detecting sensory stimulus involves noticing stimulus against background “noise”(not just auditory) and deciding whether stimulus is actually present and important to pay attention to -Special relevance in many occupations. -Air traffic controllers, police officers, medical professionals, poultry inspectors, poker players -role of reticular formation -factors such as motivation, previous experience, -individual must weigh the gains and losses Sensory Receptors -Detect, respond to one type of stimuli. Transduction -Sensory receptors change sensory stimulation into neural impulses. -process where sensory receptors convert the stim Sensory Adaptation -Become less sensitive to unchanging sensory stimulus over time. -Become less sensitive to unchanging sensory stimulus over time. -For example: If you immerse yourself in a cold lake in the late fall, you will feel the cold initially but eventually adapt to it Module 3.2 Vision OUR EYES DONT SEE (it in the brain) Getty Kuoros - Old greek statue for sale, investigate for 14 months for authenticity, 1986 satisfy that its original and decide to buy it, experts after say its fake so they further investigate but its still there. The experts guts said it wasn't right Gut instinct is often accurate Light: What We See  Photons -Tiny light particles. -Travel in waves. -Majority of waves too long or too short for humans/animals to see. -Our eyes respond to a very thin band called the visible spectrum. Its not totally true that we can only see with light. Picturing mom in the dark or dreaming Eric Man who sees with his tounge with brainport device. Uses patterns Importance of plasticity. Patterns on tounge goes to thalamus then occipital lobe Ben underwood sees with sound (echo location) Perception is the organization of neural energy We are pattern seeking to find faces in objects The Eye: Cornea, Iris, Pupil Cornea -Tough, transparent, protective layer covering front of eye, bends light rays inwards, through pupil. Pupil -Small dark opening in centre of iris. -dilate for bright and dim light -dilates in response to positive emotions like sexual arousal and when frightened -oxytocin and dopamine flood blood and brain during arousal which is what causes the dialation. When its fear its adrenaline Iris -Coloured part of eye; is a muscle that dilate and contract pupil through reflex. Lens -Suspended behind iris and pupil. -light comes in, lense changes shape and size to bring in focus, then reflects image to retina -Composed of many thin layers. -Looks like transparent disc. -Flattens while focusing on distant objects. -Bulges in centre while focusing on close objects. Accommodation: flattening and bulging action. -lense no longer accommodates around 40 because its been stretched too many times so they wear reading glasses The Major Parts of the Human Eye Lens to Retina -Lens focuses images onto retina, a thin membrane.  -Contains sensory receptors for vision. -Image projected onto retina is upside down and reversed left to right. -retinal wall -info is transduced and sent to visual cortex Nearsightedness (Myopia) -Distance through eyeball too short or too long. -See nearby objects clearly, distant images blurry. Farsightedness (Hyperopia) -Focal image longer than eye can handle. -Acts as if image should focus behind retina. -See distant objects clearly, close objects blurry. Rods -Light sensitive receptors in retina that provide vision in dim light -Respond to black and white. -Encode in shades of grey. -found on retinal wall -20x more rods than cones (for survival) -good for the peripheral Cones -Receptor cells in retina. -Help see colour and fine detail when in bright light -Don’t function in very dim light. -found on retinal wall -respond to red, green, blue From Retina to Brain Fovea -Small area of retina, clearest point of vision. -Largest concentration of cones. -Receptors change light rays into neural impulses. -Impulses transmitted to bipolar, amacrine, horizontal cells, then ganglion cells. -Ganglion cells bundle into ‘cable’ leaving retinal wall, on way to brain. Blind Spot: where cable runs through retinal wall. -page with x and dot and the lines continue because pattern -two eyes crossing over fill the blind spot Optic Nerve: after cable leaves retinal wall. -to thalamus to visual cortex. The highway Optic Chiasm -where the two optic nerves cross over -nerve fibres cross to opposite sides of brain. -Helps depth perception.  -After optic chiasm, optic nerve to thalamus, then primary visual cortex. Primary Visual Cortex Feature Detectors -Certain neurons in brain. -Responding only to specific visual patterns such as lines or angles. -Coded at birth to make unique responses. Three Dimensions of Colour Vision Hue = colour we see (red, green, blue, etc.). Saturation = purity of colour. Brightness = intensity of light energy we perceive. Theories of Colour Vision Trichromatic Theory -Suggests that there are three types of cones, which are sensitive to red, green, and blue, and that varying levels of activity in these receptors will produce all colors Opponent-Process Theory -certain cells in the visual system increase their firing rate to signal one color, and decrease firing to signal the opposing color (Red/green, yellow/blue, black/white) Negative Afterimage -Use opponent-process pairs. -Stare at one colour; brain will give sensation of opposite colour on white surface. -Opponent-Process Theory consistent with happenings in ganglion cells. Colour Processing -Researchers believe colour processing starts at level of retina. -Continues through bipolar and ganglion cells. -Is completed in colour detectors in visual cortex. Colour Blindness -Inability to distinguish certain colours. -8% males, 1% females. -Males: mainly problems distinguishing red from green. -Genes for colour vision are carried on X chromosome.  Module 3.3 Hearing McGurk Effect- Characteristics of Sound Audition: the process/sensation of hearing Frequency (Hz): number of cycles completed by sound wave in one second. (high or low pitch) (more hertz per sound the higher the pitch) Amplitude (dB): loudness of sound caused by force or pressure with which air molecules move. (higher decibel, harder to hear. Threshold of sound is 0db) (above 70db is dangerous for our hearing) (normal convo is 60db) Timbre: distinct quality of sound distinguishing it from other sounds of same pitch and loudness. (guitar and piano have different timbre so you can distinguish even with same amplitude) Tritone paradox- people pointing up and down with tones (frequency) Outer Ear Pinna: visible curved flap of cartilage and skin of the outer ear Auditory Canal  2.5 c m long, lined with hairs.  Leads to eardrum. Eardrum (Tympanic Membrane)  Thin, flexible membrane. (that covers the opening of the canal)  About a centimeter in diameter.  Moves in response to sound waves. Middle Ear Ossicles Inside chambers of middle ear. 3 smallest bones in body. (grain of rice) Hammer, anvil, stirrup: link eardrum to oval window. Ossicles amplify sound 22 times when vibrating Inner Ear Cochlea Fluid-filled, snail-shaped, bony chamber. Stirrup pushes against oval window, vibrations move cochlear fluid in waves. Produce electrical impulse transmitted to brain. Basilar membrane is inside, houses sensory receptors for hearing (hair cells), move back and forth as waves, the waves send to auditory nerve, then thalmus, primary auditory cortex Organ of Corti houses the hair cells, the receptor organ for hearing  Theories of Hearing Place Theory  We hear individual pitches.  Determined by place along basilar membrane of cochlea vibrating most.  Theory can’t explain how we perceive frequencies below 150 H z.  What part of membrane is being stimulated  For high frequency Frequency Theory  500 H z tone stimulates hair cells to vibrate 500 times per second.  Theory not valid for high frequency tones.  Neurons cannot fire more than 1,000 times per second.  For low frequency, rely on hair cells Hearing Loss Conductive Hearing Loss  Disease or injury to eardrum or middle ear bones.  Sound waves cannot be conducted to cochlea.  Medical or surgical repair.  Hearing aid can bypass middle ear.  Uses bone conduction to reach cochlea. Sensorineural Hearing Loss  Damage to cochlea or auditory nerve.  Hearing aids may reduce hearing loss if damage to cochlea not severe.  Hearing aids no help if damage to auditory nerve.  Many people over age of 60  Inner ear Threshold for severe pain, rock music tests that Module 3.4 Smell and Taste Olfaction  Sensation of smell; a chemical sense.  Danger system for us, linked to limbic system Olfactory Epithelium  Patch of tissue at top of each nasal cavity.  Contains 10-40 million smell receptor cells.  Respond to different chemicals  Celia (like dendrites) and axons Olfactory Bulbs  Two matchstick-sized structures above nasal cavities.  Smell sensations first register in brain.  Messages from olfactory bulbs relayed to different parts of brain.  Smell doesn't go to thalamus like all other senses, it goes to amygdala, hippocampus, olfactory cortex The Olfactory Sense Figure 3.10 The Olfactory Sense Odour molecules travel up the nostrils to the olfactory epithelium, which contains the receptor cells for smell. Olfactory receptors are special neurons with axons that form the olfactory nerve. The olfactory nerve relays smell messages to the olfactory bulbs and on to other parts of the brain. Pheromones  Chemicals excreted by humans and animals.  Elicits certain behaviour patterns.  Example: Androsterone causes changes in physiological functions, like heart rate and mood states.  Example: Menstrual synchrony. Menstrual cycles of women who live together synchronize over time. Gustation  Sense of taste.  Four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter.  Umami (fifth taste), response to glutamate found in protein rich foods like meat, milk, aged cheese, seafood. Flavour  Combined sensory experience of taste, smell, touch.  Much of taste is from smell.  Brain perceives two distinctive flavours present in sweet and sour sauce quite separately. Taste Buds  Small bumps called Papillae.  Four types of papillae.  Three types of papillae have taste buds.  Each taste bud has 60 to 100 receptor cells.  Lifespan of receptor cells: 10 days.  Non-Tasters: reduced ability to taste, smallest number of taste buds per square centimeter (96).  Medium Tasters: nearly twice as many taste buds (184).  Supertasters: more than four times as many taste buds (425).  Module 3.5 The Skin Senses Transduction process The Mechanism of Touch  Tactile information conveyed to brain when object touches skin.  Nerve endings send touch message through nerve connections to spinal cord.  Travels up spinal cord through brainstem, midbrain, to brain’s somatosensory cortex. Finger point touch experiment- more senses in hands and fingertips rather than shoulder or arm Pain: Chronic pain – pain that lasts longer than its purpose phycological pain –his back being out Gate Control Theory –Melzak and Wall  Pain signals can be transmitted or inhibited by “gate” in spinal cord that can be open or closed which allows some messages to go to brain and slow others down. Only so many messages can get through the gate at the time so pain signals can be blocked  Endorphins are faster and clog the gate, pain is slower (going through door)  Both cognitive and emotional factors can influence our perception of pain  One recent study about pain, found Indigenous People participants demonstrated greater anxiety around pain than participants of European descent (Rhudy et. A l. 2020) Endorphins  Body produces our own natural pain killers.  Produce feelings of well-being.  When were injured, cry, laugh, high stress  Example: Runner’s high The Two-Point Threshold Figure 3.11 The Two-Point Threshold The two-point threshold measures how far apart two points must be to be felt as two separate touches. The drawing shows the average two-point thresholds for different parts of the body. The shortest bars on the graph indicate the greatest sensitivity; the longest bars, the least sensitivity. The thumb and fingers, being the most sensitive body parts, have the lowest two-point thresholds (less than 5 m m). The calves, being the least sensitive body parts, have two-point thresholds of about 45 m m. Module 3.6 The Spatial Orientation Senses Kinesthetic Sense  Feedback about movement and position of various body parts.  1) position of body parts in relation to others 2) the movement in body parts  This information is detected by receptors in joints, ligaments and muscles  Can perform smooth and skilled body movements without our visual feedback  Visual, audio Vestibular Sense Equilibrium, sense of balance  Detects movement.  Provides information about body’s orientation in space.  These are located in the Semicircle Canal (& vestibular sacs of the inner ear) Semicircular Canals  Senses rotation of head when turning head side to side or spinning around.  Tube-like canals filled with fluid.  Rotating movements of head send fluid through canals.  Only signals changes in motion or orientation.  3 semicircular canals Sensing Balance and Movement Figure 3.12 Sensing Balance and Movement We sense the rotation of the head in any direction because the movement (as during the figure skater’s spin on the right) sends fluid coursing through the tube-like semicircular canals in the inner ear. The moving fluid bends the hair-cell receptors, which in turn send the message to the brain. Module 3.7 Perception  Sensory information actively organized, finds pattern and interprets it  Information interpreted by brain.  Sensations are raw material.  Perceptions are finished products.  We sense hertz, we perceive melodies Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization Gestalt  German word meaning whole form, pattern, configuration we perceive. Argued that we organize our sensory experience according to a certain basic principles of perceptual organization. This includes the figure ground principle, and principle of perceptual groupings. Figure-Ground Principle  Principle of perceptual organization.  Visual field perceived in terms of object (figure) against background (ground).  Used with music too, melody stands out as figure, cords are heard as ground Reversing Figure and Ground Figure 3.13 Reversing Figure and Ground In this illustration, you can see a white vase against a black background or two black faces in profile on a white background. Exactly the same visual stimulus produces two opposite figure–ground perceptions. Gestalt Principles of Grouping Similarity  Visual, auditory, other stimuli with similar characteristics.  Perceived as a unit when similar characteristics Proximity  Objects close together in space or time perceived as belonging together.  (4 pairs of parallel lines, not 8 single lines) Continuity  Perceive figures or objects as belonging together if they form a continuous pattern  Appear as continuous pattern. Closure  If parts of figure missing, perceive as whole. Perceptual Constancy  View people and objects from different angles, distances, lighting conditions.  See objects as maintaining consistent properties (same size, shape, brightness, color.)  Size Constancy  See same size regardless of changes in retinal image. (small means further, not actually smaller)  Shape Constancy  See stable or unchanging shape regardless of differences in viewing angle.  Ex. A door is always a rectangle regardless of what angle you view it  Brightness Constancy  See same brightness regardless of differences in lighting conditions.  Color Constancy  See same color under different conditions of illumination.  Depth Perception: The ability to see in three dimensions and estimate distance The images cast upon the retina don’t contain depth Binocular Depth Cues Rely on cues from both eyes working together  Convergence  Eyes turn inward while focusing nearby objects.  Closer object, greater convergence.  Tension in eye muscles for close things  Binocular Disparity (A.K.A. retinal disparity)  Difference between two retinal images.  Cues for depth and balance. Monocular Depth Cues  Cues from one eye.  Interposition  Perceive partially blocked object as farther away.  Linear Perspective  Parallel lines appear to converge into distance. (train tracks)  Relative Size  Larger objects perceived as closer to viewer, smaller objects as farther away. Texture Gradient  Nearby objects appear to have sharply defined textures.  Similar objects appear smoother.  Appear fuzzier as recede into distance. Atmospheric Perspective  Also called aerial perspective.  Distant objects have bluish tint.  Distant objects appear more blurred than close objects. Shadow or Shading  Distinguish bulges from indentations by their shadows. Motion Parallax  Look out side window of moving vehicle.  Objects appear to be moving in opposite direction.  Objects seem to be moving at different speeds.  Close objects appear to move faster than distant ones.  Far away objects (moon, sun), appear to move in same direction as viewer. Motion Perception Real Motion = Movements of objects through space. Apparent Motion = psychologically constructed in response to stimuli  Phi Phenomenon (stroboscopic motion): neon lights flashing looks like movement.  Autokinetic Illusion: stare at single unmoving light in dark room, appears to move.  Apparent motion caused by the movement of the eyes rather than the movement of the objects being viewed  Car stopped but car beside moves and you think your moving Extraordinary Perceptions Ambiguous Figures  Two different objects.  Figures seen alternately. Impossible Figures  Parts appear to be two different places at same time. Figure 3.18 Old Woman/ Young Woman by E. G. Boring The most famous ambiguous figure can be seen alternately as a young woman or an old woman, depending on where your eyes fixate. Figure 3.19 The Three-Pronged Trident This is an impossible figure because the middle prong appears to be in two places at the same time. Illusions  False perception or misperception of actual stimulus in environment.  Müller-Lyer Illusion and Ponzo Illusion.  Cultural Differences in Visual Illusions.  For example: One study found that members of the Navajo Nation who had lived in traditional round houses (hogan) rather than typical North American houses, for the first six years of life, tended not to see the Müller-Lyer Illusion (Pederson and Wheeler, 1983) Müller-Lyer Illusion Figure 3.20 The Müller-Lyer Illusion Although the two vertical lines in (a) are the same length, the line on the left seems to project forward and appears closer than the line on the right, which seems to recede. The two horizontal lines in (b) are identical in length. When two lines are the same length, the one perceived as farther away will appear longer. Ponzo Illusion Figure 3.21 The Ponzo Illusion The two white bars superimposed on the railway track are actually identical in length. Because A appears farther away than B, we perceive it as longer. Module 3.8 Bottom-Up Processing  Individual components of stimulus detected by sensory receptors.  Information transmitted to areas of brain then combined, assembled into whole pattern person perceives.  Example: trying to decipher your doctor’s writing on prescription.  Ex. Jigsaw puzzle without the aid of the picture (no preconceived notion of what to expect) Top-Down Processing  Past experience, knowledge of context plays role in forming perceptions.  We perceive more than sum of individual elements taken in by sensory receptors.  Example: pharmacist can decipher your doctor’s prescription and fill it.  Ex. Jigsaw puzzle when you have the picture Influences on Perception Perceptual Set  Expectations affect perceptions. Attention  Process of sorting sensations and selecting some for further processing.  Inattentional Blindness = failure to notice changes in objects if not directly paying attention. Chapter 4 States of Consciousness Module 4.1 Circadian Rhythms Consciousness Continuous stream of… -Thoughts. -Feelings. -Sensations. -Perceptions -things that we’re aware of Altered States of Consciousness -Mental states other than ordinary waking consciousness. -Sleep, meditation. -Hypnosis or drug induced state. Circadian Rhythms -Controlled by the brain. -withing each 24hr period, regular fluctuations from high to low points of a body function -timing of life sustaining processes in all organisms -Examples: around 100, blood pressure, heart rate, appetite, hormones, digestive enzymes, sensory acuity, elimination, energy levels, body temp (alertness) Ultradian Rhythms -cycle that’s more than once a day. -Hunger patterns, eyeblinks, heartbeats. Infradian Rhythms -Cycle exceeds 24-hour pattern. -Female menstrual cycle. -pregnancy These rhythms are controlled by: Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) -Small structure in hypothalamus of brain. -Acts as biological clock. -Responds to amount of light. -Photoreceptors in eye, relay light information (amount of light) via optic nerve to SCN. -SCN signals Pineal gland to secrete Melatonin. -we’ve altered our natural cycles with alarm clocks, artificial lights, electricity, screens Jet Lag -Biological clock synchronized with usual time zone, not new one. -Difficult to sleep when biological clock tells you wake up, feel alert. -Chronic jetlag can produce memory deficits that may be permanent. NHL Canucks and jetlag when going east coast Shift Work -Rotating shifts and irregular schedules most common. -Disruption in rhythms of bodily functions can cause variety of physical and psychological problems. -trunobal nuclear disaster - Subjective Night -Lowest body temperature in a 24 hr. period (2-3 am) -Biological clock gives a sleep message. -Energy efficiency at lowest point.  -Slowest reaction time, less productivity. Module 4.2 Sleep (a state of consciousness) We sleep to restore energy and consolidate memory Keep animals out of harms way (multi phasic sleeping) to not be vulnerable (polyphasic sleep) two sleeps in a day NREM Sleep -“Non-rapid eye movement” or quiet sleep. -Heart rate and respiration slow -Little body movement. -Blood pressure, brain activity at lowest points of 24 hour period. -4 stages. REM Sleep -“Rapid eye movement” or active sleep. -Paralysis of large muscles (arms, legs, trunk). -Fast, irregular heart and respiration rate. -Increased brainwave activity. -Vivid dreams. -20-25% of adult sleep. -aids in learning and memory Sleep Cycles -Sleep cycles last about 90 minutes. Stage 1 (light sleep) -Transition between waking to sleeping. -lasts a few minutes Stage 2 -50% of sleep occurs; somewhat deeper than Stage 1. Stage 3 (deep sleep) -Slow-wave sleep; delta waves (slow waves). -growth hormone is secreted Stage 4 -deepest sleep, lasts 40 minutes; more than 50% delta waves. * Sleep Cycles -Typical night, 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM (10-15min)  -After R E M period, first cycle of sleep complete. -Begin cycle again. -Go directly from REM into Stage 2 sleep. -Typical night sleep, 5 sleep cycles (1.5 hours slow wave sleep, 1.5 hours R E M). -by end of night REM periods 30-40min Individual Differences in Sleep Infants and Young Children -Longest sleep time. -Highest percentage of REM and deep sleep. -11-13 hours Middle Childhood (age 6 – puberty) -Fall asleep easily, sleep 8.5 to 9 hrs.; awake, alert during day. Teenagers -Average 7.6 hours sleep, (Older teens < 7 hours). -Most need 2 more hours to be alert for school. Adults -During aging, quality, quantity of sleep decreases. -More difficulty falling asleep, lighter sleep. -produce less melatonin as you age Larks and Owls Larks (25% of people) -Body temperature rises until 7:30 pm; early to bed. -More difficulty with night shifts. -sleep over 9 hours -early to bed and awake -more anxious, rebels Owls (25% of people) -Body temperature rises gradually through day, drops in evenings. -late to sleep -sleep 6 hours of less (don’t need as much sleep to function) -more ambitious, energized, confident -more physical health issues (dementia) Third birds -most people -most aren’t wired to be in bed before midnight and awake up around 9 Daniel pink, 3 stages of timing in day Peak around 10am, trough around 2pm, recovery around 5pm REM Sleep Deprivation Microsleeps -2-3 second sleeps, due to deep sleep deprivation. REM Rebound -Increased amount of REM sleep, due to REM deprivation from; sleep loss, alcohol, illness. -Associated with unpleasant dreams, nightmares. -to make up for rem deprivation Function of REM Sleep -Necessary for maturation of brain in infants. -Aids in information processing, learning and memory consolidation. -May help form new synapses in brain. Dreaming REM Dreams -Vivid dreams we remember, emotional, story like, more likely to include aggressive behavious -Continuous during each REM period. NREM Dreams -Mental activity during NREM sleep. -More thought-like in quality. Ugene noticed active eye movements and relation to dreaming Freud importance of dream meaning -unconscious wishes that are unacceptable to us. Interpret that these are symbols Brains attempt to interpret random electric impulses in brain Physiological not psychological Module 4.3 Variations in Sleep and Sleep Disorders Variations in Sleep -Factors such as genetics, mood and stress levels affect how much sleep individuals need Short Sleepers -20% of population. -need less than 6 hours sleep. Long Sleepers -10% of population. -need more than 9 hours sleep.  -Studies indicate that there is a limit to how little sleep we can tolerate -Seems that most people need a minimum of 6.5 hours of sleep -At least one third of the population is sleep deprived Parasomnias Parasomnia -Sleep disturbances. -Behaviors, physiological states normally occur in waking state occur during sleep state. Sleepwalking (somnambulism) -Eyes open, blank stare. -Shuffle, poor coordination, speech is unintelligible. -run in families (delayed development of nervous system) Sleep Terror -Often begins with piercing scream, panic; lasts 5-15 minutes. -Often no memory of episode. -runs in families (delayed development of nervous system) Nightmares -Frightening dreams during R E M sleep. Sleeptalking (somniloquy) -Occurs during any sleep stage. -More frequent in children. Major Sleep Disorders -Debilitating, affect person’s entire life. -Disorders include: narcolepsy, sleep apnea, and insomnia. Narcolepsy = incurable sleep disorder. -Excessive daytime sleepiness. -Uncontrollable attacks of R E M sleep. Sleep Apnea = breathing stops during sleep. -Individual must awaken briefly to breathe. Insomnia = difficulty falling or staying asleep. -Sleep is light, restless, or poor quality. -13.4% of Canadians over age 15. Module 4.4 Altering Consciousness Through Concentration and Suggestion Meditation -Focus attention on object, word, breathing, or body movement to block out all distractions and achieve am altered state of consciousness. -Yoga, Zen, Transcendental Meditation (T M). -stress reduction, lower blood pressure and cholesterol -alter brain structure Hypnosis -Trance-like state of concentrated and focused attention. -Heightened suggestibility, diminished response to external stimuli. -Suspend usual rational and logical ways of thinking and perceiving. -Distortions in perceptions, memories, thinking. -Aware of what is going on. -Will not violate moral values. -Cannot demonstrate superhuman strength or perform amazing feats. -Memory is not more accurate. -Will not reveal embarrassing secrets. -Will not relive events. -Not under complete control of hypnotist. -Responses often automatic and involuntary. * Medical Uses of Hypnosis -Used in medicine, dentistry, psychotherapy. -Controls pain and side effects associated with cancer care. -Moderate effect in weight control. -Useless in overcoming drug and alcohol abuse, nicotine addiction. Module 4.5 Altered States of Consciousness and Psychoactive Drugs 27 club – is it biological or environmental? (probably more environmental) Psychoactive Drugs -Alter normal mental functioning, mood, perception, thought. -Controlled substances used medically and illegally -Drugs can trigger dopamine in brain’s limbic system, involved in reward and motivation. Heroin addict if there’s a change in environment and the brain doesn’t have the same visual and physical cues. It surprises the brain and can cause overdose. Drug Dependence Physical Drug Dependence -Compulsive drug use (need to function)  -Drug tolerance, unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Drug Tolerance -User progressively less affected. -Larger doses necessary to achieve, maintain same effect. Withdrawal Symptoms -Physical and psychological symptoms occur when drug discontinued. -Terminates when drug taken again. Psychological Drug Dependence -Craving for drug’s pleasurable effects. Addictive Potential of Drug Four factors influence addictive potential: -How quickly effects are felt. -How pleasurable effects are. -How long pleasurable effects last. (last shorter more addictive like cocaine) -How much discomfort when drug discontinued. (if the come down feels awful its more addictive like cocaine) Stimulants (uppers) -Speed up central nervous system. -Suppress appetite, feel more awake, alert, energetic. (force body to use stored energy in fat and muscle in brain, not create more) -Legal stimulants: caffeine, nicotine. -Controlled stimulants: amphetamines. -Illegal stimulants: cocaine. -if taking SSRI’s can be more dangerous Caffeine -World’s most widely used drug. -Found in coffee, tea, cola, chocolate, energy drinks, drugs. -Mental alertness increases. -Stay awake, lifts mood. -increase anxiety, depression, irritability -5-7cups is too much (500-600mg) Nicotine -Nicotine is so toxic to the body that tolerance develops in hours in contrast to days or weeks for heroin. -12% of Canadians smoke and 42% have tried to quit in the past year. -Cigarette smoking is down but vaping has increased. -Only 5% of Canadian teens use cigarettes but 15% vape. Amphetamines -Increases arousal. -Relieves fatigue. -Suppresses appetite.  -Gives energy. -confusion, fear, suspicion Cocaine -From coca leaves. -Sniffed, injected; crack form is smoked. -Stimulates the reward center in brain -Produces euphoric high then a crash -Cocaine use in Canada is low, with 2% of Canadians reporting using it in the past year Hallucinogens -Sometimes called psychedelics. -Alter perception and mood. -Can cause hallucinations. -Have been used in religious rituals and ceremonies in various cultures since ancient times. -May or may not stimulate creativity – current research is divided on this question L S D (lysergic acid diethylamide) -“Trips” of 10-12 hours. -Vivid hallucinations and distortions. -Flashback = recurrence of trip. -successfully treats alcoholism and schizophrenia Ecstasy (M D M A) -Designer drug. -Joyous state. -Can impair cognitive functions. Marijuana -In 2018 Canada became the second country (after Uruguay) to legalize cannabis for medical / recreational purposes -In 2021, 27% of Canadians reported using cannabis -Relaxation and giddiness. -Perceptual distortions and hallucinations. -T H C (tetrahydrocannabinol) is main psychoactive ingredient. -psychologically addictive (10%) physically addictive Depressants -Decrease activity in central nervous system (downers). -Slow down bodily functions. -Reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation. -Narcotics (opiates).  Alcohol -Relaxes, then depresses C N S. -Increases sexual arousal but decreases performance Barbiturates (downers) -C N S depressant used as sedatives, sleeping pills (phenobarbital). -Minor tranquilizers (benzodiazepines; Valium, Librium, Dalmane, Xanax. Narcotics = From opium (morphine, codeine). -Narcotic = “stupor.” -Relieves pain; calming effects. -Heroin = derived from morphine. -Fentanyl = synthetic morphine 50 to 100 times stronger. * How Drugs Affect the Brain Dopamine -Alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, marijuana, heroin, nicotine = increase dopamine. -Dopamine affects nucleus accumbens in brain’s limbic system. -Role in reinforcement and reward. -Some drugs stimulate release of dopamine. -Some drugs slow reuptake of dopamine. Endorphins -Opiates (morphine, heroin) mimic effects of brain’s own endorphins. -Analgesic (pain-relieving) properties. GABA Alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines (Valium®, Librium®) act on G A B A receptors. G A B A = inhibitory neurotransmitter. Slows C N S. Calming, sedating effect. Chapter 5 Learning Module 5.1 Classical Conditioning Terminology is most important- extinction, generalization, discrimination, spontaneous recovery Backward alphabet graph – big initial growth, then slow down and crash, then rise up (motivation)- slow increases aren’t as motivating as big increases Learning -Relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude. -Acquired through experience. -Not attributed to illness, injury, or maturation. Classical Conditioning (respondent conditioning) -Powerful effect on attitudes, likes, dislikes, emotional responses. -Response previously made to specific stimulus, made to another. -Association formed/learned between one stimulus to another -Response to grades (repulsed or elated) -Involuntary learning ***** Stimulus/Stimuli -Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds. -Heat makes you sweat involuntarily, cold makes you shiver -Natural reponses -E.g., sound, light, touch. -ex. Santa clause evokes an emotional response because of their association -Plural of stimulus = stimuli. Ivan Pavlov -1849 to 1936. -Studied conditioned reflex in dogs. -Involuntary response (salivation) associated with sights, sounds of feeding. -Research in physiology. Intended to see how organisms break down protein -this is classical conditioning Reflexes -Inborn, unlearned, automatic, involuntary responses to environmental stimuli. -E.g., swallowing, coughing, blinking, sucking, grasping, flinch -John Gottman – predicted relationship success in couples by detecting reflexive facial expression (involuntary responses) (if they show contempt) -made up of both a stimulus and a response Unconditioned Reflex -Involuntary response to stimulus.  -built into the nervous system -E.g., Eye blink to puff of air, Salivation response to food, sweat, flinch -not learned Conditioned Reflex -Learned (reflex) involuntary responses. -conditioned is synonymous with learned ****Unconditioned Response (UR) -Automatic, unlearned response to U S. -bang makes us flinch -blink from air in eye -dogs salivation in response to food -tears, perspiration, startle Unconditioned Stimulus (US) -Stimulus elicits U R. -a bang noise -blow air in eye -a stimulus that elicits a specific response without prior learning -food, onion juice, loud noise, ligt in eye Conditioned Stimulus (CS) -Previously neutral stimulus. -After repeated pairings with U S, produces C R. -a snap of fingers, doesn’t make her blink her eye, if you blow air in eye and snap fingers she will blink (unconditioned stimulus), after repeated pairing of this it becomes a conditioned stimulus -food for dog with neutral stimulus of tuning fork (the tone) Conditioned Response (CR) -Learned response made to C S. -the snap alone would make her blink -dog salivates just with tuning fork -(salivation to tone) Neutral Stimulus – snapping of fingers, tuning fork for pavlov Figure 5.2 Classically Conditioning a Salivation Response A neutral stimulus (a tone) elicits no salivation until it is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food). After many pairings, the neutral stimulus (now called the conditioned stimulus) alone produces salivation. Classical conditioning has occurred. Extinction -Weakening of learned response. -Eventual disappearance of learned response. -C S repeatedly presented without U S. -snap and air in eye, if the unconditioned stimulus stops then the response will go away eventually. -discard conditioned responses when they are no longer useful -deer goes to grainery spill, then farmer cleans it up and the deer stops going because it needs to for survival -pavlov if he keeps ringing the fork without giving food then the salivation with extinguish Spontaneous Recovery -Sometimes occurs after extinction. -Occurs when C S presented again. -C R reappears. -weaker usually, means that extinction is not a complete loss of learning -when there is a bit of a break Figure 5.3 Extinction of a Classically Conditioned Response When a classically conditioned stimulus (the tone) was presented in a series of trials without the unconditioned stimulus (the food), Pavlov’s dogs salivated less and less until there was virtually no salivation. But after a 20-minute rest, with one sound of the tone, the conditioned response would reappear in a weakened form (producing only a small amount of salivation), a phenomenon Pavlov called spontaneous recovery. Generalization -Conditioned response to stimulus similar to original C S. -E.g., fear of dogs. -After dog bite, do not just fear that dog. -Fear all dogs. -if the tone of the tuning fork was similar, it will still produce the same result. The more similar the tone the better the result. Ding as opposed to dong sound wouldn’t make dog respond much -learn to approach or avoid if stimuli is similar Figure 5.4 Generalization in Classical Conditioning Because of the phenomenon of generalization, a dog conditioned to salivate to middle C (the C S) on the piano also salivates to similar tones—but less and less so as the tone moves away from middle C. Discrimination -Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli. -C R only to original C S. -Discrimination aids survival. e.g. learning the difference between a garter snake and a poisonous snake can save your life. John B. Watson All aspects of human psychology, everything we do is from conditioning All individual behavior is from different learning That he could turn a kid into anything he wanted with Little Albert Experiment (1919): -Proved fear could be classically conditioned. (learn to fear) -Conditioned baby Albert to fear white rat. -Little Albert learned to fear things resembling white rat (generalization). Little Albert demonstrates that his fear of the white rat has generalized to a rabbit. Peter and fear removal: -Watson and Mary Cover Jones. -Removing 3 year old Peter’s fear of rabbit. -Systematic; had rabbit come closer while Peter ate candy. -Peter grew fond of rabbit also lost fears of fur, feathers etcetera. Four factors that influence Classical Conditioning: 1) Number of pairings of C S and U S. (how much he snaps and blows) 2) Intensity of U S. (leaf blower to eye instead of straw to blow) 3) How reliably C S predicts U S. (how many time in between snapping he blows) 4) Temporal relationship between C S and U S. (timing pairing of snap and blink) Contemporary Views Cognitive Perspective -Critical element in classical conditioning was the repeated pairing of CS and US. -Critical element = Does CS enable prediction of US. Biological Predisposition -Genetics or biologically based motivations. -May prepare animals to acquire or resist classically conditioned responses. -Humans fear stimuli that can harm. -Survival response: taste aversion. Fear Responses -Fears and phobias largely result from classical conditioning. -Dental phobia if painful dental work. -Can generalize anxiety to dental chair, waiting room, dentist’s office building. Drug Use -Environmental cues associated with drug use can become C S. -Can produce C R of drug craving. -Need higher doses for effects (tolerance). -Cues initiating protective mechanisms not present when same dose taken in unfamiliar surroundings (lead to overdose). Classical conditioning helps explain why certain environmental cues or social situations can lead to continued drug use. Advertising -Products paired with people, objects, situations we like. -We become conditioned to buy products. Sexual Arousal -Environmental cues (places, smells, clothing). -Can become associated with experiences. -Can have role in experiences. -fetishes (lingerie for dads, they grew up without full pornography, sears catalogue) -fetishes in rats- james pfauss – virgin male mice, let mice have sex, then ones who wear a jacket and have sex, then don’t put jacket on and it takes longer to initiate sexual contact and to finish Module 5.2 *****Differentiate between positive and negative reinforcement and punishment Classical conditioning -grad student blows whistle and feeds birds. Then football game they blow whistle and all the birds come to the field B.F Skinner -trained pigeons to drop bombs in ww2 with operant conditioning -raised daughters using operant conditioning Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner -Conditioning voluntary responses. -Response comes first. -Consequence tends to modify response in future. -we choose a response and that decision strengthens or weakens based on what comes after (the consequences) -manipulate the consequences of an action to shift peoples behaviors -Law of effect -thorndikes – if it feels good then well keep doing it -Consequences can; increase, decrease, shape response. -Reinforcers are rewards. (strengthens a response or increases probability) -Rewards increase response. -are a consequences -gave 10 bucks if you show up to class on time, -smiles, praise, grades Shaping -Condition complex behaviour. -Gradually moulding desired behaviour. -Reinforce successive approximations of desired response. -if the cat didn’t know it had to ring the bell then they wouldn’t get the treat. Cant wait for an ideal response before reinforcement -ex. potty training, marking papers w checkmarks, money -negative aspects: only do the chore for the reward instead of feeling responsibility. Negative behaviours can also be reinforced -Skinner Box used by B.F. Skinner to condition rats to press a food bar to obtain a reward (pellets or water  -when the rats nose is close to the level you drop a pellet -do it again when the rat goes to the leaver -the rat will learn to expect pellets -stop until he goes on his hind legs -give it -stop until his head touches the leaver -again until he actually hits the lever -project pigeon- to drop bombs in ww2 -successive approximations – series of gradual training steps with each step becoming more like the desired response Superstitious Behaviour -Believe connection exists between act and consequences. -Mistake consequence for a cause. -No relationship between act and consequences exists. -E.g. gamblers blowing on dice, wearing same “lucky” shorts to each ballgame Extinction -When reinforcers withheld. -Can lead to frustration. -Spontaneous recovery -can occur after period of rest. - Loss of learning is rarely permenant Generalization -Learned response to stimulus similar to original stimulus. -a red light signaling to pigeon, will be the same if reinforced with an orange light -might not peck at a blue light Discrimination -Learning to distinguish between stimulus reinforced and other similar stimuli. -learns that picking at an orange light if its not reinforced is not worth it -choose which parent to ask to go out **Reinforcement -an event that follows a response and increases the strength of the response or like likelihood that it will be repeated Positive Reinforcement -Pleasant or desirable consequence added. -Increases probability response will be repeated. -cats getting treats when ring bell -add something that you like or want Negative Reinforcement -Aversive condition or stimuli removed. -Response likely to occur again because followed by ending aversive condition. -reward a behaviour by subtracting something that you don’t like ex. If you come to class on time every day, take away homework Positive Punishment Negative Punishment Reinforcement Schedules schedule definition example Response Reaction when pattern reinforcement stops continuous Reinforcement after Turning on tv, Rapid learning of Very little persistence; every correct pop machine response rapid disappearance of response (works every response time Fixed Reinforcement after Weekly quiz Response at rate Little persistence; rapid interval a set period of time increases as time drop-in response rate for reinforcement when time for approaches, then reinforcement passes and drops after no reinforcer appears reinforcement Variable Reinforcement after Pop quiz Slow, steady rate Greater persistence; slow interval varying lengths of of responding; decline in response rate time very little pause after reinforcement Fixed ratio Reinforcement Bake sale Rapid response Little persistence; rapid given after a set rate; pause after drop in response rate number of reinforcement when expected number of responses responses are given and no reinforcers appears Variable Reinforcement after Slot Very high Greatest persistence; ratio a varying number of machines response rate; response rate stays high responses little pause after and gradually drops off reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement -Reinforce every correct response. -Most effective way to condition new response. -pop machine, pay for it and push button, you get a pop. It works every time  -ex. Turn on tv Partial Reinforcement -Portion of correct responses are reinforced. -Schedules of reinforcement. -most often in real life Fixed-Ratio Schedule -Reinforcement given After fixed number of correct responses. -the faster people respond, the more reinforcers they earn -ex. Bake sale Variable-Ratio Schedule -Reinforcement after varying number of correct responses. -ex. slot machine -don’t know when the reward will happen Fixed-Interval Schedule -Reinforcement after specific time interval passed. -ex. Weekly quiz Variable-Interval Schedule -Reinforcement after varying amount of time -ex. pop quiz Factors that influence reinforcement Operant Conditioning: -Magnitude of reinforcement. -Immediacy of reinforcement. -Level of motivation of learner. Punishment -Removal of a pleasant stimulus. -Application of unpleasant stimulus. Positive punishment -add in a punishment Negative punishment -take away something good -Both tend to suppress a response. How to make it effective: -Most effective if during misbehaviour or immediately after. -Minimum necessary to suppress behaviour. -intensity -Apply consistently. (drunk drivers don’t always get caught) -Should not be done in anger. -skinner says behaviour is likely to continue when the threat of punishment is gone Punishment makes you learn to hide behaviour, retaliate, don’t learn lesson Escape Learning -Behavior terminates aversive event. Eg. Taking a painkiller for a pounding headache Avoidance Learning -Avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes. -Drinking and driving associated with car accidents and death. -don’t go to dentist Learned Helplessness -Passive resignation to aversive conditions. -Repeated exposure to aversive, inescapable, unavoidable events. -Learner does not try to change, escape, avoid aversive conditions. -Learn to stand helplessly and suffer punishment. Module 5.3 Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning Both classical and operant conditioning depend in associative learning Classical: association is formed between two stimuli Ex. Tone and food. Product and celebrity Operant: association is formed between a response and its consequences Ex. Studying and good grade Classical: focused on what precedes the response Ex. Pavlov focused on what led to dogs salivating Operant: focused on what follows the response Ex. Studying followed by a reinforcer Classical: subject is passive and responds to environment Operant: subject is active and operates on the environment Characteristics Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Type of association Between two stimuli Between a response and its consequences  State of subject passive active Focus of attention On what precedes On what follows response response Type of response Involuntary or reflexive Voluntary response typically involved response Bodily response Internal responses: External response: typically involved emotional and glandular muscular and skeletal reactions; movement and verbal responses Range of responses Relatively simple Simple to highly complex Responses learned Emotional reactions: fears, Goal-oriented responses likes, dislikes Watson: classical Skinner: operant Fear responses and drug use: classical Conditioning Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning Generalization. Discrimination. Extinction. Spontaneous Recovery. Module 5.4 Behaviour Modification: Changing Our Act Applications of Operant Conditioning Behaviour Modification -Changing behaviour through systematic programe -Based on principles of learning. (Classical, operant, observant(modeling))) -most use operant conditionig -to eliminate undesirable behaviour, or encourage desirable behaviour Token Economy Motivates socially desirable behaviour Reinforce with tokens. Tokens exchanged for desired items or privileges. -prisons, mental health programs, child education  Uses of Behaviour Modification Business and industry: -Increase profits, modify employee behaviour in health, safety, learning. Psychological treatment: -Treatment of psychological problems from phobias to addiction. -Behaviour therapy. Module 5.5 Cognitive Learning Observational Learning (1 of 6) Cognitive Processes -Mental processes: thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering Observational Learning -Learning by observing and imitating behaviour. -to acquire new responses or strengthen/ weaken existing responses Modelling/Model -Person who demonstrates behaviour. -Person whose behaviour is imitated. The Bobo doll experiment (Albert Bandura) Aggressive behaviour is subject to observational learning. Studied violence on television and possible link to aggression in children. Children influenced by exposure to aggressive models. Experimental group = children observed aggressive adult with Bobo doll. Control group = observed non-aggressive model. Experimental group imitated aggression to doll. Control group = less aggression. Children do not process information about consequences like adults. Effects of childhood exposure to violence persists. Children imitate prosocial behaviour.