PSYC 3603 Psychology of Women Final Exam PDF

PSYC 3603 - Psychology of Women Final Exam - 45% of grade Multiple choice, short answer and brief essay-type question. Lec 6 - 10 LINKS FOR STUDY TOOLS Lecture 6 and on: https://quizlet.com/Maddie_Tremblay9/folders/psyc-3603-final-exam?i=40rxp9&x=1xqt Lecture 1-5: https://quizlet.com/Maddie_Trembl...

PSYC 3603 - Psychology of Women Final Exam - 45% of grade Multiple choice, short answer and brief essay-type question. Lec 6 - 10 LINKS FOR STUDY TOOLS Lecture 6 and on: https://quizlet.com/Maddie_Tremblay9/folders/psyc-3603-final-exam?i=40rxp9&x=1xqt Lecture 1-5: https://quizlet.com/Maddie_Tremblay9/folders/psyc-3603-psychology-of-women?i=40rxp9&x=1xqt Practice Test I Made: NOTES Lecture 6 + Readings Lecture 6 1943 Guide to Hiring Women: Transportation Magazine (July, 1949) ● Select young married women for responsibility and efficiency. ● Older women should have prior work experience. ● Emphasize friendliness and courtesy. ● Physically examine female employees. ● Stress the importance of time and maintain a day-long schedule. ● Provide rest periods and ensure proper uniform fit. Education ● Women expected to earn nearly 60% of all undergraduate degrees in Canada. ● Social benefits of education for both genders. ● Women aged 25-29 surpass men in education but lag in income and advancement. Gender Wage Gap ● Occupational Segregation ○ "Pink Collar" jobs show stable sex-segregation. ○ Vertical (hierarchical) and horizontal (similar tasks) segregation. ○ Glass ceiling (institutional barriers) and sticky floor (low-status jobs). ● Childcare Responsibilities ○ Negative impact on women's wages. ○ Motherhood penalty affects hiring, promotion, and salary. Women in Corporate Leadership ● Underrepresented in corporate leadership. ● Questions on whether choices or discrimination explain occupational segregation and the pay gap. Employment and Economic Prosperity: Wage Gap by Skill Type ● Lips (2011) explores U.S. wage gaps within race/ethnicity. Other Manifestations of Discrimination Against Women ● Low-Paid Jobs and Beliefs ○ Low-paid jobs stereotypically considered "women’s work." ○ Sexist beliefs impact women's success. ● Discrimination in Hiring Patterns (Access Discrimination) ○ Gender role stereotypes affect hiring patterns. ○ Women face challenges when applying for high-level jobs. Gender Differences in Leadership ● Leadership styles: transformational, transactional, laissez-faire. ● Women tend to adopt participative and transformational styles; men, laissez-faire and transactional. ● Social Role Theory: Leaders integrate gender roles and leadership roles. ● Dilemma of 'Role Incongruity': Contradictory demands on female leaders. ● Implications for transformational leadership and collaboration. Reducing Stereotyping & Discrimination ● Conditions conducive to gender stereotyping. ● Strategies to reduce stereotyping and discrimination in the workplace. Women's Choices and the Gender Pay Gap ● Women's choices influenced by subtle sexism, racism, and discrimination. ● Solutions possible only if women remain a minority in certain jobs. Other Factors: Mental Health, Poverty, and Single Motherhood ● Single mothers face high levels of stress. ● Children of single mothers more likely to face educational and behavioral challenges. ● Strengths of single-parent families. Conclusion ● Gender disparities persist in education, employment, and leadership. ● Systemic changes needed to address discrimination and biases. Lips, H. (2018). Chapter 21: Feminism, psychology and the gender pay gap. In C. Travis & J. White, et al. (Eds.), APA Handbook of the Psychology of Women: History, theory and battlegrounds (pp. 417-433). American Psychological Association. Lower Pay Expectations for Women: ● Women consistently hold lower pay expectations than men, both for career-entry and peak pay. ● This trend persists across ethnic groups and is observed in traditionally male-dominated and female-dominated occupations. Salary Estimation Effect: ● The salary estimation effect demonstrates that men are assumed to have higher salaries than women in the same jobs. ● This effect is linked to an implicit association between masculinity and wealth, operating outside conscious awareness. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: ● Pay expectations act as self-fulfilling prophecies, contributing to behaviors that confirm lower pay for women. ● Women's initial reluctance to negotiate effectively and acceptance of lower salaries contribute to this phenomenon. Motherhood Penalty: ● Mothers, especially those in traditionally female-dominated occupations, experience a significant wage penalty. ● Stereotypes about women's commitment to their jobs and societal expectations contribute to this penalty. ● Occupational status, advancement opportunities, and job mobility are hindered for mothers. Occupational Segregation: ● Women's predominance in low-paying jobs and men's dominance in high-paying jobs reinforce the gender pay gap. ● Gendered occupational segregation contributes to the devaluation of women's work, impacting salary levels. Discrimination and Rationalization: ● Discrimination, both overt and subtle, plays a crucial role in sustaining the gender pay gap. ● Rationalizing the pay gap based on women's choices and investments is criticized, emphasizing undervaluation of women's contributions. Expectations and Prestige: ● Expectations about the gender composition of professions influence their perceived prestige and desirability. ● Jobs associated with women are often devalued, affecting their perceived status and salary levels. Challenges in Career Advancement: ● Women face barriers to career advancement, including limited access to training and mentoring resources. ● Women may be segregated into specific tasks that limit opportunities for promotion and higher pay. Structural and Psychological Factors: ● The intersection of structural and psychological factors contributes to the persistence of the gender pay gap. ● Efforts to address the pay gap should challenge stereotypes, promote gender equity in career choices, and create inclusive workplaces. Conclusion: ● ● The gender pay gap reflects resistance to changing stereotypes, hierarchies, and traditional work–family balance patterns. Addressing the pay gap requires a focus on challenging discriminatory practices and creating environments that value the contributions of both genders. Williams, J., & Cooper, H. (2004). The public policy of motherhood. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 849-865. Introduction: ● The text explores the impact of public policies on the choices made by mothers regarding employment and family responsibilities. ● It highlights how the options available to mothers are influenced by societal and structural factors. Constrained Choices: ● Mothers often describe their decisions, such as leaving work to care for children, as free choices, but these choices are constrained by limited options. ● The primary constraints include long working hours, lack of leaves, inadequate childcare, and the link between benefits and "ideal-worker" jobs. ● The U.S. has longer working hours compared to other industrialized countries, leading to neo-traditional gender patterns. ● Lack of flexibility in work schedules and stringent leave policies further limit choices for working mothers. Consequences of Constrained Choices: ● Comparisons with Sweden show that the choices faced by parents in the U.S. differ significantly. ● In Sweden, fewer women quit their jobs after having children, and there is a more equitable distribution of family income. ● Childhood poverty rates are much lower in Sweden than in the U.S., emphasizing the impact of policy choices on societal well-being. Existing Case Law: ● Most plaintiffs addressing discrimination due to family responsibilities have used various legal theories, rather than specific statutes. ● Successful cases have been built on disparate treatment, disparate impact, Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), Equal Protection Clause, and tort awards. ● Hostile prescriptive stereotyping, where discriminatory remarks are made about working mothers, has been identified as a pattern in some cases. Conclusion: ● Mothers' choices are influenced by public policies that shape the options available, such as work scheduling, leaves, and benefits. ● Nineteen proposed measures for improving work/family balance are listed, including limiting the workweek, expanding FMLA, requiring paid sick leave, and redesigning the tax system. ● Resistance to change is acknowledged, but laws against discrimination based on family responsibilities are seen as a potential solution to make genuine choices more accessible for mothers. Lecture 7 + Readings Lecture 7 Psychological Trauma: ● Definition: Emotionally shocking/horrifying, overwhelming normal coping mechanisms. ● Types: ○ Type I: Single unpredictable event (e.g., car accidents). ○ Type II: Chronic, sustained over time (e.g., sexual abuse). ○ Type III: Secondary/Vicarious trauma (service providers exposed to others' trauma). ○ Type IV: Intergenerational trauma (cumulative wounding across generations). Nature of Trauma: ● Non-interpersonal trauma: ○ Accidental (e.g., car accidents). ● Interpersonal trauma: ○ Person-perpetrated, intentional (e.g., sexual/physical abuse). ○ More likely to result in long-term impacts. Reality of Trauma: ● Trauma is a part of human experience. ● Impact varies; compounded by social and economic factors. ● Many involved with mental health and criminal justice systems have a complex trauma history. Gender Disparities in Violence: ● Women 11 times more likely to be victims of sexual offenses. ● Indigenous women 3 times more likely to experience gender-based violence. ● Transgender individuals nearly twice as likely to experience intimate partner violence. Child Neglect & Abuse: ● Neglect: Physical, Emotional, Educational. ● Canadian Incidence Study of Child Abuse & Neglect: ○ 34% neglect, 20% physical abuse, 34% witnessed intimate partner violence. Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy: ● Parent fakes or induces illness in a child. ● Typically mothers, effects include death or permanent disability. Effects of Neglect/Abuse on Children: ● Short-term: Attachment difficulties, cognitive issues, emotional problems, physical consequences. ● Long-term: Substance abuse, PTSD, risky behavior, diminished economic well-being. Effects of Adult Sexual Assault: ● Higher rates of depression, anxiety, self-injury, suicidal ideation. ● Gender differences: Women twice as likely to suffer from PTSD. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): ● Intrusive reexperiencing, avoidance behaviors, hyperarousal. ● Women more likely to experience PTSD following trauma. Disclosure and Reporting: ● Low rates of disclosure, associated with poorer physical and psychological well-being. ● Reasons for non-disclosure include fear of reprisal, breakdown of family unit, not being believed. Conviction Rates: ● Low rates of conviction, challenges in legal processes. Traumagenic Dynamics of Sexual Abuse: ● Powerlessness, Stigmatization, Traumatic Sexualization, Betrayal. ● Effects on psychological and behavioral aspects. Intimate Partner Violence: ● Violence by legally married, separated, divorced, dating, or common-law partners. ● Women in most danger in their homes, over 50% of murdered women killed by partners. Severity of Partner Abuse: ● Women more likely to experience severe physical violence. ● Effects on child witnesses: PTSD, suicide, prostitution, victimization, perpetration. Explanations for Why Women Stay: ● Learned Helplessness, Cycle of Violence, Traumatic Bonding, Feminist Accounts. Explanations for Why Men Abuse: ● Evolutionary Theory (biological wiring). ● Instrumental Motives (insurance policy). ● Psychological Neediness (dependency, personality disorders). ● Feminist Account (patriarchy, power, sexist attitudes). Conclusion: ● Gender-based violence is pervasive with severe and lasting consequences. ● Consequences vary based on gender, intrusiveness, relationship with the perpetrator, and societal response. Filipas, H. H., & Ullman, S. E. (2006). Child Sexual Abuse, Coping Responses, Self-Blame, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Adult Sexual Revictimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(5), 652–672. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506286879 Participants and Recruitment: ● Participants recruited from introductory psychology classrooms and criminal justice departments. ● Survey packets distributed, and participants completed a 20-page survey on stressful life experiences. ● Sample size (N=577) included individuals with no sexual victimization, CSA only, ASA only, and both CSA and ASA. ● Return rate was 92%. Measures: ● Demographic information collected, including age, year in school, ethnicity, marital status, employment status, income, and number of children. ● CSA questionnaire adapted from Finkelhor (1979) used to assess sexual abuse severity. ● PTSD symptomatology assessed using Foa’s (1995) Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale. ● Attribution of blame measured for self, perpetrator, society, and someone else. ● Coping responses explored, including alcohol/drug use, withdrawal, sexual acting out, seeking help, therapy, and more. Results: ● Approximately 16% reported only CSA, 10% reported only ASA, 12% reported both CSA and ASA, and 61% reported no abuse. ● CSA survivors were more likely to be revictimized in adulthood (42.2% vs. 14% without CSA). ● PTSD symptoms were higher in revictimized participants. ● Predictors of PTSD included maladaptive coping, CSA severity, and self-blame. ● Maladaptive coping during CSA predicted later use of maladaptive coping strategies. ● Maladaptive coping was the only predictor of revictimization. Discussion: ● The study highlights the link between childhood sexual abuse and revictimization in adulthood. ● Findings support a relationship between CSA, PTSD symptoms, cognitive factors, and adult sexual revictimization. ● Self-blame, coping responses, and PTSD symptoms were interconnected in complex ways. ● Limitations include the retrospective design, reliance on self-report measures, and potential underestimation of PTSD in the high-functioning college sample. Clinical Implications: ● Comprehensive understanding and support are crucial for survivors to recover and lead fulfilling lives. ● Tailored interventions should address coping strategies, self-blame, and PTSD symptoms to prevent revictimization. ● Awareness and sensitivity of clinicians to survivors' unique concerns are essential. Lecture 8 + Readings Lecture 8 Other Effects of Sexual Violence: From Victims to Offenders ● Abused girls more likely to become delinquents and criminals. ● High incidence of substance abuse and mental health problems among women offenders. Widom's Prospective Study ● Abused children more likely to have juvenile and adult arrests, higher arrest rates for violent crime. ● From Victimization to Criminalization 1. Trafficking: Dynamics ● Multiple exposures to traumatic events, lack of control, persistent anticipation of negative events. 2. Sex Trade Workers: Risks and Consequences ● Difficulties in determining the size of the industry. ● Characteristics of sex trade workers, reasons for entering the trade, and unique risks. Characteristics of Incarcerated Women Relative to Canadian Women in General ● Differences in education, unemployment, single parenthood, racism. Other Gender Differences ● Women more likely to make false confessions or plea bargains. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder & Victim Management ● Symptoms of PTSD and their impact on victims. ● Case examples illustrating PTSD symptoms in witnesses. Abuse in the Lives of Imprisoned Women ● Higher severity of abuse experiences, psychological symptoms, and coping difficulties. Institutional Re-victimization ● Correctional systems likely to replicate key traumagenic processes underlying child abuse. Parallels Between the Dynamics of Abuse and Incarceration ● Powerlessness, stigmatization, betrayal, retraumatization. Tipping the Balance ● Considerations for service providers dealing with victims. Jones, S. (2011). Under pressure: Women who plead guilty to crimes they have not committed. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 11(1), 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895810392193 Overview: ● Focuses on the phenomenon of women pleading guilty to crimes they did not commit. ● Investigates the factors, pressures, and dynamics leading to such false confessions. Historical Context: ● Earlier literature provides examples of empirical research into women's false confessions. ● Plea bargaining's role in the criminal justice system is discussed, emphasizing its routine nature and incentives. Previous Studies: ● Cites studies by Dell (1971), Edwards (1984), and others that touch on women admitting guilt under various circumstances. ● Highlights a lack of gendered analysis in the literature on plea bargaining. The Present Study (Jones, 2011): ● Conducted semi-structured interviews with 50 convicted women in an English prison. ● Explores women's relationships with co-defendants and the circumstances leading to false confessions. Case Examples: ● Provides examples from interviews, including Janine's false confession due to fear of a harsher sentence. ● Emma's case illustrates pressure from a partner to take the blame for credit card fraud. ● Chris's case highlights familiarity with plea bargaining despite not committing offenses. False Confessions by Women: ● Introduces research approaches (self-report studies and laboratory experiments) on false confessions. ● Icelandic studies by Gudjonsson and Sigurdsson (1994, 1996) show a higher proportion of women making false confessions, often to protect someone else. ● North American studies also suggest women are more likely to confess, possibly due to greater compliance and a desire to cooperate. Coercion and Protecting Male Co-defendants: ● Some women interviewed were coerced into confessing to crimes committed by male partners. ● Emotional blackmail, intimidation, and threats were reported by interviewees. Co-dependency: ● Discusses the concept of co-dependency, suggesting it may contribute to women taking blame for male partners. ● Critics argue that co-dependency can be an outcome of societal expectations on women's caretaking qualities. Discussion: ● Raises questions about the treatment of women in the criminal justice system and the debate between equality under the law and allowances for gender-specific needs. ● Considers the implications of the gender equality duty, emphasizing the consideration of different needs for male and female offenders. Challenges and Recommendations: ● Identifies challenges in achieving gender equality and potential resentment toward "special treatment." ● Recommends practical measures, including conducting interviews with female suspects by female officers and audio-visual recording of confessions. ● Acknowledges the ongoing complexity of achieving gender equality in the criminal justice system. UN Committee Report: ● Mentions the United Nations’ Committee expressing concerns about the UK's emphasis on promoting equality of opportunity over gender equality. Conclusion: ● Concludes with a recognition of the challenges and a long way to go in achieving gender equality in the criminal justice system. Konecky, E. M., & Lynch, S. M. (2019). Cumulative Trauma Exposure, Emotion Regulation, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Incarcerated Women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(5), 806–811. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22435 Associations Among Cumulative Trauma, Emotion Regulation, and PTSD: ● Cumulative trauma exposure was positively associated with emotion regulation difficulties and PTSD symptom severity among incarcerated women. Emotion Regulation as a Mediator: ● Emotion regulation difficulties were identified as a significant mediator in the relationship between cumulative trauma exposure and PTSD symptom severity. High Rates of Trauma Exposure and PTSD in Incarcerated Women: ● Approximately 22%–44% of incarcerated women meet criteria for PTSD, and they report notably higher trauma exposure rates compared to the general population. Definition of Emotion Regulation: ● Emotion regulation involves multifaceted skills, including awareness and understanding of emotions, willingness to experience diverse emotions, inhibiting impulsive behavioral tendencies, and choosing effective strategies to modulate emotional experiences. Previous Research Supporting Findings: ● Previous longitudinal studies support the idea that trauma exposure significantly affects emotion regulation, and there are established associations between emotion regulation difficulties and the severity of PTSD. Specific Emotion Regulation Interventions: ● Therapeutic approaches such as Skills Training in Affect and Interpersonal Relationships (STAIR), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and Seeking Safety include components focused on improving emotion regulation and have demonstrated positive outcomes in PTSD treatment. Prevalence of PTSD in Incarcerated Women: ● The study reported a prevalence rate of 39.3% for current (past-month) PTSD in the sample of incarcerated women. Implications for Treatment: ● The findings suggest that incorporating a focus on emotion regulation capacities into PTSD-focused interventions may be beneficial for incarcerated women, addressing their unique needs. Study Limitations and Considerations: ● The study acknowledges the cross-sectional nature of the data, which limits causal inferences between emotion regulation and PTSD. However, existing research supports the hypothesized directions. ● Retrospective self-reporting for trauma exposure may be subject to recall bias, but the study notes that previous research has found retrospective reporting to be generally reliable. ● The study used random selection methods, but participant agreement was 68%, and reasons for non-participation are unknown, suggesting potential biases related to self-selection. ● Replication of findings in other samples of incarcerated women is deemed important for validation. Overall Implications: ● The study contributes to understanding the associations among cumulative trauma, emotion regulation, and PTSD in incarcerated women, emphasizing the potential benefits of integrating emotion regulation components into trauma-focused interventions. Lecture 9 + Readings Lecture 9 DSM Definition of Mental Disorder: ● Clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern. ● Associated with present distress or disability. ● Not an expectable culturally sanctioned response. ● Manifestation of behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunction. Processes in Seeking Medical/Psychiatric Help: ● Official designation of diagnostic criteria. ● Clinician’s interpretation of presenting symptoms. ● Translating personal distress into socially constructed disease categories → Medicalization/Pathologizing. Sexism in Clinical Practice: Different Forms of Gender Bias ● Etiological Gender Bias: ○ Socio-cultural factors (e.g., poverty, violence, racial discrimination) impact psychological disorders. ○ Stepanikova (2020): Women facing gender discrimination have higher depression rates. ● ● ● ● ● ● Sampling Bias: ○ Overrepresentation of women in mental health system. ○ Example: Depression - Women diagnosed nearly twice as likely as men. Diagnostic Gender Bias: ○ I) Criterion Bias - Diagnostic criteria reflect stereotypes. ■ Example: Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD), Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD), Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD). ○ II) Assessment Bias - Biased application of diagnostic labels. ■ Example: Overdiagnosis of certain personality disorders in women vs. men. Expression of Personality Traits: ○ Men vs. women differences in expression of antisocial behavior. Borderline Personality Disorder: ○ Intense relationships, unstable self, impulsivity, self-injury, emotional instability. ○ Feminist Critiques: Behavior may be adaptive coping responses to abuse. Research on Clinical Biases: ○ Investigating biases in the diagnosis of older women who experienced gender-based violence. ○ Type of trauma, client gender, and diagnosis impact biases. Negative Consequences of ‘Personality Disorder’: ○ Blaming the victim, ineffective or harmful treatment. Gender-Sensitive View of Personality: ● Consider impact of situations (e.g., trauma) on mental well-being. ● Realize some traumas (e.g., abuse) are more frequent among women. Social Construction of Diagnosis and Illness (Brown, 1995): ● Social problems are matters of social definition. ● Deconstruct language and symbols to analyze the formation of knowledge about specific disorders. ● Scientific facts are in constant change in the ongoing process of defining personality disorders. Clerc Liaudat, C., Vaucher, P., De Francesco, T., Jaunin-Stalder, N., Herzig, L., Verdon, F., Favrat, B., Locatelli, I., & Clair, C. (2018). Sex/gender bias in the management of chest pain in ambulatory care. Women’s Health (London, England), 14, 1745506518805641–1745506518805641. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745506518805641 Study Overview: ● The study focuses on sex/gender bias in the management of chest pain in ambulatory care. ● It's a post hoc analysis of data from a prospective cohort study involving 672 patients. ● The primary objective is to assess sex differences in the referral of patients with chest pain to cardiologists. Background: ● Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of death globally. ● Despite a higher prevalence of CVD in men, mortality from CVD is higher among women. ● Women may experience atypical symptoms, contributing to under-appreciation and misdiagnosis. Introduction: ● Cardiovascular diseases are the main cause of death in both men and women. ● Women often present with atypical symptoms, leading to potential underestimation of the severity of their condition. ● Chest pain is a common complaint in ambulatory care and can have various causes. Objective: ● Assess sex differences in the management of chest pain in ambulatory care. ● Use data from the Thoracic Pain in Community (TOPIC) cohort study in Switzerland. Methods: ● Post hoc analyses of TOPIC study data (conducted from February to June 2001). ● Included 672 consecutive patients aged over 16 with chest pain complaints from primary care practices and ambulatory clinics. ● PCPs provided information on patient characteristics, thoracic pain presentation, and management decisions at different times during the consultation. Results: ● Men were 2–3 times more likely to be referred to a cardiologist than women in ambulatory care. ● This difference persisted after adjusting for patient and physician characteristics. ● Patient characteristics associated with increased likelihood of cardiologist referral included age, cardiovascular risk factors, and chest pain characteristics. ● PCP characteristics, such as sex, age, and experience, did not significantly influence referral decisions. Discussion: ● The sex bias observed in chest pain management is not explained by patient or physician characteristics. ● Women receive fewer cardiac investigations in ambulatory care, consistent with previous studies. ● Biological differences, atypical symptoms, and lower exercise capacity in women contribute to challenges in diagnosis. ● Gender disparities in cardiovascular care may contribute to higher mortality rates in women after cardiovascular events. ● Awareness about sex and gender influences in cardiovascular diseases is crucial to prevent bias. ● Socioeconomic and psychosocial factors, such as higher rates of depression and anxiety in women, may also contribute to worse outcomes. Conclusion: ● Significant sex differences exist in PCP management of chest pain in ambulatory care. ● Efforts are needed to ensure equity between men and women in medical care. ● A sex- and gender-specific approach to chest pain management is crucial to address disparities. Garb, H. N. (2021). Race bias and gender bias in the diagnosis of psychological disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 90, 102087–102087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102087 Abstract: ● Explores race and gender biases in mental health diagnoses. ● Examines various psychological disorders and the impact of clinician biases. ● Utilizes case analogue studies, structured interviews, and recommendations for improving clinical practice. Introduction: ● Focuses on race and gender biases in mental health diagnoses. ● Emphasizes the importance of understanding biases for effective diagnosis and treatment. Overview of Studies: ● Case analogue studies provide insights into biases using vignettes and videos. ● Importance of considering various variables beyond gender and race in understanding diagnostic processes. Case Analogue Studies and Diagnostic Process: ● Highlights the value of case analogue studies in revealing biases. ● Examples include ADHD overdiagnosis in boys and gender biases in personality disorder diagnoses. Insights from Case Analogue Studies: ● Discusses findings from studies such as psychodynamic vs. cognitive behavior clinicians in PTSD and personality disorder diagnoses. Structured Interviews and Bias Reduction: ● Structured interviews may reduce biases but are not foolproof. ● Challenges identified, such as the potential for bias in patients perceived as dishonest. Improving Clinical Practice: ● Recommendations include expanding mental health screening to reduce disparities. ● Suggests revising diagnostic criteria, using assessment tools, and implementing statistical prediction and AI. ● Cultural diversity training and debiasing strategies for clinicians are crucial. Limitations: ● Studies limited to certain diagnostic tasks, and replication efforts are lacking. ● Acknowledges the complexity of interactions involving race and gender in diagnosis. Conclusion: ● Emphasizes the need for ongoing research to address knowledge gaps. ● Summarizes the importance of case analogue studies, structured interviews, and recommendations for improving diagnostic practices. Overall Significance: ● Provides a comprehensive overview of race and gender biases in mental health diagnoses. ● Highlights practical recommendations for clinicians and researchers to mitigate biases and improve diagnostic accuracy. Rodriguez-Seijas, C., Morgan, T. A., & Zimmerman, M. (2021). Is There a Bias in the Diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Patients? Assessment (Odessa, Fla.), 28(3), 724–738. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120961833 Objective: ● Investigate the potential bias in the diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) among psychiatric patients based on sexual orientation. ● Examine whether disparities in BPD diagnosis persist after controlling for maladaptive personality domains. Methodology: ● Used SPSS (Version 21) for analyses. ● Heterosexual patients served as the referent group. ● Compared the prevalence of BPD diagnosis between heterosexual and sexual minority patients. ● Further compared BPD prevalence between lesbian/gay and bisexual patients separately. ● Utilized chi-square, t-tests, and logistic regressions for analysis. Results: ● BPD diagnosed in 20.93% of the entire sample. ● Patients diagnosed with BPD were younger, more frequently female, and more frequently diagnosed with PTSD. ● Sexual minority patients had a higher likelihood of being diagnosed with BPD compared to heterosexual patients. ● Differences in BPD diagnosis persisted after controlling for age, gender, comorbid PTSD diagnosis, and PID-5 BF scores. ● Disparities in BPD diagnosis were most evident for bisexual patients. Assessment Modality: ● Discrepancies in BPD diagnosis between sexual orientations were not influenced by the assessment method (structured clinical interview vs. PID-5 BF). Clinical Correlates: ● BPD diagnosis associated with higher PID-5 BF domain scores, comorbid PTSD diagnosis, and younger age across sexual orientations. ● Gender differences in BPD diagnosis among heterosexual patients but not among sexual minority individuals. Implications: ● ● The study suggests potential diagnostic bias in assigning BPD diagnoses to sexual minority patients, even after considering maladaptive personality and other clinical correlates. Raises questions about the utility of the BPD diagnosis itself, especially when assessing individuals with chronic exposure to stigma, discrimination, and marginalization. Limitations: ● Use of PTSD as a proxy for trauma experience. ● Data limited to cisgender individuals in a specific clinical setting. ● Relatively small sample sizes for lesbian/gay and bisexual subgroups. Conclusion: ● Lesbian, gay, and bisexual patients were more likely to be diagnosed with BPD, suggesting a potential bias that persisted after controlling for presenting psychopathology. ● Emphasizes the need for further research to understand the sources of this bias, including potential instrument-related and clinician-related factors Lecture 10 + Readings Lecture 10 Women in Medical Research ● Large research studies often exclude women, leading to gaps in understanding women's health. ● Examples include studies on coffee and heart attacks, aspirin and heart disease, and drug reactions (Zucker & Prendergast, 2020). Intersectional Considerations ● Black and Indigenous women face higher rates of illnesses due to systemic racism in healthcare. ● Dr. J. Jackson highlights the stress of being a black woman in a predominantly white society. Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) & HIV/AIDS ● Illustrates gender differences in causes, consequences, and treatment. ● Women are less likely to be correctly diagnosed with CHD. ● HIV/AIDS impacts women differently, affecting survival times and presenting unique challenges for HIV+ mothers. Gender Bias in Cardiovascular Research ● Major cardiovascular studies are often conducted on men, leading to misdiagnosis in women. ● Women's symptoms, diagnostic tests, and procedures may not be as accurately understood. Gender Bias in Chest Pain Management ● Studies show gender differences in referral to cardiologists, with men being more likely to receive referrals. ● Clerc-Liaudut et al. (2018) found men 2.5 times more likely to be referred even after adjusting for age and risk factors. HIV/AIDS in Canada ● Women with HIV have shorter survival times, possibly due to late diagnosis, limited access to healthcare, domestic violence, and homelessness. ● Concerns of HIV+ mothers include perinatal transmission, treatment challenges, and social stigma. Risk Behaviors and Conditions in HIV Transmission ● Risk behaviors include unprotected sexual intercourse and sharing injection equipment. ● Structural, social, and psychological factors influence HIV transmission among people who inject drugs (PWIDs). ● Gender plays a significant role in vulnerability, with women facing distinct challenges. Eating Disorders ● Disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. ● Women and girls are more often diagnosed, but eating disorders are increasingly recognized in men and LGBTQ+ youth. ● Risk factors involve biological, psychological, and social dimensions, including trauma, genetics, and societal norms. Conclusion: ● Women's physical health is influenced by research biases, intersectional considerations, gender differences in disease manifestation, and biases in healthcare practices. Recognizing and addressing these factors is crucial for providing effective and equitable healthcare for women. Dougherty, E. N., Dorr, N., & Pulice, R. T. (2016). Assisting Older Women in Combatting Ageist Stereotypes and Improving Attitudes Toward Aging. Women & Therapy, 39(1–2), 12–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2016.1116308 Introduction: ● Focus: Combatting ageist stereotypes and improving attitudes toward aging in older women. ● Rationale: Pervasiveness of ageism, including in therapy, and its impact on older women's well-being. Therapist's Role: ● Implicit Ageism: Therapists may unintentionally harbor implicit ageist attitudes affecting clinical practice with older women. ● Self-Reflection: Therapists should self-reflect on implicit cultural and age-related beliefs for effective therapeutic work. Death and Mortality: ● Terror Management Theory: Discussing death openly is crucial; ignoring it may exacerbate fear. ● ● Mortality Salience: Exploring clients' mortality, especially in the context of losses, can be a platform for meaningful dialogue. Ego Integrity: Acceptance of one's mortality is related to Ego Integrity and life's purpose, reducing anxiety about death. Reminiscence and Meaning-Making: ● Reminiscence: Storytelling about significant life experiences can address life meaning in therapy. ● Autobiography: Encouraging clients to write their own autobiography or review past experiences. ● Meaning in Life: Discovering meaning in life can reduce anxiety about death. Effects of Stereotypes: ● Stereotype Embodiment Theory: Older adults internalize ageist stereotypes, influencing behavior. ● Positive and Negative Priming: Priming with positive aging stereotypes improves memory task performance. ● Stereotype Threat: Exposure to negative stereotypes can elicit anxiety, leading to underperformance. ● Self-Compassion in Geriatric Rehabilitation: ● Geriatric Rehabilitation Centers: Older women may encounter negative aging stereotypes in such settings. ● Self-Compassion: Cultivating self-compassion can mitigate the impact of stereotype threat in geriatric rehabilitation. Components of Self-Compassion: ● Self-Kindness: Encouraging caring and supportive self-talk to counteract negative stereotypes. ● Common Humanity: Recognizing shared experiences and accepting current functional capacity. ● Mindfulness: Momentary awareness and acceptance of perceived inadequacies, reducing negative effects. Developing Positive Attitudes Toward Aging: ● Longitudinal Evidence: Positive attitudes toward aging correlate with longer life and healthier choices. ● Cognitive Behavioral Strategies: Correcting misattributions to aging through evidence examination. ● Emphasizing Gains Over Losses: Aging associated with emotional regulation, improved well-being, and cognitive gains. Promoting Positivity: ● Gratitude Practices: Practicing gratitude can enhance well-being, reduce stress, and ameliorate death anxiety. ● Gratitude Journal: Keeping a gratitude journal as an intervention to foster positive changes during aging. Conclusion: ● ● ● Therapeutic Empowerment: Therapists empower older women to challenge stereotypes, emphasizing individuality and strength. Positive Attitudes: Encouraging a positive attitude toward aging, emphasizing gains and cultivating gratitude. Transformational Process: Older women can view aging as an opportunity for growth and strength through therapeutic interventions. Foster, N., Kapiriri, L., Grignon, M., & McKenzie, K. (2023). “But…I survived”: A phenomenological study of the health and wellbeing of aging Black women in the Greater Toronto Area, Canada. Journal of Women & Aging, 35(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2022.2079925 Theoretical Framework: ● The study uses the intersectional life course perspective (Ferrer et al., 2017). ● Four main components: Key life course events and structural forces, linked lives across generations and borders, identities and categories/processes of difference, and contextualizing experience within systems of domination (e.g., racism, colonialism). Study Objectives: ● Investigate factors affecting the health and wellbeing of older Black women aged 55+ in Toronto. ● Explore intersections of these factors across their life course. ● Bridge experiences of aging with gender and race. Methodology: ● Qualitative research design using descriptive phenomenology. ● Phenomenology allows a fresh perspective toward the phenomenon under investigation. ● Focus on the experiences of Black women aged 55 and older in the Greater Toronto Area. Participants and Recruitment: ● Purposive sampling of 27 women aged 55 or older, English-speaking, self-identifying as Black, residing in the Greater Toronto Area. ● Most participants were immigrants, recruited through active and passive strategies with community partnerships. Data Collection: ● Semi-structured interviews conducted between October 2019 and May 2020. ● Interview guide informed by phenomenology and the intersectional life course approach. ● Categories of questions: demographics, health and wellbeing, aging, race, and gender. ● Critical periods identified: childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and late life. Analysis: ● Phenomenological approach based on Clarke Moustakas (1994). ● Sequential steps: Consideration of individuals' experiences, significance of descriptions, recording relevant statements, clustering meaning units into themes, and synthesizing into a description of textures of experience. Reflexivity and Research Quality: ● Acknowledgment of the researcher's values and positions of privilege. ● ● Active recruitment approaches to maintain credibility. Qualitative peer debriefing for feedback from independent academic researchers. Results: ● Overview of demographic characteristics and self-reported health outcomes. ● Themes presented chronologically to highlight key events during critical periods of participants' lives. Discussion: ● Findings refine the understanding of intersectional factors impacting Black women's health over time. ● Accumulated exposure to racism and sexism affects access to opportunities and mental health. ● The study contributes to aging and diversity scholarship by using phenomenology and an intersectional life course perspective. Implications: ● Strengthen integrative services between health and social services. ● Recognize social and historical contexts shaping the needs of older women for targeted interventions. Challenges and Limitations: ● Sample predominantly from the Caribbean, limiting broader representativeness. ● Reliance on self-reported qualitative data, subject to selective memory. Conclusion: ● Aging is a diverse and complex experience. ● Study contributes to aging and diversity scholarship through phenomenology and intersectionality.