GENDER AND SOCIETY Midterm Coverage PDF

GENDER AND SEXUALITY AS A PSYCHOSOCIAL ISSUE Psychosocial - a term pertaining to psychological and social factors and the interaction of these factors. Psychosocial issues - needs and concerns relating to one or all of the psycho-social dimensions. Reproductive role - the social...

GENDER AND SEXUALITY AS A PSYCHOSOCIAL ISSUE Psychosocial - a term pertaining to psychological and social factors and the interaction of these factors. Psychosocial issues - needs and concerns relating to one or all of the psycho-social dimensions. Reproductive role - the social script ascribed to individuals pertaining to their role in child-rearing and related tasks such as maintaining the household. Productive role - the social script ascribed to individuals pertaining to their role in economic production and related tasks such as engaging in public affairs and living in the world of work. WHAT DOES PSYCHOSOCIAL MEAN? The term “psychosocial” is an encompassing term. It is comprised by two primary aspects: psychological and social. There are myriad of ways in defining these two terms but in essence, psychological pertains to anything associated with mental process and behavior, while social pertains to anything associated with human relationships, connection and interaction. The psychological aspect of gender and sexuality anchors itself in the field of psychology. Psychology is a field of science which concerns itself with how people think and feel and how thoughts and feelings interact and lead to behavior. THERE ARE THREE PRIMARY PSYCHOLOGICAL DOMAINS: 1. Affect or the affective domain - pertains to people’s emotions and feelings. 2. Behavior or the behavioral domain - pertains to people’s actions-both observable (overt) or not observable (covert). 3. Cognition or cognitive domain - pertains to people’s thought processes such as memory, perception and information processing. Hence, to say that gender and sexuality have a psychological dimension is to note that our sexual behaviors, as well as gender-related behaviors, originate from what we sense, think and feel. On the other hand, the social aspects of gender and sexuality primarily anchor itself on the field of sociology and allied fields such as social psychology. In essence, Sociology is the field of science which concerns itself with the human person’s realities and experiences as part of groups and institutions and the dynamics of human relationships within them. UNDERSTANDING THE PSYCHOSOCIAL DIMENSION There are many ways through which the psychosocial dimensions of gender and sexuality can be understood and explained. Our experience of gender and sexuality is generally a relational experience. It is relational because while as individuals, we have our own affect, cognition and behavior to be aware of, we are also viewing ourselves in relation to others who also have their own personal preoccupations. There are some elements of our gendered self which are best viewed in an ecological context, that is, in the circumstances in our physical and social environment. Awareness At the front of our experiences as gendered beings is awareness. In simpler terms, awareness is our conscious understanding of something. As individuals, we are in constant process towards self- awareness. Who and what am I? What do I like or dislike? What are my strengths and weaknesses? What motivates me? What are my aspirations? We are in an endless process of asking and trying to understand. But then, we are not isolated in a vacuum. We are social beings. We live our lives in relation to others. Hence, as we try to understand ourselves more, we are also in a constant process towards other-awareness, that is, understanding others. Intimacy and Relationship In certain situations, when two people recognize and become aware of each other, they decide to keep close distance in each other’s lives, share their personal bubbles, so to speak and allow frequency of interaction between them. This forge of human relationship - a bond formed between two or more people, manifested through communication and interaction. These relationships may be in the form of family, friendships, romantic relationships or others. While in these relationships, we share resources and emotions, we, as individuals, constantly aim to further understand our own selves as we also try to understand others and be understood by them. This process of knowing others and allowing others to know is intimacy. As social beings, we also learn from our own experiences and from the lessons taught to us by those who have come before us. How we behave in relation to other people, with due consideration to social expectations related to our gender and how we make choices to balance out personal goals and social goals, might be passed on to us through education and other cultural preoccupations. This process by which we learn cultural norms and traditions is referred to as socialization. Well-being as a Psychosocial Goal The ultimate goal of understanding the psychosocial aspects of our experiences is wellbeing - a state of satisfaction, meaning and purpose. There are two sides to well-being. One is that kind of well-being which is observed, outward and can be evaluated through the presence or absence of particular elements in our environment. This referred to as objective well-being. Another side of well-being is our personal experience of satisfaction, meaning and purpose. This is referred to as subjective well-being. It is subjective because it pertains to our own appreciation of how well we are. Sometimes, even when the environment fully provides for all our needs, we remain unsatisfied and thus, having a low sense of subjective well-being. There are also moments where the environment has shortcomings, but we are at peace and satisfied within. In common term, the closest word to also mean subjective well-being is happiness. Dimensions of Well-being Based on what well-being means, we can see that there are various dimensions into it. The following are just the primary dimensions of well-being which we must look into when trying to understand the psychosocial condition of a person. > physical - physical /biological health > emotional - positive feelings; mood stability > mental - clarity of mind; healthy thought process > material - available and adequate financial and other resources > social - healthy and positive interaction and relationship with others LOVE, INTIMACY AND RELATIONSHIP > Love - a complex phenomenon characterized by an affective and cognitive inclination to someone and a set of social behaviors geared towards cohesion. > Intimacy - the psychosocial component of love; knowing and being known by someone in a deeply personal level; emotional closeness and connection. > Passion - the emotive and physical component of love; drive towards sexual and romantic attraction. > Commitment - decision to engage and maintain a loving relationship. > Relationship - social bond between and among individuals manifested through communication and other forms of interaction. This bond may be biological or determined by social contracts such as consensus or laws. Love as a Human Experience Love as a culture universal Love is construed as a culture universal. It is a phenomenon experienced similarly by people across time and cultures. This means that humans, whether those who lived in the past or who are living now and regardless of their geographic location and socio-cultural identities, have experienced love, in one way or another. Said differently, love is an experience that transcends time and culture. People before us, such as our grandparents, parents and other adolescents like us who live in other countries, are believed to know and encounter love as we do. The way we appreciate and experience this phenomenon may be unique, but is a similar phenomenon altogether. Love as a social phenomenon Likewise, love is viewed as a social phenomenon. Social phenomena are events or experiences which ensue within our interaction and relationship with other people. Loving entails communication - the process of giving and receiving information between and among people. It also entails the use of a language -symbols that are culturally agreed upon as possessing certain meanings and that are used by people to express certain realities and worldviews. Love as an emotion Love is construed as an emotion. Emotions are physiological responses that we evaluate psychologically as we experience particular life events. There are basic emotions such as joy, sadness, fear, disgust and anger among others. There are also complex emotions, which are a combination of basic emotions in varying magnitudes and are made intricate by circumstances surrounding the experience. Love as a neurobiological event With recent advancements in science, love, now can be studied as a neurobiological event. Every split of second, information is being passed on within our nervous system - a conglomerate of organs (including our brain, spinal cord,and our nerves) responsible for our ability to process and transmit essential information among the many organs in our body. The information comes in the form of electrical signals running along our neurons (nerve cell), which movement is facilitated by our neurotransmitters - a variety of chemicals found in our nervous system Theorizing Love Since love is a complex idea, which can be described, defined and experienced in myriad of ways, several theories and frameworks offer diverse perspectives on how it can be understood and explained. Psychodynamic view on love Psychodynamic theory is a collective term, which pertains to the psychoanalytictradition forwarded by Sigmund Freud , as well as the succeeding theories that support, redefine or refute his propositions. In a nutshell, the psychodynamic theory posits that we have desires and motives fueled by our life and death instincts. For instance, desirable behaviors that promote positive relationships with others might be viewed as influenced by our life instincts, while aggressive behaviors that hurt, manipulate or harm ourselves and others might be viewed as influenced by our death instinct. Both the life and death instincts are thought to stream from our unconscious- the province of our mind, which we are highly unaware of. Color Wheel of Love John Alan Lee, a Canadian psychologist, suggested that there are different types of love. The primary types > eros - sexual and romantic > philia - friendly > storage - parental love The secondary types > pragma - practical love > agape - universal love > philautia - self love It is possible for us to experience not just one, but two or more of these types of love in our lifetime. A child who loves her parents (storage) might eventually find new friends whom to like once they go to school (philia) and then experience romantic love (eros) especially during her youth. Triangular model of love One of the most popular theories of love is the triangular model by Sternberg, a psychologist. This theory looks at love from a psychometric stance, which means that it is generally concerned about trying to measure love as a psychological variable and in determining the various dimensions and facets that love has as experienced by people. According to Sternberg, love has three interlocking dimensions: 1. Passion - refers to the physical / emotional aspect 2. Intimacy - pertains to the psychological / relational aspect 3. Commitment - pertains to the agency component, that is the choice we make with regards to engaging and maintaining the loving relationship. The combination of these dimensions yields a particular love type. For instance, when there is only passion but no other components, infatuation is formed. When there is only intimacy but no other components, there is liking. When there is only commitment, there is empty love. However, when there is passion and intimacy, there is romantic love. When there is passion and commitment, there is ludic love. When there is intimacy and commitment, there is friendly love. When all three components are present, then we can say that consummate love exists. Romantic and Compassionate Love Hatfield and Rapson, suggests that there are two general types of love: 1. Romantic love - is characterized by intense passion--a state of intense longing for union with your partner. 2. Compassionate love - is characterized by intense intimacy--emotional closeness-- which is also characteristic of liking. Love Language Gary Chapman, a world-renown author, suggested that people have various ways through which we give and receive love. He referred to these unique ways as love language. He posited that there are generally five love languages: 1. Words of affirmation - tend to verbally express their thoughts and feelings of love towards the people they love. 2. Touch - express love non-verbally through hugs, kisses or simply, a tap on the back. 3. Time - tend to value quality moments with their loved ones. 4. Gifts - want to show and receive affection through material objects, especially during special occasions. 5. Act of Service - are much willing to serve the other person by helping her or him in things that they do. Acquaintance Intimate human relationships start in acquaintanceship. We meet up through circumstances and first learn about basic information about one another. Crucial at this stage is attraction. Attraction can take place in an enabling environment. It can happen when there is propinquity or proximity-- when we are physically closer to one another. It can happen when there is exposure--when due to proximity, there are repeated possibilities of interaction. It can also happen when there is similarity- -common preferences, interest and probably, beliefs and values Buildup Some acquaintances buildup into deeper relationships.Frequency of interaction increases. Kinds of activities shared become diverse. The involved parties begin to introduce one another to each other's friends and families, thus, making the social network larger and interconnected. Thi is the stage when two persons test their boundaries. Consolidation and Continuation The third stage of intimate is consolidation. This stage is when people commit to a long-term relationship with one another, either through a personal agreement or a social-legal agreement. Often, people set standards that are sustainable such as the ability of each other to maintain a family or a household, readiness of each other to raise children, career, and financial capacities. Decline or Deterioration Some intimate relationships are unable to sustain and maintain their commitments or attraction. For one, there may be a change in priorities between the individual couple, such that the conjoint value of the partnership is not anymore sufficient. There may be infidelity--the breech of loyalty and promises as agreed upon by both individuals. Or in other words, there may be irreconcilable differences--which are already harming each individual and the partnership as a whole. SEX AND SENSES When we were children, we were taught that there are five bodily organs, which corresponds to our primary senses, that we use to explore and experience the world around us. Our eyes enable our sense of sight (visual), so that we are able to see visual stimuli (color, size, shape) in the environment.Our nose enables sense of smell, so that we are able to experience scent. Our ears allow us a sense of hearing, so that we are able to experience sounds of varying tones, pitches and volume. Our tongue is covered with taste buds that allow us a sense of taste, so that we are able to experience the taste of our food and other objects we put in our mouth. Then, we have sensory reception in our skin, muscles and joints which allow us the sense of touch or feeling, so that we are able to have tactile experiences. These five senses comprise our sensorium--the totally of our sensory experiences and perception. While we receive information from our environment through the senses, our brain has the ability to organize and interpret these numerous stimuli into meaningful ideas that are useful for our choices (behavior). Senses and Sexuality Visual Experience Humans are predominantly visual. Our societies highly rely on visual culture to co-create meaning and convey information. For instance, our language has a visual component, as observed from our writing systems. Walking down the streets, you will see a lot of signs which direct you what to do or not to do. You will see signages placed in business establishments to tell you where to buy your groceries, ask for medical help or go to school. These only show that visual culture is an essential element of our society. It is only appropriate to utilize these visual cues since visual memory is deemed superior to other forms. It is assumed that, at the average, when realities are presented visually, we tend to remember them and easily retrieve them from our memory. Olfactory Experience Olfaction in non-human animals, which are believed to be microsmatic organism, or organism having greater sense of smell, have been an interest among psychologists since the 1950s. Humans and apes are generally believed to be microsmatic compared to their non-ape counterparts. The recent studies in the field of human sexuality show that while we humans have limited olfaction, sense of smell may play an important part in our sexual response. Tactile Experience Touch is observed to be an element of intimacy. Our body is covered in skin, often referred to as the largest bodily organ. Our skin totally accounts for 16 of 20% of our weight. It is a sensitive organ as every square inch of it houses more than a thousand nerve endings. In social interactions, particularly intimate ones, touch holds meaning. There are only people who we allow to touch us. There are only parts of our bodies we allow people to touch. Touching, just like any other behavior, may also be governed by social norms. Different parts of the human body also have different thresholds of tactile experiences. Areas such as the mouth, anus, genitals and nipples are referred to as primary erogenous zones-- as they are very sensitive to touch. The back, cheek, neck and buttocks are secondary erogenous zones--as they are also sensitive to touch, but only supportive of the primary zones in eliciting response. Often, these erogenous zones are areas of the body involved in the reproductive and sexual act. Human touch is essential in social bonds. Often, we only give people we trust the right to have tactile contact with us. It is always a consensual act to touch and be touched. When we touch, our body produces a hormone called oxytocin--it is referred to as the love hormone because it is believed to influence tribal behaviors and maternal bonding. Oxytocin is observed to be produced in vast amounts during nipple stimulation, such as for instance, when a mother suckles her newly-born. Auditory Experience Social interactions are not only visual, but are also auditory processes. Our human language often have a verbal counterpart to the written language. Sexual activities are also a verbal communication process. Sounds give additional context to sexual situations. For instance, in sexual interactions, couples may give verbal erotic encourage--words that triggers sexual response or verbal expression of affection, words that manifests feelings. Sexual Behavior Sexual behaviors are actions that humans agree to interpret as an expression of their sexual motivations or intentions. It is important to remember that behaviors are given meaning by people. For instance,while hugging and kissing maybe considered sexual in nature, this is not always the case because the context of the behavior matters. Sexual behavior are generally erotic behaviors such as that they involve any of the primary or secondary erotic zones. Earlier we mentioned that body parts such as neck, face, genitalia and chest, among others, are erogenous zones. Sexual behaviors can be typed according to the aim of the behavior. For instance, sexual behavior such as masturbation or the stimulation of one’s own genitals can be considered as auto-erotic (self-directed). Erotic motivations can also be directed to other people of the same-sex or of the opposite sex. Homoerotic behaviors - are sexual behaviors oriented to the same sex. Heteroerotic behavior - are used to refer to behaviors oriented to the other sex. For reproductive purposes, copulation or the insertion of the penis to the vagina is necessary. Humans can assume two positions in this process. More common is the ventralventral position (ventris: abdomen), wherein the male and female species are facing each other. Alternatively, a ventral-dorsal position (dorsum: back), may be assumed wherein the abdomen of the male species is facing the dorsum of the female species, such that insertion of the penis to the vagina is from behind. However, sexual behaviors do not only refer to copulation, they also include an array of non- copulatory sexual behaviors such as hugging, kissing, caressing. There are also sexual behaviors that involve oral stimulation of the genitals such as fellatio--oral stimulation of the penis, or cunnilingus--oral stimulation of the vagina. There are also sexual behaviors involving stimulation or penetration of the anal orifice--anal sex. Sexual Response cycle For heterosexual couples, one of the ultimate goals of the sexual act is reproduction. This is made possible through the fertilization of the ovum by a sperm, which necessitates ejaculation--release of the sperm--from the human male into the internal reproductive system of the human female. Before this ultimate process, both the human male and female undergoes a sequence of bodily changes which prepare them for the sexual climax. This sequence of changes is referred to as the sexual response cycle. Master and Johnson’s Model, proposed that the following are four phases in the cycle: 1. Excitement - is the first phase in the cycle. For the human male, the goal of this phase is erection or tumescence--the elongation and stiffening of the penis--so that it can be efficiently inserted into the vagina. At this phase, the testes and scrotum start to elevate and some parts of the skin reddens--a phenomenon referred to as a sex flush. For the human female, the goal of this phase is lubrication--the wetness of the vaginal orifice to facilitate insertion of the penis. Lubrication is made possible by vaginal vasocongestion. At these phase, there is swelling of the glans clitoris and the labia minora, and there are sex flushes in breasts and chest. In both male and female humans, heart rate increases during the excitement phase. Plateau - this phase is characterized by a sustained peak in stimulation of the organs.In the human male, the corona and glans penis become enlarged and reddish. Internally, the Cowper’s glands release a lubricating fluid and the testes and scrotum are totally elevated. In the human female, the outer vagina swells while the inner vagina expands and becomes elongated creating the orgasmic platform (tenting). 3. Orgasm - this phase is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the stage of release wherein the human male achieves ejaculation and the human female is ready to receive the sperm for possible fertilization. 4. Resolution - in this phase, the male penis returns to its normal unerected phase, whereas the testes and the scrotum descend. In the human female, the outer and the inner reproductive organs also relax. Kaplan’s Model have Three Phases 1. Desire - is the psychological component of the sexual response. It involves sexual thought and feelings, which are necessary for a satisfying sexual experience. However, it does not necessarily translate into action. 2. Arousal - the phase where the Excitement and Plateau (as defined by Master and Johnson) take place. It is the physiological component of the sexual response, wherein bodily changes occur as an outcome of sexual stimulation. Just like Desire, arousal may not necessarily translate into orgasm. 3. Orgasm - this model is generally similar with that of the Master and Johnson model, except that this phase also includes the resolution phase. Sexual Response Dysfunctions Some people experience difficulty or problems in some of the sexual phases. The following are the common sexual response dysfunctions: > sexual desire disorder - when an individual has a low level of desire or has an aversion to sexual activities. > sexual arousal disorder - when an individual has problems in achieving necessary physiological state for copulation (erectile dysfunction in males). > orgasmic disorder - when an individual has problems in achieving orgasm (premature ejaculation among males). > sexual pain disorder - when there is an experience of pain during the sexual response Cycle (painful erection and vaginal spasm). STEREOTYPE, PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION Stereotypes Stereotypes are an “over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people”. It can be helpful in simplifying things, when we meet someone for the first time, we associate with them certain characteristics and abilities that we usually base on the group they belong to. A stereotype can be categorized as “explicit”, meaning, the person is aware that they have these thoughts towards a group of people and they can say it out loud. It can also be “implicit” wherein a person does not know if they have these stereotypes since it lies in their subconscious. Prejudice Prejudice is an “unjustified or incorrect attitude towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a society group”. It represents our emotional response upon learning of a person’s membership to a specific group. This negative attitude can be dangerous since it often leads to negative actions and behaviors. For example, a sexiest person is someone who has negative attitude towards the other sex and sees them as the lesser sex. This negative attitude could manifest into action such as bullying,discrimination or violence. Discrimination Discrimination refers to actions or behaviors towards an individual or a group of people. According to the United Nations, “discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection”. People who are discriminated on are treated worse than the way people are usually treated just because they belong to a certain group or they have certain characteristics. Here are a few examples of discrimination: > genocide - is the action of recognizing someone as different so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded. > apartheid - (means separateness) is a form of racial discrimination wherein one race is viewed as less than the other, resulting in the separation of black and whites and the mass murder of Jews in concentration camps. > gender discrimination - is another common form of discrimination. Statistically, women earn less than men and are often relegated to be solely responsible for child-rearing and house chores. Men, on the other hand, are discriminated in household responsibilities such that they are perceived as less manly when they do their share of house chores or when they become stay at home husband. > LGBT discrimination - it happens when LGBT people are treated as lesser than straight- people.Discrimination happens early in their childhood as they get bullied when they act differently or dress differently than other kids. Freedom and Equality Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”. This declaration was drafted by member countries of the United Nations, including the Philippines in 1948. This monumental document outlines the fundamental rights of every human being that should be protected by everyone at all times. While discriminatory traditions, policies. ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries, many have shifted towards making opportunities and privileges accessible to everyone. In many countries, people of the same sex can now get married and create their own families while enjoying the same rights as straight couples. In the Philippines, all establishments are now required by law to have an access ramp for people with disabilities.