Psychology of Women Exam 2 PDF 2024

Psychology of Women Exam 2 November 9 2024 Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality Characteristics Introduction - Social constructionist approach - Knowledge is a socially constructed product - Truth is dependent on the consensus within a given community or societ...

Psychology of Women Exam 2 November 9 2024 Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality Characteristics Introduction - Social constructionist approach - Knowledge is a socially constructed product - Truth is dependent on the consensus within a given community or society, not on any universal or absolute definition - Gender is constructed by society - Women constructed as gentle, submissive, kind - Men constructed as independent, strong, aggressive Social Setting Factors and Gender Differences in Social + Personality - Audience: large gender differences - Gender salient: large, example singles bar vs. academic conference - Behaviour requires specific gender related skills Communication Patterns Verbal Communication Talkativeness: stereotype not supported Interruptions - Men are more likely to use intrusive interruptions in conversations with others - Women are more likely to use affiliative interruptions - Status: strangers, competitive settings - Language content mostly similar Gaze- women gaze more at conversation partner, people gaze more at women, longer eye contact between 2 women - Smiling, real smile comes from the eyes Facial expression Anger- ambiguous photo combo of anger + sadness - Peoples interpretations of photos were influenced by expectations - Men and women are expressing more intensely emotions that are stereotypical to their gender Decoding ability - Cross-culturally, women more likely to decode nonverbal messages accurately - Women are also more accurate at decoding voices of fear, happiness, and sadness - Men overall talk more, gaze more, smile more, les skilled at cue decoding, relaxed posture, interrupt more (ew) Potential Explanations Power and Social Status: men higher Social learning: modelling, rewards and punishments for acting according to gender Attention promotion hypothesis- secure parental hypothesis leads to healthy social and psych competence, better at recognizing emotions + in tune w/ emotion Characteristics Related to Helping and Caring Altruism Heroism - men and Long term- women Empathy  - Used fMRI to record brain activation level of hand being poked with syringe or rubbed with cotton - Females better at feeling pain higher activation of sensory area of brain - Sex differences in empathy have roots in biology Moral Judgement - Heinz Dilemma, which is when most mature level on a moral basis is when one considers ethical principles that consider interests of all - More are more likely than women to achieve sophisticated levels of moral development Justice approach- men typically make moral decisions from a detached, individualistic, third party perspective Care approach- women typically make moral decisions from an emotionally engaged, interpersonal viewpoint Dual Process Model of Moral Judgment - Utilitarian principle when causing some harm leads to better outcome - Deontology principle when morality hinged on its consistency when context independent moral norms, based on emotions - Crying baby dilemma (kill crying baby to save the lives of yourself and others hiding from soldiers) Social justice- women more likely to express concern for well-being of injured - Girls smaller number of friends, self-disclose - Boys more friends of same group - Same patterns for satisfaction - Women more helpful and talk about friends more - Women and men both use lets talk about it, pros and cons Aggression and Power - Physical aggression mainly a male category, directed at men public places/bar - Men higher in spontaneous aggression, relational aggression women higher Leadership - Women have less interest, see themselves as less suitable for leadership - Women in top management better financial performance, women leaders rated negatively, criticised Leadership - 90% of people hold bias towards females - 50% men say they have more right to a job - 50% of people say women make better political leaders Persuasion - Men use higher assertive language, persuades people more Personality and Gender Differences - Big Five Traits  - More score lower for neuroticism, agreeableness, consciousness, some parts of extraversion - Largest gender differences found in gender egalitarian cultures like France and Netherlands - Smallest gender differences found in india and botswana - Larger gender differences in more gender egalitarian countries - Men higher in all three dark triad traits of machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism - Men have better self-esteem - Men higher levels of well-being and higher wellbeing in egalitarian societies - Women x2 depression, more universalism values - Summarised data from meta analyses and women higher than men for agreeableness and neuroticism - Women more people orientated - Gender differences in interests appear to be consistent across time + cultures, biological - Sex differences in personality larger in gender equal countries Chapter 7 Women and Work Working women Terminology Employed women- work for pay Non-employed women- unpaid work, household, volunteer - Unpaid work essential to household, 11 trillion contribution to global GDP Background Factors Related to Women's Employment - 49% o women in labour force - 73% of men in labour force - Structural barriers include access to training, education, hiring - Cultural restrictions of unpaid caregiving responsibilities, mothers less likely to be employed - 95% women in South Asia are in informal employment (street vendors, service) - Education predicts employment - ⅔ of illiterate adults are women - Employment, signing contracts/checks, infant mortality - Women with young children less likely to work - Ethnicity not related to participation - Immigrant women face language barriers, lower salaries, discrimination Access Discrimination- rejecting well-qualified applications/offering less attractive jobs - Employers with strong gender stereotypes more likely to discriminate, likely when qualifications are ambiguous, female assertive, applying for prestigious position - Occurs when both genders apply to non gender inappropriate - Employers may have strong stereotypes about women abilities, assume women lack masculine traits Gender role spillover- beliefs about gender roles and characteristics spread to the work setting and attention is paid to these characteristics of the candidate rather than what is needed for job Discrimination is Hiring Patterns Affirmative Action- special efforts to qualified members of underrepresented groups during hiring and salary promotion 5600 fake CV’s sent to real jobs - Women 30% less likely to be called for job interview than men with same qualifications - Greatest when had children, highest for lower qualified jobs - Us women who work full time earned 82% of the median annual salary of men - Canadian women earn 87% of average salary of men  - Comparable worth- should receive equal pay for different jobs when those jobs are comparable/similar level - Occupations with more females pay less compared to less females even with control for education + skill Treatment discrimination- discrimination at job - Women concerned about pay gap, but not angry - Glass ceiling, stopping women from advancement in leadership positions - Glass cliff- where women are put into predicaments where their set up for failure in their leadership - Sticky floor- keeping women in lower positions - Glass escalator - men advance in women-led professions due to their skill overseed females - Male students evaluate female prof’s more neg - Men to be left out of informal social interactions + mentoring relationships - Lesbian highly discriminated against in the workplace - Lesbian women earn higher salaries than hetereosexual counterparts - More likely to pursue non-trad higher paying professions What to do? - Understand stereotype processes, be aware of rights, skills - Make connections with other supportive people - Diversity training programs, affirmative action, gender bias-free hiring Women’s Experiences in Selected Occupations - 67 million domestic workers worldwide - 80% domestic workers are women - Females face abuse in jobs, sweatshops, working 16 hour days for barely any pay - Gender wage gap highest for finance specialists, brokerage clerks, surgeons, pilots - Women in high prestige professions similar to men in academic experiences and attitudes, cognitive skills, lower in self confidence, less mentoring, patronising - 20 to 30 percent higher pay for blue collar jobs, better benefits - Women can work their way up the blue collar ladder - Face sexual harassment, social isolation, held to stricter standards Why are women scarce in certain occupations? Individual approach- lack personality traits and skills for male occupations Structural approach- organizational barriers - Both husband and wife work in 78% of couples in canada - Women do more household activities - Moms do about 60 to 90 percent of child care - When fathers contribute children have better social + cognitive skills, better health and social relationships for fathers as well a benefit Personal life + employment - Role strain- hard in low paying jobs - health generally better  - Women in low paying jobs less healthy Chapter 8 Love Relationships Dating and Heterosexual Relationships Love- intense and positive emotion that can be experienced for a variety of close others, romantic partner, children, friends - Intense attachment formed between people who are in love including sexual attraction and desire to protect one another - Adult romantic love involves integration of three biologically based behaviour systems (ASC) 1. Attachment 2. Caregiving 3. Sexuality Ideal Romantic Partner - Sexual partners physical attractiveness matters most more for men - Marriage partners, personality and honesty valued more than physical attraction US Research - Some correlates of romantic love, women are more likely to marry partner who has all qualities she desires without being in love Cross cultural - College students love most important for westernized nations - Least important in eastern nations - Nations which emphasized love for marriage have highest divorce rates Evolutionary Psychology - Human behaviour evolved to ensure reproductive success - Couple in love more likely to raise child together, ensuring survival - Reproduction more costly for females, hence careful selection of when and whom to reproduce with - Heavy costs are also why women prefer men with more resources and support for children - Men respond physical appearance and age as it is related to reproductive success for women Dating and Heterosexual Relationships - There are also similarities in women and men preferences - Both value someone who is warm, loving, honest, pleasant, and trustworthy - Both prefer physically attractive for short term flings but this focus decreases when looking long term marriage Study of 37 cultures Similarities in selecting a mate Similar- intelligent, kind, healthy, understanding, dependable Differences Women- financial situation and related traits such as ambition and industriousness Age- men younger women older Men- looks and attractiveness Study of marriages in 29 Different Cultures Age Gap- women on average 3 years younger, gap increases with successive marriages Response rates to personal ads Women- mention youth and good looks more and gain more response Men- mention financial resources more and also receive more attention for it Recall of information Financial cues for men better recalled + physical attractiveness for women cues Evolutionary Psych for Dating - Highly speculative - No genetic mechanism proposed for gender differences in mate selection - Both genders interest in long term monogamous relationships - Does not account for same sex relationships Social roles approach- men and women occupy different social roles, women at disadvantage when it comes to resources and opportunities, so prefer mates with resources Nations gender gap predicts degree of sex differentiation in mate preferences - More equitable gender societies less differences in mate preferences (more equal, less pref) - Both genders prefer physically attractive + equal emphasis on status Characteristics of Heterosexual Relationships Essential features of love relationships- honesty, caring, trust, respect Emotionality- women emphasize negative + positive emotions in relationship - Women emphasize commitment, liking, friendship, more - Relationship maintenance- women more likely to do maintenance work Relationship satisfaction It comes from having a friendship and mutual understanding, balance and equality in the relationship, emotional and sexual faithfulness (do not cheat), and good at expressing emotions Breaking up - withdrawal/avoidance - Positive tone - Manipulative strategies - Openness Age for marriage around the world- highest for european countries, lowest for cuba, afghanistan, malawi Marital satisfactions-highest at start, then when children leave home, and after retirement happy as it started Development of Relationship Satisfaction Across Life Span - Relationship satisfaction decreased from age 20- 40 - Low point at 40 - Reached low point 10 years in, then decreased again after 20 years - Presence of children was an important factor in satisfaction decline Characteristics of Happy Marriages - Emotional stability - Conflict resolution skills to solve conflict - Explanatory patterns  - Mutual respect, support, trust - Equal sharing of household task and decision making - Married people generally happier than unmarried or cohabiting Distribution of Power in Marriages Trad marriage- men more power Egalitarian- equitable Principle of less interest- partner who is less dependable has more power People have less power when … - They are highly invested and committed in relationship - Low quality of other choices - Due to less power, pro-relationship behaviours more common for dependent partner WOC + Marriage Latinas- more traditional marriages Black- more egalitarian Asian- more conservation values Divorce- 41% marriages in Canada end by 30th wedding anniversary - Cohabitation prior to marriage is a predictor of divorce - Wives initiate divorce more Top 5 reasons (DAAIC) 1. Different values or interest 2. Abuse 3. Alcohol and drugs 4. Infidelity 5. Career related conflicts Job Promotions and Durability of Marriage - Compared relationship trajectories of winning for mayor and parliamentarian - A promotion to one of these job doubles the baseline probability for women in divorce - A widening gender gap in divorce rates after being promoted to CE - Divorces are concentrated in more gender trad couples, while gender equal unaffected Families count Vanier Institute of the Family 2024 - Divorces peaked in 1988, decline after COVID-19 public health From late 1960’s to late 1980’s- # of divorce increased sharply - Decreasing stigma against divorce - Increasing economic independence of women - Creation of the Divorce Act, 1968 and amendments made in 1986 that make it easier to divorce Decline in Divorce Rates since early 1990’s - 2020, the lowest divorce numbers since 1973 - Disruption in the court based process of granting divorces during pandemic - The ageing of married, low rates of divorce for older groups - Highest number of younger people choosing common-law unions, divorces apply to married and to common-law unions - Higher number of younger people choosing common law unions, divorces apply to married not common law The Four Horseman to Divorce Criticism - verbally attacking personality or character (attack their characteR) Contempt- attacking sense of self when intent to insult or abuse Defensiveness- victimising oneself to ward off perceived attack and reverse blame Stonewalling- withdrawing to avoid conflict and display disapproval and separation Psychological Consequences - Depression, anger, stress, relief Financial consequences- women more often negatively impacted - In Canada, ⅔ women who are divorced live in poverty Lesbian Women - Lesbians significantly more educated, more likely to live in urban areas, more mobile locations - Hereosexual sisters more likely to be married, homemakers, have children, identify with formal religion - No difference in mental health, lesbians have higher self esteem - Bi-sexual women had signiicantly poorer mental health than lesbians Lesbians also more- self-confident, better decision making, self-sufficient *sexual minorities more likely to face crimes, bias, discrimination Characteristics of Lesbian Relationships Beginning- desired mate qualities similar to heterosexual, more emphasis on emotional closeness and intimacy Equality- more egalitarian, less conflict Satisfaction- similar to heterosexual couples Breaking up- similar to hereotypical, less support from family and friends - Sexual minority women experience higher levels of IPV Lesbian WOC - triple barrier due to identity Cultural factors- cultural views and values impacts experiences Legal in 2015 for USA, and 2005 for Canada Stereotypes of Lesbians and Gay Men Gay men- feminine, sociable, active (2012) (1999)- feminine, intelligent, productive Lesbians (2012)- manly, mentally ill, self-assured, political (1999)- normal, political, intelligent Bisexual Women - Similar to other women in terms of adjustment, life satisfaction and satisfaction with their sexual identity - Some research that bi people experience more discrimination than other sexual minority groups Fluidity of Female Sexual Orientation - Diamond interviewed about 90 women, self identitfed non- heretosexual orientation, followed for 8 years - Stable lesbians- consistently attracted to women - Fluid- questioned lesbianness at one point - Unlabeled- did not want to be put in category Sexual fluidity - women's sexual beliefs and behaviour more easily shaped by socio-cultural, situational factors - More likely to change orientation than men Theoretical Explanations - 24% of lesbian woman had twin sister, could be biological Social Constructionist approach - Cultures create sexual categories - Sexuality is both fluid and flexible Dynamical Systems Approach - Experiences, feelings, situations, cognitions all interact to create a womens sexual identity Single Women - More likely to work outside more, more independent but no difference in distress from married women - 73% of 18-34 old people have never been married - 17% have no intention for marriage - 29% of households single person - Different groups, widowed, divorced, never married - Single women can work more flexible hours, relocate for work, hence more successful in careers - Well-adjudged and satisfied with single status Singlism - Prejudice against single people - Assumed to be egocentric, lonely, shy, inflexible Advantages- more freedom, privacy, independence Disadvantages- loneliness Single WOC - varied experienced based on cultural traditions Some cultures could asume caretaker role for parents Chapter 9 Sexuality Biases in sexuality research - Androcentric emphasis - Biological framework mainly focuses on sexual problems and dysfunctions Sexuality is biopsychosocial Sexual Responses- 4 Phases of Sexual Response Cycle 1. Excitement phase (vasocongestion) 2. Plateau phase (while getting to orgasm) 3. Orgasmic phase 4. Resolution phase No gender differences in cycle - Similar adjectives to describe experience Gender Differences in Sexual Desire - Compared with women, men - Think about sex more  - Masturbate more often, want sex, initiate, more interest in sex without commitment, prefer m more partners Study Results - Men scored higher on sociosexuality - Women had more variable sex drives than men did, men higher sex drivea Attitudes on Sexuality Cultural differences- especially strong in Asian/Middle Eastern Countries Sexual Double Standard- belief that men and women should be judged differently based on sexual behaviour Sexual scripts- sexual norms learned culturally eg. men initiate and woman submit Eg. sexual aggression (women resists, succumbs to male) Sex education- agents include parents, school and media (three main) Parent child communication - Not very informative, difficult for parents Attitudes and Knowledge About Knowledge Schools and Sex Education - Programs are not very comprehensive - Sex education in school often has little impact on students sexual behaviour - Comprehensive sex education programs lead to lower pregnancy rates + having sex later Media + Sex Info - Adolescents obtain much from TV, social media, magazines - Teens who consume large amounts of sexualized media, more likely to objectify themselves - Predictors of early sexuality - Ethnicity, early maturation, low self-esteem, poor academic performance, poor parent-child relationships, low family income, exposure to sexually explicit media, early use of alcohol and drugs, peer pressure Sexual Behaviour in Adolescents - Hookups are brief uncommitted sexual encounters between people who are not romantic partners or dating each other - 507 undergraduates - 72% participants have attempted to initiate hookup, 64% did it fr - 80% men reported having tried to initiate a hook up - 65% women report trying - 51% did so with intention of initiating a trad romantic relationship Positive themes- potential relationship start, having fun, fulfilling sexual desires, sense of accomplishment Cost themes- regrets/mistake, increased sexual risk = many females regret about majority of hook ups - Males describe regret only when experience does not meet upto standard (dogs) Sexual Behaviour in Adults - Spouses have more sex - couples in their 20’s 80 times a year - Couples in 60’s 20 times a year - Sexual frequency no longer sig associated with well-being for people in relationships Sexual Behaviour - Communication about sexuality, most couples uncomfy to actually discuss it  - Women prefer to ask for consent more - Men assume consent more Open communication = more satisfaction in relationship Sexual infidelity - any sex/emotional relationship with someone other than main partner kept a secret due to betrayal - Between 11-25% americans engage in extra marital sex once in their lives - 50% men fucked someone else in a relationship but unmarried - Highest for the age group men 70-79 - Women more upset on emotional cheating, men with sexual Lesbians and Sexuality Sexual activity- value emotional intimacy, non-gential contact, more likely to have orgasm Women more likely than men to report bisexual Communication more effective + more sex Changing Attitudes - Crime before 1969 - 2005 civil marriage act Older Women and Sexuality - Estrogen drops after menopause - Less sexually active after 65 - More broad definition for older women Sexual Disorders Female Orgasimc Disorder - Does not reach orgasm and is unhappy about it, common Gender Roles Aspect - Can be caused by medical, psych trauma, or problems in relationship Gender bias - Belief that women do not need to enjoy sexual activity - Men may focus on own satisfaction - Women may focus on personal appearance rather than pleasure Self-objectification- women adapt mens view, objectify themselves Therapy for sexual disorders- cognitive restructuring Factors related to birth control use - Social class, level of education, feminist beliefs, personality characteristics - High self-esteem + dislike for risk - Use of alcohol and risky drugs more likely to become pregnant before 21 Highest female literacy rate = lowest fertility rates Reproductive rights- pioneer margaret sanger who advocated for reproductive rights, the pill seen as a fruit of the liberation movement giving women freedom to choose their timing of pregnancies Abortion - 50 million abortion performed each year - 40% of them are illegal, severe risk of illegal due to injury, bleeding - 22,800 women die due to these complications Women's psychological reactions to abortion - Sense of loss, relief, sadness - Self-efficiency, supportive friends + family Psychological Implications of Abortion - After induced abortion, women experience improvement in mood state  - Poor partner support + relationship problems caused by abortion can lead to worse psych state - Most women report more benefit than harm, would have abortion again, not depressed - Having more children and being young + depressed before pregnancy risk factor Provider’s Experiences with abortion care - Induced abortion one of the most common, 3 out 10 pregnancies end in abortion - Stigma + marginalization of the work done by clinicians - Most believe it is socially important + necessary Children Born to Women who were Denied Abortions - Fewer friends and poorer response to stress - More likely to report psychosocial issues in adulthood Alternatives to abortion - Preventing the pregnancy creates fewest psych issues - None of the alt options is free of problems Pregnancy Childbirth + Motherhood Pregnancy virtually affect every organ system - Weight gain - Nausea - Interest in sexual activity - Breast tenderness Positive emotions- excitement for baby + love, social approval being a mother, transition into adulthood, low incident of psych disorders Negative emotions- fears and anxieties, health issues, miscarriage - Attitudes toward pregnant depend on married or not and economic status - Most women continue to work shortly til due date - Type of work- risk for premature birth in tiring work - Sex workers still working to provide for children Three Factors Affecting the Childbirth Experience 1. socioeconomic status 2. Cultural expectations 3. Social support Childbirth - About 810 women died from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth in 2017 - 94% maternal deaths occur in lower income countries - 10-14 year olders higher risk of complications + death - Social factors such as continuing care, exposure to racism Pregnancy - Tends to be especially high in sub-saharan africa, south america, and south asia - Higher mortality for moms in lower income countries Stereotypes - Motherhood is filled with pleasant emotions, always happy, natural mothering skills, self sacrifice Mothers should be perfect, they can mess up children (message sent) Cultural norms tend to be ambivalent Negative factors - Physical, social, health, economic challenges  - Lack of support - Blamed for children’s problems Positive factors - Joy - Emotional fulfilment - Strength WOC x 2-3 higher infant and maternal mortality - Extended families support - More likely to be employed as mom Lesbian Mothers - Parenting styles Baby blues- short lasting change in mood first 10 days, emotionality instability, anxiety, insomnia Postpartum - serious depression within six months of childbirth - No clear biological markers Employment following childbirth - Homemakers, no differences in self-esteem, anxiety - Moms penalized on job competence, salary, dad benefits Decision to have Children - ⅓ did not intent to have children - Pronatalism (compulsory motherhood Reasons to not have child - Lifestyle change, stressful, expensive, global problems Infertility - Women who are infertile may be more anxious, manage to refocus lives Research finding - Even in developed countries, many women do not receive prenatal care - Hostile sexism when doing something non-trad and benevolent sexism if doing trad