Psychology Chapter 44-45.3 PDF

**Age** 44.1.01 Aging and the Life Course One way sociologists understand the organization of society is through **demographics** (ie, statistical analysis of patterns and trends occurring within certain categories, such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation). For example, the U.S...

**Age** 44.1.01 Aging and the Life Course One way sociologists understand the organization of society is through **demographics** (ie, statistical analysis of patterns and trends occurring within certain categories, such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation). For example, the U.S. Census is completed every decade to collect and compare demographic data about the citizens of the United States. **Aging** involves changes that are biological (ie, physical changes to the body, such as decreased metabolism and organ function), psychological (eg, changes in cognitive abilities, such as slower processing speed), and social (eg, changes in social roles, such as becoming a retiree). Additionally, the social importance and purpose of life stages can differ between societies. For example, many Asian societies value the wisdom of the elderly over youth, whereas in Western societies youth is highly valued. The **life course approach** is a holistic and multidisciplinary examination of aging in terms of psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime. This approach emphasizes the reciprocal link between social context and individuals as they age (ie, individuals influence and are influenced by society). The life course approach considers how personal life events (eg, illness in infancy), individual choices/behaviors (eg, having unprotected sex), and sociocultural and historical context (eg, being born during wartime) impact health and illness. 44.1.02 Age Cohorts Individuals who were born around the same time have shared sociocultural and historical experiences (eg, growing up with the internet at home); therefore, categorizing individuals based on age range can be useful to understand patterns within society. **Age cohorts** refer to groups of individuals born within a specified time frame (eg, individuals born between 2000 and 2010). Generation categories are one type of age cohort; Table 44.1 describes four of the largest current generations in the United States. **Table 44.1** Some current generations by birth year range. **Generation** **Birth year range** **Example of shared experiences** Baby Boomers 1946--1964 Childhood during the post-World War II era Generation X 1965--1980 Entered adulthood after the civil rights movement Millennials (Generation Y) 1981--1996 Old enough to understand the global impact of the 9/11 terrorist attack Generation Z 1997--2012 Grew up with digital technology and social media Studying patterns among age cohorts can help sociologists understand changes in demographic trends. For example, the majority of Baby Boomers, a large age cohort in the U.S. population, have reached retirement age and many are no longer active in the labor force. This demographic trend has an impact on other aspects of society, including the government (eg, increased withdrawals from Social Security) and healthcare (eg, increased use of Medicare insurance **Gender** 44.2.01 Sex versus Gender Although some people use the terms \"sex\" and \"gender\" interchangeably, behavioral scientists distinguish between the two concepts. **Sex** refers to the biological distinction between male and female bodies typically assigned at birth, whereas **gender** refers to cultural beliefs about which behaviors (eg, wearing suits or dresses) and roles (eg, financial provider or caregiver) are considered masculine or feminine. In sociology, gender is defined as a social construct (ie, meaning is created through social interaction as described in Concept 32.2.04). Cultural groups have varying definitions of masculinity and femininity which create differences in gender behaviors and norms. For example, religious values like modesty can influence expected behaviors related to gender such as women wearing long dresses to conceal most of the body. Gender impacts how one behaves, views themselves, and is treated by others. **Gender identity** refers to how someone sees themself in relation to the cultural definitions of gender (eg, man/woman), and **gender roles** refer to the expected behaviors and attributes associated with masculinity and femininity (see Table 44.2). Historically, gender has been defined as binary categories (ie, behavior or identity was understood as either masculine or feminine). However, recent cultural changes have led to the reconceptualization of gender as a continuum rather than a binary which results in greater variation in gender identities (eg, nonbinary, gender-fluid) and behaviors. **Table 44.2** Key concepts related to sex and gender. **Concept** **Definition** **Sex** Biological differences between males and females (eg, physical differences) **Gender** Cultural norms and beliefs regarding masculinity and femininity **Gender identity** One\'s sense of self in relation to gender (eg, man, woman, gender-fluid) **Gender role** Behaviors and attributes society considers appropriate based on gender 44.2.02 Gender Segregation One mechanism that maintains gender differences is **gender segregation,** which refers to the separation of individuals based on their assumed gender. This separation can occur by formal means (eg, policies about gendered bathrooms) or informal means (eg, social norms about gendered behaviors). Gender stereotypes about masculine and feminine behaviors can reinforce gender segregation. For example, the stereotype that men are more rational than women may influence gender segregation in leadership (such as the practice of appointing men as leaders rather than appointing women). Gender segregation can create differences in status and limit access to resources, contributing to **gender inequality** (ie, gender hierarchy which places greater value on masculinity over femininity). For example, sports teams are often segregated based on gender. If there are gender differences in funding, facilities, and opportunities (eg, men\'s teams receive greater support), gender segregation in sports could reinforce gender inequality **Sexual Orientation** 44.3.01 Sexual Orientation In sociology, sexuality refers to one\'s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors as a sexual being. One aspect of sexuality is **sexual orientation**, which describes a person\'s identity based on their attraction to others. Historically, sexual orientation was divided into two distinct categories, with *homosexuality* describing attraction to members of one\'s own sex and *heterosexuality* describing attraction to members of the opposite sex. Today, sexual orientation is described using a greater diversity of categories including homosexual, heterosexual, bisexual (attracted to both sexes), and asexual (little or no sexual attraction) identities. Sexual orientation can affect how an individual is treated by others (eg, discriminated against, welcomed in a community) as cultures vary in their acceptance of differing sexual orientations. For example, in some societies, there is a value of heteronormativity (ie, heterosexuality is seen as the typical and only acceptable orientation), which results in the limitation of rights and the mistreatment of individuals with other sexual orientations **Race and Ethnicity** 44.4.01 Social Construction of Race and Ethnicity **Race** is a demographic category that groups individuals based on shared physical traits (eg, hair texture, skin color) and a presumed shared ancestry (ie, bloodline). While race was previously assumed to reflect biological differences between groups of people, there are no clear genetic markers that characteristically define any racial category. Currently, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes five racial categories: Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and White. Despite there being no conclusive biological basis for racial categories, race remains a meaningful social category, impacting one\'s position in society (Lesson 36.2) as well as the development of one\'s identity (Lesson 35.2). Racial categories are considered social constructs (Concept 32.2.04) because definitions of race have changed throughout history and vary by society. For example, an individual with one Black parent and one White parent may be considered Black in the United States but considered mixed-race in another country. Another demographic category connected to ancestry is **ethnicity**, which refers to groups of people who share cultural beliefs, language, and history. Ethnicities are also social constructs, and the definition and significance of ethnic groups can vary. For example, in the United States during the nineteenth century, ethnicities such as Irish American, Polish American, and Italian American were considered important categories that signaled cultural differences between the ethnic groups. However, in the United States today, these ethnic categories have less significance and many individuals in these ethnic groups have assimilated into mainstream U.S. culture (Concept 34.3.03). 44.4.02 Racial Formation and Racialization According to the **racial formation theory** developed by sociologists Michael Omi and Howard Winant, historical, political, and social contexts need to be taken into account to understand current race relations; for example, the history of colonialism and slavery in the United States must be considered when examining the current experiences of discrimination and inequality for African Americans. Additionally, racial formation theory posits that race is a part of all social relations (eg, personal connections, social organizations), and perceptions of an individual\'s racial identity impact how they are treated by others. Within racial formation theory, the concept of **racialization** describes the process whereby one group designates another group with a racial identity. The designating group has more social power and exerts social control over the designated group, creating a racial hierarchy. For example, in the United States, racialization occurred during colonialization: European settlers created the new racial category \"Indian\" to group indigenous (ie, native) people together, which led to social control of the group through policies such as the Indian Removal Act (ie, legal displacement of tribes to allow for westward expansion **Immigration Status** 44.5.01 Patterns of Immigration **Immigration** is the relocation of individuals into an area, whereas **emigration** is relocation out of an area. People tend to emigrate from less developed or poorer countries, immigrating to more developed or wealthier ones. **Immigration status** is a demographic category that refers to an individual\'s citizenship status, including lawful permanent resident, refugee, and unauthorized immigrant. Federal policies can shape patterns of immigration and alter the demographics of a nation. For example, a policy in the 1960s ended the national quota system (which had limited the number of immigrants allowed to enter the United States per country of origin), contributing to an increase in the total immigrant population in the United States (Figure 44.2). Based on data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau, most immigrants currently live in the West and South regions of the country, and the largest proportion of foreign-born residents emigrate from Mexico, China, and India **Social Stratification** 45.1.01 Social Class and Socioeconomic Status In sociology, **social stratification** refers to a system of inequality whereby individuals are hierarchically ranked into groups based on social identity categories (eg, age, race, gender) that have differential access to resources, opportunities, and life outcomes. Caste and class systems are two types of social stratification systems present in societies today. In a **caste system** (eg, India), an individual\'s social position (ie, location within the social hierarchy) is involuntarily assigned at birth based on personal characteristics such as race, ethnicity, or parental caste. Individuals tend to remain in the same caste for life and are discouraged (formally and informally) from intimate contact with individuals in other castes. Therefore, movement between castes is very difficult. In a **class system** (eg, the United States), an individual\'s social position is partially achieved through effort and/or ability and partially based on the social class (see definition below) into which one is born. Social class positions are less clearly defined as compared to castes, and boundaries between classes are not definite. Therefore, movement between classes is possible. A **social class** (also known as socioeconomic status or SES) is a group of people who share similar lifestyles based largely on economic resources (eg, income, wealth, property). There are three generally recognized classes in the United States: the upper, middle, and lower classes (as summarized in Table 45.1). Several additional factors contribute to a person\'s social class, including the SES of one\'s parents, educational attainment, and occupation. Social class impacts life outcomes and opportunities. For example, individuals in the upper class have the most resources (eg, access to the best schools, healthcare, and jobs) and power (ie, ability to influence or control others as defined in Concept 45.1.05). **Table 45.1** Social classes in the United States. **Social class** **Description** **Approximate proportion** **Upper class** Wealthiest, most influential members of society(eg, heirs to family fortunes, top executives) 21% **Middle class** Educated professionals with average to high wages(eg, teachers, lower-level management, nurses, doctors, lawyers) 50% **Lower class** Clerical, low-skill service, and manual laborers with low (ie, minimum wage) to adequate wages (ie, living wage)(eg, factory workers, clerical workers, day laborers, service industry) 29% Chapter 45: Social Class and Inequality 253 45.1.02 Class Consciousness and False Consciousness In Karl Marx\'s theory of society, the capitalist economic system relies on two unequal classes (ie, bourgeoise/upper class and proletariat/lower class; see Concept 32.2.02). **Class consciousness** involves the recognition of the class structure and identification with one\'s own social class position. In other words, class consciousness allows individuals to understand that people from their class have shared needs and interests while the goals of other classes differ. According to Marx, class consciousness is needed for the lower class to engage in collective political action to challenge the unequal capitalist economic system. Marx also asserted that individuals in the upper class, to further their own interests, attempt to sway the thinking of those in the lower class. **False consciousness** results when individuals from lower classes adopt misleading views of the class structure and accept the status quo (eg, injustice, exploitation). For example, individuals from the lower classes who do not have class consciousness may blame themselves for living in poverty rather than understanding the impact of the unequal class system on their life outcomes. Consequently, false consciousness results in class inequalities remaining unchallenged. 45.1.03 Cultural Capital and Social Capital Sociologists define **capital** as something possessed by an individual that confers advantage in society. Capital can be accumulated (ie, compiled) and applied to achieve desired outcomes, such as increased socioeconomic status. There are three major types of capital (see Figure 45.1). **Economic capital** describes an individual\'s tangible financial assets, such as property and income. **Social capital** refers to benefits associated with an individual\'s social networks (see Concept 36.5.02). In other words, the people an individual knows can provide advantages (eg, knowing the manager helps an individual get the job). **Cultural capital** describes how knowledge of cultural practices and skills can provide access to power and opportunity in society. For example, when a business meeting is held at a formal restaurant, an employee with knowledge of fine dining etiquette has cultural capital that provides an advantage in this setting (ie, others may favorably evaluate the employee who uses appropriate fine dining skills). **Figure 45.1** Three major types of capital. A close-up of a social network Description automatically generated Chapter 45: Social Class and Inequality 254 45.1.04 Social Reproduction Social stratification systems remain consistent over time. **Social reproduction** refers to the transmission of society\'s values, norms, and practices, including social inequality, from one generation to the next. Social reproduction occurs because social structures (eg, tax laws, education systems) maintain and perpetuate social inequality over time; therefore, successive generations tend to occupy the same social class (eg, the child of wealthy parents tends to be wealthy as an adult). 45.1.05 Power, Privilege, and Prestige In sociology, the interconnected concepts of power, privilege, and prestige help explain how systems of stratification function: **Power** is the ability to control others and act based on one\'s interests. Certain careers (eg, corporate executive) and accomplishments (eg, earning a professional degree) increase one\'s power. **Privilege** describes the advantages and opportunities associated with social positions. Certain social identity categories (Concept 35.1.02) receive unearned benefits based on the organization of society (eg, growing up in an upper-class neighborhood confers the educational privilege of well-funded schools through property tax). **Prestige** refers to one\'s positive reputation or revered attributes, compared to others. Certain careers (eg, politicians), personal characteristics (eg, ambitiousness), and achievements (eg, being admitted to a top-tier medical school) confer prestige. Power, privilege, and prestige operate to maintain an unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and life outcomes. For example, a male CEO has *power*, and he can implement a policy that reduces family leave, which supports his interests and controls the behavior of others. The policy change also confers *privilege* to male workers because men are typically less responsible for family care and therefore less likely affected by the policy. Finally, the CEO may increase his *prestige* in the eyes of the company owner by developing a policy that increases profits. 45.1.06 Intersectionality **Intersectionality** describes how individuals hold multiple, interconnected social identities (eg, gender, race, age) that simultaneously impact their perspectives and treatment in society. Each social identity category is associated with different privileges and/or disadvantages. An individual does not interact with others solely based on race, gender, or any other social identity alone and therefore can experience more than one type of discrimination (eg, racism, ageism). For example, a 50-year-old, middle-class, Black woman (as shown in Figure 45.2) will have different experiences than a 25-year-old, upper-class, White woman. While both women may experience gender discrimination, the intersections of race, class, and age also impact how they are treated by others, resulting in differences in life outcomes. Chapter 45: Social Class and Inequality 255 **Figure 45.2** Example of intersectionality. 45.1.07 Socioeconomic Gradient in Health The **socioeconomic gradient in health** is the positive correlation (see Concept 3.2.01) between socioeconomic status (SES) and health outcomes. Individuals with lower SES tend to have worse health outcomes than those with higher SES, on average. Disparities (ie, inequalities) related to SES are thought to contribute to this gradient, including lower income, poorer education, unsafe living environments, lack of access to healthcare, lack of exercise/leisure time, and limited access to nutritious food **Social Mobility** 45.2.01 Intergenerational and Intragenerational Mobility In sociology, the term **social mobility** refers to the change or movement of individuals, groups, or families within a social stratification system (eg, from middle class to upper class). Social mobility can be horizontal, upward, or downward (Concept 45.2.02) and can be related to many other factors, such as educational achievement, job loss, career advancement, marriage, and/or institutional discrimination (Concept 40.3.02 covers institutional discrimination). If a group or person experiences social mobility within their own lifetime, social mobility is said to be **intragenerational**, occurring over a relatively short time within a single generation. For example, if an individual grew up in a middle-class family and then marries someone from an upper-class family, intragenerational mobility has occurred. Social mobility that takes place over more than one life span is **intergenerational**, occurring over a relatively long time among members of different generations. For example, if parents do not have college degrees and are in the lower class, but their child earns a college degree and has a successful middle-class career, intergenerational mobility has occurred. 45.2.02 Vertical and Horizontal Mobility Movement within systems of stratification (Lesson 45.1) can occur in a variety of directions. **Vertical social mobility** refers to movement up or down the social class hierarchy. *Upward mobility* occurs when an individual advances or moves up from one class to a higher class through changes in occupation, educational level, or marriage. *Downward mobility* occurs when an individual descends to a lower class and can be caused by large-scale changes in the economy (eg, national recession) or by individual events (eg, being fired from a job). Alternatively, **horizontal social mobility** refers to movement within the same level of the social class hierarchy; therefore, one\'s power and opportunities remain the same in this type of change. For example, an individual could change specialized occupations within the automotive repair industry, such as switching from working as a mechanic to an electronics installer, and this movement would not change the individual\'s social class position. Intragenerational and intergenerational mobility (Concept 45.2.01) can occur horizontally and vertically. Table 45.2 illustrates the various combinations of time frame (ie, generations) and direction of movement (ie, none, increase, or decrease). Chapter 45: Social Class and Inequality 257 **Table 45.2** Types of social mobility. 45.2.03 Meritocracy A **meritocracy** is a system in which an individual\'s socioeconomic status (SES) is based on personal abilities and hard work. In other words, factors such as prestige (ie, one\'s positive reputation, see Concept 45.1.05) or social connections do not provide advantages in a meritocracy. Additionally, meritocracies are supported by a cultural belief that all individuals have an equal opportunity to advance in the social class hierarchy. While meritocracy is often considered an ideal system for social mobility, there are very few truly meritocratic systems. For example, the U.S. class system is not a meritocracy because an individual\'s SES is partly earned through effort/ability and partly determined by the social class into which th**ey are born.** 45.3.01 Residential Segregation Systems of social stratification impact how societies utilize physical spaces. **Spatial inequality** refers to the uneven and unfair distribution of wealth and resources across a geographic area. Where one resides impacts life opportunities and outcomes. For example, an individual living in a rural area would have access to fewer options in terms of jobs, schools, hospitals, and grocery stores than an individual living in a large city. These differences in the geographic distribution of resources also influence one\'s lifestyle, social networks (Lesson 36.5), and opportunities for social mobility (Lesson 45.2). One aspect of spatial inequality is **residential segregation** (ie, separation of social groups into different neighborhoods). As a result, neighborhoods typically include individuals who share common demographic characteristics such as race, class, and ethnicity. For example, residential segregation occurs when there is a geographical separation between low-income (ie, public housing), middle-income, and wealthy neighborhoods, as depicted in Figure 45.3. Residential segregation is supported by formal laws (eg, historically, some housing loans were regulated based on applicants\' race) and informal practices (eg, houses of similar value are built in the same area). **Figure 45.3** Residential segregation and spatial inequality. 45.3.02 Neighborhood Safety and Violence Spatial inequality and residential segregation impact **neighborhood safety** and **violence**. For example, individuals and families living in low-income neighborhoods (ie, high-poverty neighborhoods) typically experience higher rates of crime and violence than in middle-income or wealthy neighborhoods.  Chapter 45: Social Class and Inequality 259 45.3.03 Environmental Justice Another aspect of spatial inequality includes how elements of the physical environment (eg, parks, landfills, refineries) are managed within a geographic area. Sociologists use the term **environmental justice** to describe environmental policies (eg, air pollution regulations) and practices (eg, building clean water systems) that offer equal protection for all individuals. However, individuals who are part of marginalized groups often experience a greater burden of environmental hazards. **Environmental injustice** refers to unequal protection from environmental risks and unequal access to environmental benefits within a geographic area. For example, lower-income areas are often subjected to more environmental risk factors such as pollution, toxic waste, and high-voltage power lines, whereas middle-income and wealthy areas have access to more environmental benefits such as paved walkways, safe parks, and clean air