PYC1502 Study Unit 3-1 PDF

PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 Unit 3: Motivation Learning objectives - define motivation - distinguish between the different types of motivation - describe the components...

PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 Unit 3: Motivation Learning objectives - define motivation - distinguish between the different types of motivation - describe the components of motivation - differentiate between the different sources of motivation - explain the process of motivated behaviour and theories that contribute to motivation 3.1 Introduction Motivation refers to why people do what they do. The significance of personal motivation can be seen in a variety of human endeavours. For instance, the energy and dedication of an athlete who is busy preparing for the Olympics, the drive and ambition of a young executive aiming for the top of the corporate ladder, or the willpower and self-discipline of someone determined to lose weight or quit smoking. Without motivation, achieving success will be difficult. This unit will help you understand the concept of motivation. You will be introduced to the main types of motivation, the components, sources and the related process of motivation along with the theories of motivation. 3.2 Motivation definition Motivation is derived from the Latin word movere, which means "to move." According to (Wlodkowski,1978), "Motivation is the word used to describe those processes that can: (a) arouse and instigate behaviour; (b) give direction or purpose to behaviour; (c) continue to enable persistent behaviour; and (d) lead to choosing or preferring a particular behaviour (cited in Kleinginna & Kleinginna, 1981)." Broadly defined, motivation refers to the forces Open Rubric PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 acting on or within a person that cause them to make certain decisions, to engage in action, and persist in action (Encyclopedia of Management). 3.3 Types of motivation There are two things, namely conscious versus unconscious; and intrinsic versus extrinsic features, to be aware of when it comes to motivated actions (Van Deventer & Mojapelo- Batka, 2013). Firstly, it is not always about being aware of the reasons for one’s decision (i.e., consciously decided to act in a certain way). For instance, we sometimes act without knowing why exactly we are acting in this way, or without thinking about the reasons for our actions (i.e., unconscious factors). Psychoanalytic theory (as will be explained later) states that unconscious factors can also be motivating. This means that even when we try to explain our actions, the reasons for choosing a particular action remains hidden from us. Secondly, our motivations can be internal also known as intrinsic (arising from within the individual) or external also known as extrinsic (arising from external factors and often include rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition or appreciation). See Figure 3.1 below. https://mymarkup.net/What-is-the-difference-between-intrinsic-and-extrinsic-motivation Figure 3.1 Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual, while extrinsic motivation comes from outside the individual. PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 3.3.1 Components to motivation Anyone who has set a goal (e.g., passing your exams at the end of the year or running a marathon next year) will soon realise that simply wanting to do something is not enough. Achieving such a goal requires the ability to persevere in the face of trouble and endurance to keep going despite difficulties. There are three major components to motivation: direction, intensity, and persistence (Seo, et al., 2004). 1. Direction refers to behavioural choice, it is what a person chooses to do when faced with a choice. For instance, a student who chooses to attend extra lessons to be able to complete an assignment on time, instead of spending time with friends after class. Regardless of the option, the individual is still driven by motivation. 2. Intensity refers to the attention and enthusiasm with which a goal is pursued, the amount of effort a person puts in. It is often measured as task effort or performance. As an example, in a class one student may breeze through class with little effort, whereas another student will study regularly, participate in discussions, and pursue research opportunities outside of class. The first student intensity levels are lower than the second student, whereas the second pursues his educational objectives with greater intensity. 3. Persistence is the continued commitment towards attaining a goal even though obstacles may exist. Think about why you are studying towards a university degree. Are you doing it to get employed, to make your parents proud, or are you doing it because you enjoy your studies and you want to improve yourself (i.e., to make yourself an accomplished individual)? The relevance behind the above food for thought is because reasons for our actions can be said to indicate the basic dimensions of motivated behaviour, namely conscious versus unconscious and intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. 3.4 The sources of motivation According to Santrock (2003, cited in Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013) there are at least four sources of motivation, namely: - Biological patterns of behaviour PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 - Bodily homeostasis - Optimum arousal - Cognition (appraisal) 3.4.1 Biological patterns of behaviour Biological patterns of behaviour, also called instincts are fixed, inborn (i.e., unlearned) patterns of behaviour that help species survive (Johnson, 1987). Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution and theory of natural selection influenced the instinct theories of William James and William McDougall, and later the drive theories of Freud and Hull (homeostasis) (Buss, 2008). William James (1842-1910) proposed a list of human instincts that motivate behaviour, such as, attachment, play, shame, fear, shyness, modesty and love. This theory, however, did not necessarily explain behaviour, rather it merely described it. William McDougall (1871-1938), on the other hand, claimed that instincts are the driving force behind human behaviour. He proposed purposive psychology, also known as hormic psychology which claims states that people’s actions are performed with a specific purpose or intent. In contrast, Freud (1856-1939) founded the Psychoanalytic theory, which provides a framework for understanding the impact of the unconscious on thoughts, feelings, and behavior. According to Freud individuals are motivated by what is outside of their immediate awareness, and human behaviour is primarily driven by life (Eros) and death (Thanatos) instincts (Zilbersheid, 2013). He proposed that the psyche is structured into three parts, namely, the id, ego and superego (Figure 3.2 below). According to this model of the psyche, the id is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives as well as hidden memories; the super-ego functions as a moral conscience, and the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the id and super-ego desires. PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 https://tinyurl.com/4hdsnms8 Figure 3.2 Freud model of the psyche. For Freud, all instincts have a source, a goal, an object and an impetus (Freud as cited in Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). The source [Quelle] of an instinct is the somatic process which starts in an organ or part of the body where biological stimulation occurs. The aim [Ziele] or goal of the instinct is the experience of satisfaction that results from the reduction or removal of biological stimulation. The object [Objekt] of an instinct is the thing in relation to or through which the instinct is able to achieve its aim. The pressure [Drang] or impetus of an instinct is its intensity or driving force. The stronger the biological stimulation, the more energy required to reduce or remove the stimulation. This implies that the instinct is more intense. All mammals, including animals have core emotional systems in their brains that guide instinctive behaviours (Panksepp, 2005). These brain systems help us adapt and survive our environments and they include: - Becoming angry if access to resources is thwarted (a rage system). - Becoming scared when bodily well-being is threatened (a fear system) - Sexual desires (a lust system) - Urges to exhibit loving attention toward our offspring (a care system) PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 - Feelings of separation distress when we have lost contact with loved ones (a panic system) - The boisterous joyousness of rough and tumble playfulness (a play system) - Exploratory activity directed at searching and foraging for resources (a seeking system) 3.4.2 Homeostasis Hull proposed that an individual's behaviour was motivated by a need rather than an instinct, which would lead to an offset of the need (Graham & Weiner, 1996). According to Hull, individuals have innate "drives" that accumulate over time and thus, to restore homeostasis, these drives are reduced by meeting their basic needs (Deckers, 2018). Homeostasis is a term that was first coined by physiologist Walter Cannon in 1926 (Libretti, & Puckett, 2016) it refers to the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states, such as, temperature and blood sugar at constant and stable levels (Davies, 2016). The cycle starts when a control centre (which is often part of the brain) receives input from receptors (which are often a variety of neurons). The control centre then directs effectors (which may be other neurons) to correct any imbalance detected by the control center. PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 https://maliajane.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/homieo.png Figure 3.3 Homeostasis. There are three main types of homeostatic regulation that happen in the body, namely, thermoregulation, osmoregulation and chemical regulation. Thermoregulation is a mechanism that mammals use to maintain body temperature by maintaining a stable internal temperature in order to survive. (Osilla, et al., 2019). The ability to maintain a stable body temperature is influenced by how these systems are regulated, as well as the organism's overall size. In terms of system regulation, animals can be differentiated as endotherms and ectotherms. Endotherms: also known as "warm-blooded" animals depend/rely on internal physiological processes to maintain a somewhat consistent body temperature. Birds and mammals (including humans) are endotherms. PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 Ectotherms: also known as "cold-blooded" animals depend on external sources to regulate their body temperature. Examples of ectotherms are reptiles and amphibians. The following explanation is given for the organism's size, also known as the surface-to- volume ratio: Large organisms: have a much larger body volume, causing them to generate more body heat. Small organisms, on the other hand, have a higher surface-to-volume ratio but produce less body heat. They lose more body heat than they produce, requiring their internal systems to work much harder to maintain a constant body temperature. This is also true for babies, particularly those born prematurely. Osmoregulation strives to maintain the right amount of water and electrolytes inside and outside cells in the body. The balance of salt and water across membranes plays an important role, as in osmosis, which explains the name "osmoregulation." In this process, the kidneys are responsible for getting rid of any excess fluid, waste, or electrolytes. Osmoregulation also affects blood pressure. Chemical Regulation is the process by which the body regulates chemical mechanisms in order to keep the system in balance. These use hormones as chemical signals—for example, in the case of blood sugar levels. In this situation, the pancreas would release either insulin, when blood sugar levels are high, or glucagon, when blood sugars are low, to maintain homeostasis According to the drive reduction theory of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. That is, these needs result in psychological drive states that direct behaviour to meet the need and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis (Rehman & Haider, 2013). For example, if it’s been a while since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below normal. This low blood sugar will induce a physiological need and a corresponding drive state (i.e., hunger) that will direct you to seek out and consume food (Figure 3.2). Eating will eliminate the hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels will return to normal. Interestingly, The Drive Theory also emphasizes the role that habits play in the type of behavioural response in which we engage. A habit is a pattern of behaviour in which we regularly engage, e.g., flossing our teeth. Once a habit is formed, people act PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 without making a conscious decision to do so, and the behaviour is not proximally motivated by the deliberate pursuit of specific goals (Volpp, & Loewenstein, 2020). For instance, in the example of flossing (habit), the ultimate goal is better health and hygiene and this takes time. Figure 3.4 Hunger and subsequent eating (Source: https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/your-sense-of-hunger-may-have-more-to-do-with-perception-than- biology/) 3.4.3 Optimum arousal Individuals have characteristic levels of physical arousal (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). Our characteristic level of arousal is determined by the characteristic ratio between sympathic and parasympathic activity of our autonomic nervous system. The optimal level of arousal varies from person to person. Many factors, such as genetics, experience, and current mood, may influence each person's optimal arousal levels. Your genetic makeup may influence your arousal preferences in general, but environmental factors can also influence how you feel at any given time. People differ in their characteristic levels of arousal. Some person's arousal needs may be very low (low sensation seekers), while another person's arousal needs may be extremely high (high sensation seekers). Performance is maximized at the optimal level of arousal, and it tapers off during under- and over-arousal. Research by Yerkes and Dodson (1908) shows that moderate arousal is generally best; when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer. These researchers discovered that the optimal arousal level depends on the complexity and difficulty of the task to be performed (Figure 2.3). The complexity of a situation is a PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 determined by that person’s previous experience with similar situations (Mikulas, Vodanovich, 1993). Additionally, if you're doing a complex task, high or low levels of arousal will affect you more than if you're doing something simple. This is known as Yerkes-Dodson law, which states that if you are given an easy task, you will perform best when your level of arousal is slightly higher than the average. Whereas, if you are given a difficult task, you will perform best when your level of arousal is slightly lower than average. Figure 3.5 Optimal arousal (Source: https://course.lumenlearning.com/edpsy/chapter/instinct-drive-and- arousal-theory/) 3.4.4 Cognition In contrast to unconscious biological or mechanical decision-making processes, cognitive processes assert that motivational behavior employs judgment, evaluation, and decision- making (i.e., the person is a rational thinker) (Schmidt, 2019). That is, people are also motivated by what they value in the world around them (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). A wide range of social and cultural factors play a role in motivating people, even when behaviour is related to biological drives like hunger or thirst. For instance, when we are thirsty (i.e., the push), we might find a fizzy cooldrink (i.e., the pull) appealing, however our health concerns also come to mind and determine whether we drink water or the fizzy drink. That is, behaviour is motivated from inside (intrinsically) as well as from outside (extrinsically). However, not all intrinsic motivation comes from instincts, drives, or a desire PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 for excitement. Personal factors which can be explained using self-efficacy, self- determination, and self-regulation theories, also serve as motivation to engage in specific behaviours. For example, student Dorah is encouraged to take Engineering Graphics and Design subject in Grade 10. She is an enthusiastic student who likes trying out new things, however, to her parents and teacher’s surprise she is reluctant to take the subject. Group activity Activity 1: In a discussion on myUnisa with your e-tutor and peers, discuss the various sources of motivation and reflect on which ones you are familiar with. NB: Please note that it is compulsory for you to have this discussion on myUnisa. 3.5 The process of motivated behavior As already introduced motivated behaviour is characterised by a series of related actions that are initiated and guided by a combination of instincts, drives, and rational concepts. Research has been conducted to understand what drives people’s thinking, feeling and behaviour (Dickinson & Billings, 2021). Among these motives three main needs are identified, namely, achievement, affiliation and intimacy. The need for achievement has been identified as the primary determinant of accomplishment and performance. The need for affiliation encourages positive interactions with others, while the need for intimacy leads to individuals seeking deep meaningful relationships. 3.5.1 Self-efficacy and social motives Bandura, one of the principal founders of self-efficacy theory, defines self-efficacy as “people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of actions required to attain designated types of performance” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391 cited in Schunk and Zimmerman, 1997). That is, our motivation is derived from our expectations of the consequences of our behaviour, as well as our appreciation of our capacity to engage in a given behaviour. This then determines what we do and the future goals we set for ourselves. For example, if you truly believe in your ability to achieve at the highest level, you are more likely to take on a difficult task and not let minor setbacks discourage you from completing it. PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 3.5.2 Self-determination Self-determination is an intrinsic form of motivation that is influenced by internal stimuli (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Individuals who are self-determined seek to satisfy three primary needs in order to maximize their goal potentials: competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985). That is, they internalize their ability to control behaviour and meet mastery needs (i.e., competence), perceive themselves as causal agents of their own destinies (i.e., autonomy), and are more likely to assimilate with others (i.e., relatedness) (Garrin, 2014). 3.5.3 Self-regulation Self-regulation refers to the degree to which individuals moderate their thoughts and emotions that inform behaviour. Self-regulation forms part of motivation (Bandura, 1994) in that the motivation to achieve success is linked to self-discipline and devoting oneself to strategies that encourage goal achievement. Baumeister and Vohs (cited in Garrin, 2014) mention standards, motivation and willpower (e.g., impulse control) as the primary determinants of self-regulation. Similar to self-efficacy and self-determination, improved self- regulation is important in promoting behaviour change processes while also promoting to well-being, adaptation and survival. 3.5.4 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs While the theories of motivation described earlier relate to basic biological drives, individual characteristics, or social contexts, Abraham Maslow (1943) proposed a hierarchy of needs that encompassed a wide range of motivations, from biological to individual to social. These needs are frequently depicted as a pyramid (Figure 3.4). PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 Figure 3.6 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Source: https://tinyurl.com/muhxnpw9) At the base of the pyramid are all of the physiological needs that are required for survival. These are followed by basic needs for security and safety, the need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging, and the need to have self-worth and confidence (i.e., self-esteem needs). The top layer of the pyramid is self-actualization, which is a need that essentially equates to reaching one’s full potential, and it can only be realized when needs lower on the pyramid have been met. According to Maslow self-actualization reflects the process by which a person realises their full potential (Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, 2014). Maslow suggested that this is an ongoing, life-long process and that only a small percentage of people actually achieve a self-actualized state (Maslow, 1943 cited in Francis & Kritsonis, 2006). 3.5.5 Needs in a socio-political context Maslow's hierarchy of needs continues to be a significant conceptual contribution to understanding motivated behaviour. It emphasizes the fact that behaviour is founded on a set of interconnected needs rather than a set of discretely individual needs (Van Deventer & Maslow, 2013). Some researchers criticized the theory, claiming that it is not empirically based, but rather subjective, that it is limited when tested in different contexts, and that the idea that only one level of needs could be sought or achieved at a time was unrealistic. For instance, the levels change as people age, physical and security needs become the highest level of attainment, instead of the self-actualisation needs (Goebel & Brown, cited in Dutil, 2021). As many critics as there were, the theory evolved through adaptations. Christian Bay, a political scientist, argued that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs could be adopted to better understand government policies to respond to the demands of the people it is meant to serve (Bay, 1968 cited in Fitzgerald, 1985). He proposed three categories of needs: needs for sustenance and safety, community needs (needs for love, belongingness and esteem), and subjectivity or individuality needs (individual identity, dignity and self-development). Davies accepted Maslow’s principle that needs are hierarchically organized, such that once the innate needs are met, new demands (including dignity and shared power) could be met. Davies (1991) distinguished between four substantive and three instrumental kinds of needs that people work through in their attempts at self-actualisation (Davies, 1991, p.396). People’s instrumental needs help them satisfy their substantive needs. The four substantive PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 needs are: physical, socio-affective, self-esteem, and self-actualisation needs. The three instrumental needs, on the other hand include: security, knowledge and power needs. According to Davies’ hierarchy of substantive needs puts people’s lives in a sociopsychological perspective. Individuals first have to fulfil their basic physical needs, such as food, water and a place to stay, and then when these needs are satisfied, then they are able to organize themselves into a community (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). 3.6 Summary An understanding of the concept of motivation is important because it influences many areas of one’s life, from daily living to striving in the workplace. There are ongoing studies on types of motivation which have been instrumental, especially in education, marketing and industrial spheres, to identify what works and what doesn’t and for an understanding of people’s behaviour. A number of explanations on the sources of motivation have been identified and these sources help inform the process (flow of behaviour from one situation to the next) of motivated behaviour. GROUP ACTIVITY Activity 2: In a discussion on myUnisa with your e-tutor and peers, reflect on the basic concepts associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the criticisms that followed the birth of the theory. NB: Please note that it is compulsory for you to have this discussion on myUnisa. PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 Glossary Cognition the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses Control unit the control unit then communicates the change needed to bring the body back into balance Effector the effector receives this information and acts on the change that is needed Instinct a natural or inborn ability, impulse, or capacity Motivation a reason or reasons for acting or behaving in a particular way Stimulus a stimulus from a change in the environment kicks something out of balance in the body Receptor the receptor reacts to the change by informing the control unit Thermoregulation the ability of an organism to maintain a core body temperature, which is 37° C (98°F) within an optimal physiological range Osmoregulation the maintenance of constant osmotic pressure in the fluids of an organism by the control of water and salt concentrations PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 References Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998). Buss, David M. 2008. "Chapter 1." pp. 2–35 in Evolutionary psychology: the new science of the mind. Pearson, US. Davies, K. J. (2016). Adaptive homeostasis. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 49, 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.mam.2016.04.007 Deckers, Lambert (2018). Motivation Biological, Psychological, and Environmental. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 50–53. ISBN 978-1-138-03632-1. Dickinson, J., & Billings, C. (2021). Practical foundations and principles for teaching. Fitzgerald, R. (1985). Human needs and politics: The ideas of Christian Bay and Herbert Marcusel. Political Psychology, 6(1), 87-108 Freud S (2012). A general introduction to psychoanalysis. Renaissance Classics. ISBN 9781484156803. Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, M. W. (2014). Personality: Classic theories and modern research (5th ed.). Essex: Pearson Education Limited Johnston, T. D. (1987). The persistence of dichotomies in the study of behavioral development. Developmental review, 7(2), 149-182. Libretti S, Puckett Y. (2021). Physiology, Homeostasis. StatPearls [Internet]. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559138/ Kleinginna, P. R., & Kleinginna, A. M. (1981). A categorized list of motivation definitions, with a suggestion for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion, 5(3), 263-291. "Motivation and Motivation Theory." Encyclopedia of Management. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/management/encyclopedias- almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/motivation-and-motivation-theory Myers DG. (2015). Exploring Social Psychology. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Education, 2015 Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. PYC1502/Unit 3: Motivation/OER 2022 Panksepp, J. (2005). On the embodied neural nature of core emotional affects. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 12(8-9), 158-184. Rehman, A., & Haider, K. (2013). The impact of motivation on learning of secondary school students in Karachi: An analytical study. Educational Research International, 2(2), 139-147. Seo, M. G., Barrett, L. F., & Bartunek, J. M. (2004). The role of affective experience in work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 423–439. Schmidt, A. T. (2019). Getting real on rationality—Behavioral science, nudging, and public policy. Ethics, 129(4), 511-543. Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Social origins of self-regulatory competence. Educational Psychologist, 32(4), 195-208. Volpp, K. G., & Loewenstein, G. (2020). What is a habit? Diverse mechanisms that can produce sustained behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161, 36-38. Wertheimer M, Puente E (2020). A Brief History of Psychology (Sixth ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-1-138-28473-9. Zilbersheid, U. (2013). The historical character of human nature in Freud’s theories. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 73(2):184-204. doi:10.1057/ajp.2013.7 Attributes Motivation by, Rice University. Provided by OER Commons. License: CC-BY-NC-SA