Psychology Chapter 33-35 PDF

**Empiricism in Sociology** 33.1.01 Empiricism in Sociology Research in sociology shares many of the same principles as research in psychology, including the scientific method (Lesson 2.1), reliance on credible results (Lesson 2.3), and ethical research practices (Lesson 2.4). Sociologists study s...

**Empiricism in Sociology** 33.1.01 Empiricism in Sociology Research in sociology shares many of the same principles as research in psychology, including the scientific method (Lesson 2.1), reliance on credible results (Lesson 2.3), and ethical research practices (Lesson 2.4). Sociologists study society and social interaction through research based on **empiricism** (ie, objective observations) rather than relying on intuition or personal experience **Types of Studies in Sociology** 33.2.01 Types of Studies in Sociology In sociology, research can be quantitative, qualitative, or a combination of both---referred to as mixed methods. (Note: while psychology also uses quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research designs, this lesson focuses on methods in sociology.) **Quantitative** research collects large-scale, numeric data that can be analyzed statistically to determine relationships between defined variables (Concept 2.1.02). Types of quantitative research methods include surveys (eg, multiple-choice questionnaires developed for a specific study) and secondary data analysis (eg, research based on existing U.S. Census datasets). For example, statistical analysis of data from a survey administered to pre-med students could determine if there is a relationship between the numeric rank of undergraduate university and students\' medical school entrance exam scores. In contrast, **qualitative** research gathers in-depth, non-numeric data (eg, words, cultural practices as defined in Concept 34.1.01) to analyze the presence of patterns or themes. Types of qualitative research methods include ethnography (ie, intensive observations and interviews of a social group) and focus groups (ie, group interview and discussion on a specific topic or experience). For example, analysis of data from a focus group of pre-med students could identify how social factors such as socioeconomic status (defined in Concept 45.1.01) impact how students prepare for the medical school entrance exam. **Mixed methods** research employs both quantitative and qualitative approaches and can be a more comprehensive way to understand a social phenomenon. For example, a researcher could conduct a *quantitative* survey to analyze the relationship between undergraduate university rankings and medical school entrance exam scores as well as a *qualitative* focus group with pre-med students about social factors impacting exam preparation to gain a more complete understanding of the preparation process for the exam. See Figure 33.1 for a summary of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research designs. **Figure 33.1** Types of research designs. Lesson 34.1 **The Components of Culture** 34.1.01 The Components of Culture To live cooperatively, societies develop a **culture**, or way of life, through shared customs and ideas. Culture encompasses many aspects of social life, including physical structures (eg, style of architecture, design of transportation systems) and typical practices (eg, rules of politeness, standards of dress, traditional diet). Individuals learn about their culture through experiences with others (eg, family, community, school), which allows culture to be transferred from one generation to the next. Sociologists have identified common components of culture, including values, beliefs, symbols, language, and rituals. Values and beliefs are two related concepts used to describe how shared ideas shape social life. **Values** are what a society holds as moral, desirable, or important. **Beliefs** are the ideas about what is true or sacred that help guide human behaviors. For example, in capitalistic societies, the value of wealth is prioritized as a sign of success and a good life. Individuals living in capitalist societies often also believe in meritocracy (ie, individual efforts and skills drive success) and act in ways aimed to achieve wealth as a sign of a successful life (eg, working two jobs to buy a bigger house). A shared understanding of symbols is needed to communicate meaning within a culture. A **symbol** is anything (eg, object, word, gesture) that represents or stands for something else (eg, a flag represents a country). The meaning of a symbol is specific to a culture and could have a different meaning in another culture. For example, the hand gesture made by forming an \"O\" with the index finger and thumb represents \"okay\" in U.S. culture but is an offensive symbol that represents contempt in Brazilian culture. One complex symbol system central to culture is **language**, which serves as the foundation for interaction in a society. Language includes all spoken, written, and nonverbal communication and relies on symbols to represent ideas. For example, the word \"physician\" uses letters to symbolize the idea of the medical occupation. A shared language system is also crucial for the transmission of culture (see Concept 34.3.05) through communication about beliefs and customs between members of society. Cultural practices are the behaviors that members of a society typically engage in, such as maintaining a gendered appearance (eg, certain clothing, hairstyles, grooming) or using customary greetings (eg, handshake, bow). **Rituals** are a type of cultural practice wherein individuals participate in traditional behaviors associated with a specific ceremony (eg, baptisms, bar mitzvahs, funerals) or celebration (eg, birthdays, holidays). For example, a marriage ceremony (depicted in Figure 34.1) is a ritual connected to customs and traditional behaviors that can vary across cultures. Chapter 34: Culture **Figure 34.1** Diversity in the components of culture in marriage ceremony rituals **Types of Culture** 34.2.01 Material versus Symbolic Culture Components of culture (see Lesson 34.1) can also be divided into two categories, material and symbolic culture, to differentiate between the objects and the ideas of a society, respectively (outlined in Table 34.1). Humans depend on tools and technology to sustain a way of life; **material culture** describes the *tangible* artifacts used by society such as toys, dwellings, art, and machines. These physical objects shape the way humans behave. For example, changes in communication technology, such as the shift in popularity of handwritten letters to phones calls, impact the ways humans interact with one another. Examining material culture can also help illustrate what is valued by society. For example, a microwave (ie, material culture) is a human-made tool used to prepare food quickly and reflects the importance of speed (ie, value of efficiency) in contemporary societies. In contrast, most of the components (ie, values, symbols, beliefs) that Lesson 34.1 describes are a part of **symbolic culture** (also called nonmaterial culture), which refers to the *intangible* elements of a culture. The symbols and beliefs of a culture shape how individuals engage with others. For example, beliefs about aging guide how a society interacts with its elderly members. Symbolic culture communicates shared meaning within society through knowledge systems (eg, symbols/language, religion), traditional stories (eg, historical accounts, folklore), and values (eg, \"pursuit of happiness\"). **Table 34.1** Differences in material and symbolic culture. Although material and symbolic culture are defined as two distinct categories, physical objects can also have symbolic meaning outside of the purpose or function of the object. For example, an automobile is an object of material culture because it is a tangible artifact used for transportation in society. However, the type of car an individual drives also carries symbolic meaning including the status of the brand (eg, economical or luxury), the value of patriotism (eg, international or domestic production), and/or beliefs about the environment (eg, gas-powered or electric). A screenshot of a computer screen Description automatically generated Chapter 34: Culture 190 34.2.02 Dominant Culture, Subculture, and Counterculture In small communities, the components of culture may be relevant and uniform for all individuals. However, in large societies, multiple cultures often exist together with a diversity of beliefs, symbols, and practices. The concepts of dominant culture, subculture, and counterculture are used to describe types of cultural variation (ie, differences) present within society (see Figure 34.2). The **dominant culture** includes the traditional set of values, beliefs, and rituals that define a society. Components of the dominant culture are widely accepted as mainstream and reflect the beliefs and practices of the most powerful groups in society. For example, although the United States does not have a national religion, Christianity can be seen as a part of the dominant culture. Symbols and rituals from Christianity are incorporated into other parts of society such as legal oaths taken on the Christian bible and public schools/businesses recognizing Christian celebrations as official holidays (eg, Christmas, Easter). One type of cultural variation is a **subculture**, which refers to a group of individuals whose values and practices generally align with the dominant culture but who also possess some *distinct* characteristics (eg, ways of speaking, attire, rituals). Members of subcultures tend to identify as a group and engage in activities recognized by others as different from the dominant culture. For example, the military is a subculture in the United States in which the values of the dominant culture (eg, freedom, democracy) are upheld, but the group has a distinct way of life (eg, uniforms, style of communication, power structure). Another type of cultural variation is **counterculture**, which refers to a subset of society that *opposes* and/or *rejects* the mainstream values and practices of the dominant culture. Sometimes countercultures operate independently and are isolated from mainstream society (eg, the Amish are a religious counterculture living separately from the dominant culture). Other times, countercultures work within a society with the goal of changing the dominant culture (eg, the antiwar movement of the 1960s was a counterculture opposing the Vietnam War, which was supported by the dominant culture).  A diagram of different methods Description automatically generated **Cultural Change** 34.3.01 Cultural Lag Cultural values and behaviors change over time and differ across societies. Technological innovation can occur quickly without allowing time for societies to make necessary adjustments (eg, the invention of automobiles came before the development of road safety laws). **Cultural lag** describes the time delay between rapid changes in material culture and slower changes in symbolic culture (see Concept 34.2.01 on material and symbolic culture), which can create social problems (eg, unsafe driving conditions before the implementation of traffic laws). For example, artificial intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing technology impacting many parts of society, including medicine (eg, symptom checker chatbots). Cultural beliefs about the appropriate use of AI technology are slower to change (ie, cultural lag), and many individuals question the consequences (eg, misdiagnosis, insecure patient data) of replacing human interaction with AI. 34.3.02 Culture Shock Each society has its own customs and routines of everyday life. When people travel or move to a new country, they may experience challenges while immersed in a different society. **Culture shock** (Table 34.2) involves feelings of disorientation, uneasiness, and even fear associated with the unknown culture. The causes of culture shock largely result from difficulty communicating due to language barriers and unfamiliarity with symbols, values, and/or customs. For example, differences in food customs (such as traditional diet, eating etiquette, timing of meals) may cause culture shock as an individual is exposed to a new culture and adjusts to that way of life. **Table 34.2** Elements of culture shock. **Characteristics** *Unpleasant emotions associated with new culture include:* Disorientation Anxiety Fear **Causes** *Difficulty communicating and understanding due to:* Language barriers Unfamiliar symbols, signs Different norms, values 34.3.03 Assimilation and Multiculturalism Geographic mobility (ie, moving between cities or regions within a country) and immigration (ie, moving from one country to another) create the presence of multiple cultures within the same society. To address cultural differences, societies engage in informal practices and develop formal policies or laws that either minimize or maintain cultural distinctions. Chapter 34: Culture 192 One approach to cultural differences is **assimilation**, which is the forced or voluntary process of cultural integration in which people adopt the values, symbols, and rituals of the dominant culture. Through assimilation, immigrant and/or subculture groups begin to resemble mainstream society, which reduces cultural distinctions. For example, if Indian immigrants who live in the United States replace their practice of Ayurveda (traditional Indian medicine) with biomedical (Western) treatments to cure an illness, they are engaging in assimilation. A contrasting approach to addressing cultural differences is **multiculturalism** (see Figure 34.3). Unlike assimilation, which results in adaptation to mainstream society, multiculturalism promotes the recognition and accommodation of cultures that differ from the dominant culture (eg, posting airport signs in multiple languages). The outcome of multiculturalism is a diverse society that advocates for the respect and protection of various cultures to coexist. For example, the variety of cultural clubs and activities on many college campuses reflects multiculturalism by encouraging the appreciation of cultural differences. **Figure 34.3** Assimilation versus multiculturalism. 34.3.04 Mass Media and Popular Culture Cultural *differences* are addressed by assimilation or multiculturalism, but sociologists also examine the cultural practices *common* to many people. **Popular culture** refers to the beliefs, trends, and behaviors that are widespread and relevant in a society. For example, in U.S. society, activities such as wearing jeans, watching superhero movies, and reading best-seller books are considered features of popular culture. Popular cultural trends and behaviors are often spread through **mass media** (eg, television, newspapers, the Internet), the social institution responsible for the communication of information within a society. For example, the promotion of a newly released movie on TV talk shows, commercials, and online platforms illustrates how mass media creates widespread appeal for the movie to establish a trend in popular culture.  Chapter 34: Culture 193 34.3.05 Transmission and Diffusion Culture can be transferred within and between societies (see Table 34.3). **Cultural transmission**, which describes the passing of cultural elements from one generation to the next, serves to stabilize the beliefs and behaviors of a society across time. Components of culture are transmitted within a society through education and socialization (Lesson 34.4 further explains this process), such as learning the national anthem in school. In addition, **cultural diffusion**, which is the spread of cultural elements from one society to another, expands the scope of culture through interaction between different societies. For example, the introduction of sushi (Japanese cuisine) in the United States illustrates the global spread of culture in which food customs are no longer tied to a specific group. **Table 34.3** Cultural transmission and diffusion. **Definition** **Example** **Cultural transmission** Passing on beliefs and behaviors from an older generation to a younger generation A child learns how to cook traditional cuisine from a parent. **Cultural diffusion** Spreading of culture from one group to another People in the United States celebrate Cinco de Mayo **Socialization** 34.4.01 Agents of Socialization Humans are social beings who typically live cooperatively, but to effectively interact with others, the specific components of how a society is organized and operates must be learned. **Socialization** is the mechanism societies use to pass elements of culture from one generation to the next. Through interactions and experiences with others, an individual gains cultural skills and knowledge required to be a member of society. Individuals experience significant interactions with **agents of socialization** that include the people, groups, and institutions who actively facilitate learning about social life (see Table 34.4). Relationships with family and/or caregivers are formed early in life and provide guidance on fundamental elements of culture such as typical behaviors, language, and core beliefs. Friends and peers often have similar life experiences and serve to either reinforce or contradict the values and practices taught by family. Schools and the workplace are institutions that also contribute to socialization by teaching standards of behavior (eg, working quietly) and cultural values (eg, respect for authority). The consumption of mass media content serves as another agent of socialization by shaping common knowledge, attitudes, and trends within a society. Recent changes in mass media, such as the proliferation of social media platforms, also provide new means of communication with other agents of socialization, such as family and friends. **Table 34.4** Agents of socialization. **Family** High degree of contact, especially early in life Provides earliest socialization, teaching norms, values, behaviors, etc. **Friends/peers** Usually similar age and life circumstances (eg, same neighborhood) High degree of contact, especially during adolescence May socialize in ways that confirm or contradict family values **School/workplace** Typically brings together many different types of people Standardized behaviors are taught and usually enforced (eg, arriving on time) **Mass media** Social institution that spreads information Helps shape attitudes and change cultural norms and values Provides new means of communication (eg, social media) Chapter 34: Culture 195 34.4.02 Primary and Secondary Socialization Socialization is an ongoing process that operates differently at various stages of the life course. **Primary socialization** refers to early childhood experiences in which individuals learn the necessary skills (eg, language) and worldviews (eg, cultural values, religious beliefs) to effectively participate in society. Family, peers, and schools are the common agents of socialization during this intense and extensive stage. Socialization also impacts how individuals adapt to changes in social positions. **Secondary socialization** occurs later in life when an individual learns to be a part of a new group or subculture (eg, medical school students learn the professional code of conduct for physicians). One type of secondary socialization is **anticipatory socialization** in which individuals prepare for changes in expected behaviors, such as attending a parenting class before having a child. Another type is **resocialization**, which occurs when an individual enters a new social environment, such as when joining the military, and must learn new cultural skills and behaviors **Types of Identities** 35.1.01 Self-Concept and Social Identity Within the behavioral sciences, **identity** refers to the way a person perceives themselves with regard to individual characteristics (eg, personal abilities such as singing), life experiences (eg, parenthood), and group membership (eg, belonging to a religious community). Two related yet distinct aspects of identity are self-concept and social identity. The way an individual thinks and feels about themselves is referred to as **self-concept** (ie, how to answer the question \"Who am I?\"). Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers posited that self-concept is a primary part of personality (see Lesson 26.2). On the other hand, **social identity** (also known as the social self or sense of self) describes how individuals perceive themselves as members of social groups (see Lesson 36.4). Social identities define individuals in relation to others and allow for social groupings around shared qualities and experiences such as family, occupations, and organizations. The identity and characteristics of the group can become incorporated into an individual\'s sense of self. For example, an individual may begin to see themselves as a \"Christian\" who is devout and faithful (ie, group characteristics) after experiences within a Christian church community. Individuals have multiple social identities (eg, parent, woman, surgeon), and the social situation helps determine the most relevant social identities. This allows for social identities to be flexible with the ability to change. The concept of **salience** describes the process of determining which identity is most important in the current social context. For example, the identity of \"student\" is salient (ie, most important) while attending medical school, but the identity of \"physician\" would become more important during residency. 35.1.02 Types of Social Identities Sociologists recognize different types of identities (also known as **social identity categories**) that have greater significance in society, including race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and class (see descriptions in Chapter 44). Like the impact of groups on social identity formation, common types of identities help provide a framework to develop a sense of self. For example, if an individual lives in a society where there is prejudice (Lesson 40.1) toward older adults (eg, older people are \"difficult to deal with\" and \"less physically capable\"), he may incorporate these negative beliefs into his sense of self as he ages. Social identity categories also help sociologists understand the patterns of experiences (see Chapter 44 on demographics) and systems of inequalities (Lesson 45.1) in society. For example, a sociologist could use types of identities to study the patterns of experience for women working in STEM (ie, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) professions, which, historically, have been male-dominated fields **Identity Formation** 35.2.01 Theories of Identity Development A number of psychological theories describe how certain aspects of an individual (eg, personality, cognition, morality) develop across the lifespan. Some of these theories are discussed elsewhere in this book; for example, Jean Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development is discussed in Lesson 20.1 on cognition. Two additional developmental theories, Erik Erikson\'s psychosocial theory and Lawrence Kohlberg\'s stages of moral development, are also important to consider in the context of identity formation. Each of the eight stages in **Erik Erikson\'s psychosocial theory** involves an age-related crisis or conflict, which is an opportunity for individual growth and social development. Resolution does not necessarily occur in each stage before an individual moves on to the next. However, Erikson believed that unresolved conflict forms the basis for adult psychopathology and other maladaptive behaviors. In order, the stages across the lifespan are: 1.**Trust versus mistrust**: Infants (0--1 year) with sensitive, attentive caregivers will develop a sense of trust; those with inconsistent care will not. 2.**Autonomy versus shame/doubt**: Toddlers (1--3 years) who are encouraged will develop independence; those who are scolded for failure will feel shame and doubt. 3.**Initiative versus guilt**: Children (3--6 years) who successfully interact with others will develop a sense of initiative; those who are criticized will experience guilt. 4.**Industry versus inferiority**: Children (6--12 years) who successfully develop new skills will feel industrious; those who are not encouraged will feel inferior. 5.**Identity versus role confusion**: Adolescents (12--20 years) who successfully interact with peers will develop a sense of self-identity; those who do not will experience role confusion. 6.**Intimacy versus isolation**: Adults (20--40 years) who can commit to and love others will develop a sense of intimacy; those who cannot will feel isolated. 7.**Generativity versus stagnation**: Adults (40--65 years) who successfully contribute to society will feel productive; those who do not will feel stagnant. 8.**Integrity versus despair**: Older adults (\>65 years) who feel accomplished will gain a sense of integrity; those who do not will feel depressed and hopeless. Another theory, **Lawrence Kohlberg\'s stages of moral development**, focuses on moral and ethical reasoning. Kohlberg\'s theory was developed from studies in which individuals were asked to respond to moral dilemmas. For example, Kohlberg asked participants to consider a scenario in which a man was unable to afford a medication that would save his wife\'s life. Participants were asked whether the man should steal the medication and, more importantly, *why* they thought he should (or should not) steal the medication. Based on the results, Kohlberg developed a model of moral development characterized by six stages (summarized in Table 35.1). At the **pre-conventional level**, morality is controlled by outside forces: individuals attempt to avoid punishment (Stage 1) and try to maximize an exchange of favors with others (Stage 2). At the **conventional level**, morality is defined by existing social norms and values: individuals want to be \"good\" and liked by others (Stage 3) and obey laws (Stage 4). At the **post-conventional level**, morality is based on universal moral principles: laws are viewed as flexible, considered in the context of helping the greatest number of people (Stage 5), and justice and human dignity apply universally to all people (Stage 6). Chapter 35: Identities and Identity Formation 198 Although Kohlberg stated that an individual progresses through the stages in sequence, he did not assign age ranges to the stages. Furthermore, Kohlberg asserted that most adults do not progress past Stages 3 or 4. **Table 35.1** Lawrence Kohlberg\'s stages of moral development. **Level** **Defined by** **Stage** **Moral reasoning** 1\. Obedience Avoiding punishment by authority *(eg, I\'m not going to steal because I\'ll get in trouble)* **Pre-conventional** *Direct consequences to the individual* 2\. Self-interest Expecting equal exchange to further own self-interest *(eg, I\'ll help you if you help me)* 3\. Conformity Wanting to be \"good\" to secure the approval of others *(eg, I\'ll do my homework so the teacher likes me)* **Conventional** *Society\'s norms and values* 4\. Law and order Obeying laws of society *(eg, I\'m not going to speed because it\'s against the law)* 5\. Social contract Maximizing benefit for the largest number of people *(eg, it\'s okay to break a law if it saves a life)* **Post-conventional** *Own ethical principles* 6\. Universal ethical principles Following own ethical principles of justice above all else *(eg, I take action against laws violating basic human rights)* 35.2.02 Influence of Culture and Socialization on Identity Formation In sociology, **identity formation** describes the process of synthesizing and integrating various types of identities (see Concept 35.1.02) into a unified sense of self, which is shaped by socialization and cultural context. To form a social identity (ie, perception of self in relation to others), an individual must interact within social groups and experience socialization (ie, learning to be a member of the group). An individual\'s social identity is shaped by interactions with agents of socialization (eg, family, peers, media, which are defined in Lesson 34.4) wherein other people provide information about the self (see Concept 35.2.03 for details on the role of social factors on identity formation). Chapter 35: Identities and Identity Formation 199 Every culture (Lesson 34.1) has a specific way of life, including definitions of social roles (eg, gender roles) and cultural practices (eg, rites of passage), which shape how an individual forms their identity. For example, individuals raised in more collectivist (ie, interdependent) cultures such as Japan tend to view their identity in terms of group membership, whereas those raised in more individualistic (ie, independent) cultures such as the United States tend to view their identity in terms of personal characteristics. 35.2.03 Influence of Social Factors on Identity Formation Sociologist George Herbert Mead suggested that there are two aspects of the social self, which emerge through interaction with significant others (eg, parents, siblings) who play formative roles in an individual\'s life. The **\"I\"** refers to the unsocialized, spontaneous self (eg, a child demands a toy instantly even though the parent is on the phone). The **\"Me\"** is the socialized, reflective self (eg, a child understands they need to wait until the parent is off the phone to ask for a toy). According to Mead, the \"I\" and \"Me\" aspects of the self develop in the following stages (summarized in Table 35.2): **Imitation**: Babies/toddlers mimic others (eg, a parent\'s hand gesture of waving \"goodbye\") and begin using symbols and language (eg, repeating a phrase used by a parent) without understanding the symbolic meaning of the words or behaviors. At this stage, children have no sense of \"self\" as separate from the world around them. **Play**: Through play (eg, pretending to be a doctor), preschool-age children begin **role-taking** (ie, understanding the perspectives of others). When children understand themselves as individuals separate from others, the \"I\" component of the self has developed. Children then begin to imagine how others perceive them, which is the beginning of the development of the \"Me.\" **Game**: School-age children become aware of their social position in relation to others (eg, understanding rules, positions, and strategies when participating in a game of baseball). They begin to see themselves from the perspective of the more abstract, **generalized other** (ie, broader societal expectations), further developing the \"Me\" to incorporate the values and rules of the society in which they live. **Table 35.2** George Herbert Mead\'s theory of the social self. **Stage** **Age** **Development process** **Aspects of self** **Imitation** Infancy, toddler **Imitation**: mimic the behavior of others No sense of self separate from others **Play** Preschool age **Role-taking**: taking on roles to understand the perspective of others \"I\" is developed and \"Me\" begins to develop **Game** School age **Generalized other**: holds an understanding of broader social expectations \"Me\" is fully developed Another theory about the influence of social factors on identity formation is the **looking-glass self**. According to Charles Cooley, interaction serves as a mirror (ie, looking glass) where the way an individual is perceived and treated by others is reflected in how they perceive themself. Identity develops through an individual\'s interpretation of what others think and feel about them. For example, if a student is viewed and treated as intelligent in most classroom experiences, these interactions can influence the incorporation of \"intelligent\" into their identity