Psychology and Sociology of Sport Past Paper December 2023 PDF

December 10^th^: In-class test {#section.TOCHeading} **Table of Contents** ===================== [Psychology 3](#psychology) [Introduction to Psychology 3](#introduction-to-psychology) [Hot topic \#1: 'Olympic and Paralympic Sporting Identities' 8](#hot-topic-1-olympic-and-paralympic-sporting-...

December 10^th^: In-class test {#section.TOCHeading} **Table of Contents** ===================== [Psychology 3](#psychology) [Introduction to Psychology 3](#introduction-to-psychology) [Hot topic \#1: 'Olympic and Paralympic Sporting Identities' 8](#hot-topic-1-olympic-and-paralympic-sporting-identities) [Hot topic \#2: 'Learning from the Lionesses' 13](#hot-topic-2-learning-from-the-lionesses) [Sociology 18](#sociology) [Introduction to Sociology 18](#introduction-to-sociology) [Hot Topic \#1: 'Olympic and Paralympic Sporting Identities' 22](#hot-topic-1-olympic-and-paralympic-sporting-identities-1) [Hot Topic \#2: 'Learning from the Lionesses' 26](#hot-topic-2-learning-from-the-lionesses-1) [Bringing Psychology and Sociology Together 27](#bringing-psychology-and-sociology-together) [Hot Topics \#1: \'Olympic and Paralympic Sporting Identities\' 27](#hot-topics-1-olympic-and-paralympic-sporting-identities) [Hot Topics \#2: \'Learning from the Lionesses\' 28](#hot-topics-2-learning-from-the-lionesses) [References 29](#references) [Exam criteria 29](#exam-criteria) ***Psychology*** ================ Introduction to Psychology -------------------------- **Psychology**: the study of the human mind   - -   [Schools of Thought]: groups of psychologists with [common beliefs]   - - - - - -     Focus of study - part vs whole: examining distinct elements of behaviour (e.g. perception of visual stimulus, emotions) VERSUS holistic approach to whole person \'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts'.    Methods of investigation:   - - -     CONSCIOUS vs UNCONSCIOUS   - -     NOMOTHETIC approaches:   - - IDIOGRAPIC approaches:   - -     **PSYCHOANALYSIS (FREUD)**    - - - - -   **[THE ICEBERG METHOD: ]**  FREUD\'S ICEBERG MODEL UNCONSCIOUS & CONSCIOUS CONSCIOUS MIND UNCONSCIOUS MIND - - -     Approach to sport:   -   **BEHAVIOURISM (WATSON) **    - - - - - -     **Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)**: the bell experience; it shows how a neutral stimulus (the bell) becomes conditioned (leads to a response) by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food). Another experience: little Albert (white rat and hammer response to fear)     **Operant Conditioning (Skinner)**: our behaviour is shaped by the environment.   Situation - Operant response - Consequences  Involves applying a reinforcement or a punishment after a behaviour.         **COGNITIVISM**    - - -   Behaviourism versus cognitivism.   - -     [Alternative viewpoint - Critics: ]  - - -   **HUMANISM**      - - - - - - -   -   -       [Humanism in Sport and Exercise]: Adopting this approach should allow the athlete to be an active participant in the process. Athlete centered approach. It should be **athlete-centred** and focus on the athlete **developing self-awareness**, **growth**, and **development**.   **Sports approach to Psychology**     [Key concepts:]  **Exercise psychology**: scientific study of the psychological factors that are associated with participation in exercise and other types of physical activity.    **Health psychology:** examines how biological, social and psychological factors influence health and illness. Health psychologists use psychological science to promote health, prevent illness and improve health care systems.      According to [Lombardo's **humanistic model** of coaching] (1999), the goals of the athlete should always take precedence over those of the coach.   - - - -   Example: Carlo Ancelotti\'s philosophy of coaching - \'Treat everyone as a person\', \'Winning system is comfortable players on the pitch\'    Example 2: how to apply psychological questions to a specific sport - Gareth Southgate  1. 2. \* Questions about individual (human) behaviour that cannot be answered through physiology / biology alone in the domains of sport and exercise.  - - - - Hot topic \#1: 'Olympic and Paralympic Sporting Identities' ----------------------------------------------------------- **Personality** - an individual\'s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour \ *(Funder 2013*).   Aims to identify, explain and predict individual differences between people.   Individual differences in personality have been associated with many important \ aspects of life (e.g., employment, relationships, sport performance)    **Personality types **(1) - -   **Phlegmatic **  **Choleric **  **Sanguine **  **Melancholic **  ------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------- An excess of phlegm   An excess of yellow bile  An excess of blood   An excess of black bile   Thoughtful, reasonable, calm, tolerable   Energetic, excitable, impulsive, restless  Lively, sociable, talkative, optimistic  Serious, moody, cautious, sensitive   Steady and faithful   Practical and strong-wiled  Artistic and care-free   Focused and conscientious      **Personality types **(2) - *Sheldon (1942)* assigned people to categories depending on their somatotype **Endomorphic** **Mesomorphic** **Ectomorphic** ------------------- ---------------------- --------------------------- Fat, soft, round Muscular, strong Long, thin, delicate Relaxed, sociable Energetic, assertive Introverted, intellectual   **Personality types **(3) - -       **Personality Trait approach (1)**: - Proposes several fundamental traits. - Each individual has different \'levels\' of each trait. - Differing levels make us think, feel and behave differently.     **Personality Trait approach (2)**: *Eysenck (1947)* proposed 'dimensions' of personality **Extroverts** **Introverts** **Neurotic individuals** **Stable individuals** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ Sociable, like parties, have many friends, need people to talk to, don't like being themselves Quiet, retiring, introspective, prefer their own company and have a few close friends. More likely to experience anxiety, anger, guilt, depression. More emotionally stable and less reactive to stress. Crave excitement, take chances, acts on the spur of the. Mistrusts impulse, is cautious are careful Respond poorly to stress and interpret ordinary situations as threatening. Remain calm and even-tempered regardless of the situation.    **Personality Trait approach (2)**: - Different to previous type-based approaches, the trait-based approach considers individuals who sit on the borderlines/ between types - These traits reflect consistent dimensions in previous theories The \'Big Five\'  +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | TRAIT DIMENSION  | ADJECTIVE ITEMS  | +===================================+===================================+ | \(1) Neuroticism   | Calm-worrying  | | | | | (negative emotions, e.g., | Secure-insecure  | | anxiety)  | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | \(2) Extraversion   | Timid-bold  | | | | | (positive emotionality)  | Quiet-talkative  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | \(3) Openness to experience   | Unadventurous-daring  | | | | | (versus closed minded)  | Conventional-original  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | \(4) Agreeableness   | Critical-lenient  | | | | | (versus antagonistic)  | Uncooperative-helpful  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | \(5) Conscientiousness   | Lax-scrupulous  | | | | | (versus undirected)  | Ignorant-knowledgeable  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+     **Identity** [Identity]: sense of who we are and how we are connected to a social world. *(Coakley, 2014)* Formed through our interactions with others. Dynamic and changes over time (and place). Influences our choices, actions, and relationships.    Personal identity is a person's self-image---to one's beliefs about the sort of person one is and how one differs from others. As we interact with multiple groups in multiple settings, we develop distinct components of our identity, known as **role identities.** [Role identities]: distinct components of our identity that we develop as we interact with multiple groups in multiple settings. Organized hierarchically within the self-concept according to salience.   - Provide a **self-definition.** - **Created** and **reinforced** through interactions. - **Given meaning** through interactions. - Provide a set of **expectations about behaviour.** - **Self-esteem** is based upon fulfilling these roles.   More salient roles:   - - - -     **Social identity: **  - Ethnicity   - Socio-economic status  - Gender  - Sex  - Sexual orientation  - National origin   - First language   - Physical, emotional, development (dis)ability.       **Athletic identity**    [Athletic identity]: the degree to which an individual identifies with the athlete role. *(Brewer, van Raalte, and Linder, 1993)  *  - - - - - -   *Stevenson (1990, 2002)*: examined the way in which athletes were introduced to their sport and the processes by which athletes became committed to their sport.     Initial involvement:   - - -   Deepening involvement:   - - -     **Foreclosed identity** (!): individuals who make commitments to roles without engaging in exploratory behaviour. *(Murphy, Petitpas, and Brewer, 1996)* (too focused on the sport, don\'t search for other activities outside the athlete life)     [Consequences]:   - - - - - -     Hot topic \#2: 'Learning from the Lionesses' -------------------------------------------- **Trait**: relatively stable dispositions which serve an explanatory role for individual differences in consistently observable behaviour (e.g. optimism, trait anxiety).     **States**: temporally based expressions of trait characteristics which may vary depending on time, context or situation (e.g. self-efficacy, state anxiety).     Elite level performers:   - -     **Personality traits (1)**: identification of stable personality traits which are aligned to elite performance is an attractive prospect.     *Gould et al. (2002)*  - - - - - - - Elite level performers:   - - - - Hope = a signature way of setting, seeking out, and achieving goals... - Optimism = general belief that positive things will happen and confront challenges with confidence and persistence... - Adaptive perfectionism = setting high personal standards (maladaptive = overly concerned with making mistakes, being criticised, etc.)... - Conscientiousness = being careful or diligent, a desire to do tasks well and take obligations seriously, often referred to as efficient and organised...     **Psychological states (1)**: rooted in trait characteristics but are also influenced by the \'environment'.   - - Ability to cope with and control anxiety.   - Confidence   - Mental toughness and resiliency   - Sport intelligence   - Ability to focus and block out distractions.   - Competitiveness   - A hard-work ethic   - Ability to set and achieve goals.  - Coach ability.  Consistent evidence that psychological factors are key contributors to the development of super-elite sports performance (emphasis on development, not selection).  Successful athletes tend to display higher/better:   - - - - [Role of environment and situational factors]: situational factors (e.g. social agents, task constraints) shape an athlete\'s development throughout the performance pathway by influencing the development and expression of psychological characteristics at each stage of the pathway.     [Support from Social Agents ]  - - - - - -   **Confidence**: \'the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behaviour\' *(Weinberg & Gould, 2015, p.324)  *   [Links from confidence to behaviour]   - - - - - -   **Theoretical Approaches to \'Confidence'(!): **Building upon the positive consequences of confidence, theories have focused on types of confidence and predictors of confidence.     1. - - - - - - - -     - - - - - -     **Links to Sport Performance **  \"The relationship between confidence and performance can be represented by the form of an inverted-U, with the highest point skewed to the right\"        As you can see from the graph presented, confidence and performance have an 'inverted-U' relationship. As confidence increases, so does performance. This continues to an 'optimal point', where confidence and performance are at their peak. However, if confidence continues to increase, we see performance begin to gradually decrease (typically because performers experience a loss of concentration and focus, therefore making more and more mistakes etc.)    2. - - - - -    \* (Vealey and Chase, 2008)* - - - - **Sociology** ============= Introduction to Sociology ------------------------- **Sociology**: social scientists try to make sense of societal components that are external to the individual yet greatly influence the ways people can interact in their social worlds.    - on sport:   - - - -     **Social theories:** provide a variety of perspectives or viewpoints through which we can understand the world. A generalisable, frame of reference for making sense of the world (Weick, 1979) - on sport - explores power relations, people\'s involvement and success in sport as performers. - **"**Sociologists of sport seek to critically examine the role, function and meaning of sport in the lives of people and the societies they form. In addition, they attempt to describe and explain the emergence and diffusion of sport over time and across different societies... Additionally, they [explore how the exercise of power and the stratified nature of societies place limits, and create possibilities, for people's involvement and success in sport as performers, officials, spectators, workers or consumers]" (Maguire, 2001, p. 681). **Functionalism**  - - - - - - - - - -     - Sport is not only a site or context where we see functionalist values in action, a microcosm of a functionalist society  - Think about team sports specifically. The coach decides on the tactics, chooses the players that start, instills values of defense, offense, communicates that to the team and then they go and perform their tasks. Individually which collectively impact upon the team with the aim of securing success. If there is a breakdown in this, for instance an injury, the substitute is ready to go, to fulfill a similar task with the same aim of securing success. We can even think about the role of the referee as an example of our societal institutions setting rules, norms and policing or governing these throughout the game. - Sport is also a key institution that passes on social norms, instills values and contributes to the consensus of our society. **Marxism/ Conflict theory** - Karl Marx (1818-1883) & Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) - Almost oppositional response to, and understanding of, the unrest and major revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. - Moved away from a focus on consensus, to exploring how societies come to be divided into groups/classes with unequal resources and relations of domination/control - Saw conflict and the breakdown of social order as necessary in order to transform the inequality and poverty understood as inevitable within capitalist relations. - Inequality and poverty as key catalysts for change rather than an inevitable outcome or natural outcome of stable and harmonious societies. Sport & Health: - The current sport system oppresses the lower class of society (including athletes) by promoting the interests of those in power. - Sport is problematic as the 'power' to change & develop sport does not rest in the hands of those who 'play it'. - Significant inequalities in terms of health outcomes between those on high, middle and low incomes - Increased public health focused on assumed economic resources as well as time. Privileges those with disposable income and leisure time at the expense of those on low incomes, living complex lives. **Critical Theory (!)** "Critical theory... questioning assumptions and power inequalities and examining social relations from an all-encompassing view... \[it\] is about understanding the relationship between power and knowledge... Drawing from the **critical paradigm**... examining social, political and historical processes and in understanding how these interrelate to form oppressive structures and social inequalities within a wider society. A characteristic of the critical paradigm is that it has a \"big picture\" or holistic approach that examines the nature of social relations" *(Culpan & Bruce, 2007, p. 3)* Critical theories are very sensitive to the idea that culture, ideology and power are always in flux. Because of this, critical theories do not begin with the assumption that society is a large, fixed system of integrated parts working towards equilibrium. CRITICAL THEORIES ASSUME THERE IS DISAGREEMENT, OPPOSITION, STRUGGLES FOR POWER AND DIFFERENT IDEAS ABOUT WHAT'S BEST FOR THE SOCIETY. **Explain how societies have come to be organized and structured and to inspire new ways to discuss, define and organize them.** **Critical Theorists ask** **a number of important questions:** - Whose ideas? Whose perspectives? - How are societies based on dominant ways of thinking/norms? What role do these norms serve? - When do societies become contested sites? What is the impact of this contest? (inspired by Coakley) Over the years, many social scientists and philosophers who rose to prominence and have adopted the goals and tenets of critical theory. We can recognize critical theory today in: - **Critical Disability Theory** - **Critical Race Theory** - **Feminist Theory** Hot Topic \#1: 'Olympic and Paralympic Sporting Identities' ----------------------------------------------------------- **(Social) IDENTITY **  **(age, class, gender and race) **  - - - - - - -   Identities are Multi-layered: [differently abled], social class, [gender], race, age, religion, ethnicity, sexuality.     IDENTITY: "The understanding of the self in relationship to an 'other'. Identities are social and thus are always formed in relationship to others...Identities are social and are produced through interactions, identities can change" *(Jarvie and Thornton 2012: 24)* Identities applied to \... 'Mega-events' are "large scale cultural (including commercial and sporting) events, which have a dramatic character, mass popular appeal and international significance" *(Roche, 2001)*. Importantly they are highly mediated, meaning they attract large-scale media attention and coverage, and they become a key site in the making and remaking of socially constructed identities... Facets of an individual's identity are often remarked upon, focused on and made visible in the mass mediated spectacle of a sporting event such as the Olympic and Paralympic games. Remember identities are temporal, changing and not fixed of stable. Certain sources of our identity may be more remarked upon, more prominent at different times and in different contexts.   **Critical Theory *(****Bohman, 2007)*   - - - - 1.   - - - - - -   The proportion of female athletes competing in Olympic Games: Paris 2024 - 50%, for the first time. Known as the \'equality games'.   (!) If sex is a biological concept, then gender is a social concept. It refers to the social and cultural differences a society assigns to people based on their (biological) sex. A related concept, gender roles, refers to a society's expectations of people's behaviour and attitudes based on whether they are females or males. Understood in this way, **gender is a social construction**. How we think and behave as females and males is not etched in stone by our biology but rather is a result of how society expects us to think and behave. These expectations are called femininity and masculinity. Femininity refers to the cultural expectations we have of girls and women, while masculinity refers to the expectations we have of boys and men. Irrespective of this there are still inequalities... Women across the lifespan do not participate in sport and physical activity in the name numbers as men. 1. The feminist movement that presents an on-going challenge to traditional gender roles & ideologies 2. Legal & political initiatives that have resulted in increased opportunities for women in sport (Title IX in USA and Equalities Act in UK) 3. The health & fitness movement which has raised awareness of the importance of physical activity Feminist perspectives focus on the way that even when active, women experience gender discrimination, particularly across media/ social media. They also consider the way that women experience increased threats of gender-based discrimination and violence that impact on sports participation. 2.   Critical disability theory adopts a version of the social model on the principles that:   - - - This forms the biopsychosocial model. The Critical Disability Theory version of the social model is the synthesis of the medical and social models which the World Health Organization calls the 'biopsychosocial model.' This approach balances [the contributions of impairment, personal responses to impairment and the barriers imposed by the social environment to the concept of disability.]     **Medical model:**     - - - - - **Social model: **    - - - -   **Biopsychosocial model: **    - - -     Hot Topic \#2: 'Learning from the Lionesses' -------------------------------------------- Critical theory:   - - -   **Feminist theories **  - - -   - a. b. c. **Critical Race Theory**    "Sports have been promoted as a way to improve race relations... Even today, as narratives about sport bringing people together circulate on television advertisements, a look past the surface reveals the reality of sport as a microcosm of race relations." *(Baker-Lewton et al., 2017 p. 1100)*       "What do critical race theorists believe? \... **First, that racism is ordinary... the usual way society does business, the common, everyday experience of most people of colour \[sic\]" ***(Delgado & Stefancic, 2001, pp. 6--7)  * - - - **Bringing Psychology and Sociology Together** ============================================== Hot Topics \#1: \'Olympic and Paralympic Sporting Identities\'  ---------------------------------------------------------------   [Psychology:]  - Identity is mainly conceptualised in terms of the processes by which individuals commit to meaningful life domains and, thus, arrive at a personal synthesis of different identifications and experiences.  - In terms of implication, most attention has been paid to the effects of identity processes on mental health and adjustment at the individual level (e.g., anxiety)    [Sociology: ]  - "The understanding of the self in relationship to an 'other'. Identities are social and thus are always formed in relationship to others...Identities are social and are produced through interactions, identities can change" (Jarvie and Thornton 2012: 24)  - In terms of implications, social identity has mainly been related to social and collective outcomes, such as intergroup attitudes and discrimination.    Hot Topics \#2: \'Learning from the Lionesses\'  ------------------------------------------------ Scenario 1: With Euro 2025 in Switzerland on the horizon, you have been appointed onto the coaching squad of the Lionesses. Considering the on-pitch, off-pitch & online nature of performance and fan engagement, what would you be advising a debutant for the England Lionesses to enhance performance and ensure their wellbeing during the tournament (including qualifying & main event) - Bandura self-efficacy model: - Verbal persuasion: encouragement + positive reinforcement - Vicarious experiences: show them other lionesses making their debut successfully if they can do it, I can do it. - Performance accomplishment: Euros 22 win - reminder of previous successes - Online: the attention of the media of a new player joining the Lionesses can get     Watch this campaign video for This Girl Can (2023). Now in small groups, you are going to rewind the clock and imagine that you are in the marketing team, preparing this campaign video. Using psychological theories of confidence and self-efficacy as well as Feminist Theory and Critical Race Theory, explain: - What barriers or obstacles need to be overcome in relation to women's sport and are represented in this video? The video addresses the lack of female representation and opportunity within Sports. The barrier to be overcome should be to include all types of women in the world of sport as they are. Representation and visibility are so important, to feel supported and included within that. - What strategies or approaches are recommended to help women in sport? Particularly minoritised women in sport? Female-only participation clubs, - How might a campaign like this impact on confidence and self-efficacy? Showing other women, the inspiring example of these women represented in the video, makes them increase their confidence and follow their example. The observation of mastery and success and creation of role models. - What are the strengths of this campaign and where might we make improvements next time? Showing all different types of women, including disabled women. Including affirmations like \'This Girl Can\' and \'You Can Do It\' that encourages them to believe and follow those affirmations.   **References** ============== ### **Sociology** *Daniel Wann, Merrill Melnick, Gordon Russell and Dale Pease, Sports Fans; The Psychology and Social Impact of Spectators (London: Routledge, 2001)* - Focuses on the premise that being a sports fan is based upon the concept of social identity, and that having such an identity as a sports fan results in a number of behavioral consequences. - We learn why we \'BIRG\' (bask in reflected glory) when our team wins, \'CORF\' (cut off reflected failure) after they have lost, and \'COFF\' (cut off future failure) before our team has even played. - The concept of Fandom is a social identity. **Social Impact:** - **Community Building:** Sports events can bring communities together, fostering a sense of shared identity and civic pride. - **Economic Impact:** Sports industries contribute significantly to local and national economies, creating jobs and generating revenue. - **Social Issues:** Sports can be a platform for addressing social issues such as racism, sexism, and inequality. However, they can also perpetuate harmful stereotypes and biases. - **Violence and Aggression:** Unfortunately, sports events can sometimes be associated with violence and aggression, both among spectators and athletes. *Heather Gibson (2005) Sport Tourism: Concepts and Theories. An Introduction, Sport in Society, 8:2, 133-141, DOI: 10.1080/17430430500101996* Drawing upon social identity theory they suggest that patterns of involvement in sport tourism should be examined in terms of the degree to which an individual identifies with an activity. For example, the more involved will exhibit different behaviors than the less involved. Likewise, the concept of identity is also linked to the idea of subcultures. Groups of individuals who share the same interest in an activity such as surfing or snow boarding often develop their own values, attitudes and norms. Chris Green and Ian Jones *[Earl Smith, Angela J. Hattery. 04 Aug 2015, Race and Sport from: Routledge Handbook of the Sociology of Sport Routledge]* This article discusses the impact of race on sports, emphasizing that race is a social construct influencing participation, access, and treatment of athletes. It explores themes of exclusion and individual/group aggression, particularly focusing on African Americans. The authors argue for the need to address these issues through structural changes and anti-racism measures to promote equity in Sports World. Key Insights: 1. **Social Construction of Race**: Race lacks a fixed definition and is shaped by societal beliefs and interactions. This understanding can lead to more informed discussions about race in sports and society. 2. **Themes of Exclusion**: Exclusionary practices have historically restricted athletes of colour from certain sports, reflecting broader societal inequalities. Addressing these barriers is crucial for inclusivity. 3. **Impact of Stereotypes:** Stereotypes about intelligence and physical ability contribute to the marginalization of minority athletes. Challenging these stereotypes can foster a more equitable sports environment. 4. **Role of the Census**: The evolution of racial categories in the US Census illustrates how societal perceptions of race can change over time, affecting identity and representation in sports. 5. **Need for Diversity in Coaching**: Structural barriers limit opportunities for minority coaches, emphasizing the need for initiatives like the Rooney Rule to promote diversity in sports leadership. 6. **Individual vs. Structural Aggression**: While individual acts of racism are harmful, the structural nature of exclusion has a more profound impact on minority athletes' careers and opportunities. 7. **Criminalizing Racism in Sports**: The authors propose that legal measures be taken against racially aggressive behaviour in sports to create a safer, more respectful environment for all athletes. *Robert C. Townsend, Brett Smith & Christopher J. Cushion (2015) Disability sports coaching: towards a critical understanding, Sports Coaching Review* Critical disability theory emphasizes the need to examine and challenge the underlying assumptions about disability that influence coaching practices. It advocates for understanding disability as a socially constructed phenomenon, rather than merely a medical issue, and encourages coaches to reflect on their beliefs and practices. By applying this lens, coaches can uncover and address the social, cultural, and political complexities that affect disabled athletes\' experiences in sports. - The paper critiques the lack of engagement between disability sports coaching and disability studies. - It emphasizes the importance of understanding disability through various models (medical, social, social relational, and human rights). - The authors argue for a critical examination of coaching practices and assumptions about disability. - They advocate for integrating disability studies into coaching education to enhance understanding and improve practices for disabled athletes. - The goal is to challenge existing norms and promote inclusive coaching environments. Central ideas and arguments made by this theoretical perspective: focused in sport coaching 1. **Social Construction of Disability**: Disability is viewed as a product of social structures and cultural norms rather than merely a result of physical impairments. 2. **Challenging Medical Model**: The theory critiques the dominant medical model that frames disability as a deficiency needing intervention, advocating instead for a focus on societal barriers and oppression. 3. **Power Dynamics**: It highlights the power relations that marginalize disabled individuals, emphasizing the need to recognize and address these inequalities within coaching and sports. 4. **Agency and Structure**: Critical disability theory reconciles the concepts of agency (individuals\' capacity to act) and structure (social norms and constraints), arguing that both influence the experiences of disabled athletes. 5. **Inclusive Practices**: The theory calls for the development of inclusive coaching practices that empower disabled athletes and challenge ableist assumptions in sports and coaching education. Applicating this theory in sports coaching: **Encouraging Reflexivity in Coaching**: Coaches and practitioners can use this perspective to reflect on their own beliefs and biases regarding disability, fostering a more inclusive and supportive environment for all athletes. *[Shane Aaron Miller (2010) Making the Boys Cry: The Performative Dimensions of Fluid Gender, Text and Performance Quarterly, 30:2, 163-182, DOI:10.1080/10462931003658099 ]* - Key Argument: Athletic performance allows girls to challenge traditional gender norms, promoting a fluid understanding of gender. - The essay posits that female participation in youth wrestling exemplifies the fluidity of gender, as it allows girls to engage in physicality traditionally associated with masculinity. - By analyzing the experiences of young female wrestlers, the author highlights how their athletic success challenges societal expectations of gender performance, demonstrating that strength and proficiency can coexist with femininity. - The work draws on feminist theorists like Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, and Rosi Braidotti to argue that gender should be viewed as a process rather than a fixed identity, thus enabling a broader understanding of how girls navigate and redefine their gender roles through sports. - Conclusion: Mixed-sex wrestling serves as a context for redefining gender roles, highlighting the complexities of identity in sports. - The essay concludes that co-educational youth wrestling provides a unique environment for testing and applying feminist theories on gender fluidity, revealing the complexities of identity formation in athletic contexts. - It suggests that while there are cultural resistances to nontraditional gender expressions, the performance of wrestling allows for a reimagining of gender norms, fostering a more inclusive understanding of gender. - Ultimately, the author advocates for recognizing the potential of sports as a platform for empowering girls and challenging entrenched gender binaries, emphasizing the importance of context in shaping gender identities. *[Ruth Jeanes (2011) 'I\'m into high heels and make up but I still love football': exploring gender identity and football participation with preadolescent girls, Soccer & Society, 12:3, 402-420, DOI: 10.1080/14660970.2011.568107]* - The article explores how football participation influences gender identity among preadolescent girls. - It highlights the increase in female football participation and its impact on traditional femininity. - Findings indicate that while girls enjoy football, their play is constrained by societal expectations of femininity, emphasizing appearance and behavior. - The study employs Judith Butler\'s theory of performativity to analyze how girls navigate and negotiate their identities within a patriarchal framework. - Ultimately, football does not serve as a liberating space for challenging gender norms. - It highlights the tension between participating in traditionally male-dominated activities, like football, and adhering to societal expectations of femininity, such as maintaining a slim appearance. - This analysis aligns with feminist theories, particularly Judith Butler\'s concept of performativity, which emphasizes how gender is constructed through repeated behaviours and societal pressures, ultimately revealing the complexities and contradictions within contemporary girlhood and femininity. - The girls in the study challenge performativity rules by engaging in activities traditionally deemed masculine, such as playing football, and by adopting behaviors that deviate from conventional femininity, like dressing in gender-neutral clothing and displaying aggression. They express a desire to embody multiple identities, oscillating between \"tomboy\" and \"girlie girl,\" which allows them some flexibility in their gender performances. However, their ability to fully transgress these norms is limited, as they still feel compelled to maintain a visual feminine identity to be accepted within societal expectations. (!!!!!) *[Marsha Saxton (2018) Hard bodies: exploring historical and cultural factors in disabled people's participation in exercise; applying critical disability theory, Sport in Society, 21:1, 22-39, DOI: 10.1080/17430437.2016.1225914]* The Disability Rights Movement is a social and political movement advocating for the rights and inclusion of individuals with disabilities in all aspects of society. It seeks to challenge stereotypes, eliminate discrimination, and promote accessibility in areas such as education, employment, transportation, and public accommodations. The movement has successfully fought for legal protections and policy changes, aiming to ensure that people with disabilities can fully participate in society and enjoy equal rights and opportunities. The Disability Rights Movement has made significant strides in promoting inclusion across various sectors, including architecture, transportation, education, and public accommodations. Despite these advancements, barriers to physical exercise remain pronounced, as they often highlight the personal nature of disability and can lead to internalized oppression. Addressing these barriers requires innovative and supportive approaches to encourage disabled individuals to participate in fitness, sports, and movement, ultimately fostering a sense of belonging and community. To achieve changes, the Disability Rights Movement employs various strategies, including: 1. Advocacy and Legislation: Activists work to influence policymakers to enact laws that protect the rights of individuals with disabilities, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in the U.S. 2. Public Awareness Campaigns: The movement raises awareness about disability issues through education, media campaigns, and community outreach to challenge stereotypes and promote understanding. 3. Grassroots Organizing: Individuals and organizations mobilize communities to advocate for their rights, often forming coalitions to amplify their voices and push for systemic changes in policies and practices. ### **Psychology** *[The role of Personality in Sport and Physical Activity] (Allen & Laborde, 2014)* Personality traits predict a number of performance markers in competitive contexts such as work and academia *(Poropat, 2009)*. Organised sport represents another competitive context in which some personality traits have been found to coincide with greater levels of success. For example, **athletes competing in national or international competition report higher levels of conscientiousness and lower levels of neuroticism** than do those competing in club or regional competitions *(Allen, Greenlees, & Jones, 2011)* and **athletes selected for the Paralympic Games report higher levels of tough-mindedness (a component of agreeableness) and lower levels of anxiety (a component of neuroticism)** than those not selected for the Paralympic Games *(Martin, Malone, & Hilyer, 2011).* **Longitudinal studies have also found that adolescent athletes with particular personality traits are more likely to progress to professional sport (Aidman, 2007**) and that adult athletes with high levels of conscientiousness or low levels of neuroticism have more successful performance statistics over the course of a competitive season *(Piedmont, Hill & Blanco, 1999)*. It has been found that sport participants with high levels of consciousness use better preparation strategies *(Woodman, Zourbanos, Hardy, Beattie, & McQuillan, 2010)*, take fewer reckless risks *(Merritt & Tharp, 2013)*, and use more effective coping strategies *(Kaiseler, Polman & Nicholls, 2012)* before and during athletic competitions. It has also been found that sport participants with high levels of extraversion or low levels of neuroticism respond to unsuccessful outcomes with more positive cognitive and emotional symptoms *(Allen, Greenlees, & Jones, 2014)* and that sport participants with high levels of agreableness or conscientiouness report more favorable relationships with their teammates *(Jackson, Dimmock, Gicciardi & Grove, 2010)* and coaches *(Jackson, Dimmock, Gicciardi & Grove, 2011).* (\...) personality traits cause some individuals to perform better or worse in athletic situations. However, it is also possible that athletic success, and the life changes that accompany this success, contribute to personality change. There is evidence from occupational settings that career success permeates personality change and, in particular, contributes to increases in levels of extraversion *(Le, Donnellan, & Conger, 2014)*. This is because success in occupational roles often accompanies changes in interpersonal activities (e.g. greater leadership behaviour) that might challenge personality stability in adulthood. Conscientiousness and neuroticism appear to be most important for athletic success, and these associations seem to mirror those observed in other performance contexts (e.g., academic and occupational success). Personality-trait dimensions also relate to interpersonal relationships in athletic duads and can predict athletes\' psychological states before, during and after competitions. *[The Early Careers of International Athletes] (Stevenson, 1990)* - How do athletes become athletes? - It can be seen that the athlete makes decisions to become involved in a given sport, and into all of the relationships this entails, based on a self-reflexive evaluation of the costs and benefits likely to result from that involvement. - These benefits and costs include those that may accrue from the opportunities for new relationships and role-identities that the new activity may provide, and those that continue from the ongoing relationships of which the involvement in the sport role is but one part. - Consequences of participating in sport roles: learning of moral principles and the acquisition of social competence, the development of a \'post-self\', and the staging of emotion. - Socialization into sport - \'sport identity\' - Concept of socialization: identity formation - interactionist recognizes the importance to this process of both the creation and the confirmation of identities - Athletic involvement - viewed as a career: has a beginning, development, and ultimately an end. - The individual\'s initial involvement in a sport role occurs by means of three key processes - seekership, recruitment, and closure - Individual\'s processes in continuing involvement in a sport role: conversion, commitments, activity entanglements, embeddedness in the social life, and reputations and identities. - The athlete is seen as actively making these career related decisions and choices as a part of his or her ongoing work of creating and confirming those identities he or she perceives to be valued and desirable. The investigation and analysis - Purpose of the research: investigate the early stages of the careers of selected international athletes - the concern was to examinate: - The ways in which these athletes were introduced to the sport in which they would later achieve international status - The processes by which these athletes became committed to their sport 1. Introduction to Their Sports - **\'Sponsored recruitment\'**: others being willing to support the athlete\'s involvement in a sport or providing opportunities that encouraged the athlete\'s involvement. Through sponsorships like these, provided by [parents] (significant role for most) [ ] , siblings, friends, and others such as relatives, teachers, coaches, and neighbours, that the majority of these athletes were first introduced to their sport. - The effects of gender on these patterns of introduction to sport are of course important. On the one hand, the influence of gender was apparent as mothers introduced their daughters to field hockey and fathers introduced their sons to rugby. - **\'Seekership**\': the striving to achieve a goal or satisfy a need by becoming involved in a specific sport. - This process of seekership did not appear to be significant to these athletes introductions. They did not seem to have initiated their involvement in their sport because of any prior seeking for these sports. - The more influential that a significant other was for the athlete at a particular stage of life, the more likely the athlete would develop a specific seekership for that \'other\'s\' sport preference. The parents were the most effective sponsors early in the athlete\'s life. The younger the athlete and the more direct the parent\'s influence toward a specific sport, the more likely the athlete would develop a specific seekership for that sport. *[Personality in sport: a comprehensive review (]Allen, Greenlees & Jones, 2013)* - Personality: core element on most taught sport and exercise psychology programmes - Habit: key factor influencing development and success in sport - Personality: \'psychological qualities that contribute to an individual\'s enduring and distinctive patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving - Two main approaches to the assessment of personality: - Type-based: categorise an individual as one type or another - Trait-based: position an individual on a series of bipolar linear continua - achieved a consensus on general taxonomy of personality traits: the \'big five\' personality dimensions. - The **five personality dimensions**: extraversion, neuroticism, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness - **Extraversion**: assesses the quantity and intensity of interpersonal interactions - **Neuroticism**: assesses to degree to which individuals are prone to emotional instability and includes facets of anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness and vulnerability. - **Openness**: assesses individuals\' tendency to seek out new experiences - **Agreeableness**: assesses individuals\' concern for cooperation and social harmony - **Conscientiousness**: assesses organisation and goal-directed behaviour - Performance in both work and academia is determined by factors related to capacity and willingness to performed - governed by personality. - Recently, athletes competing in national or international competitions have been found to have lower levels of neuroticism and higher levels of conscientiousness and agreeableness than athletes competing in club or regional competitions. - It is not surprising that personality test scores have struggled to predict short-term (single-game) success since a single moment of bad luck, an unexpected event or a poor decision by an official can alter the outcome of a competition dramatically. Therefore, in order to identify whether personality has any meaningful short-term effects, researchers have begun to explore how personality dimensions relate to behaviours associated with success in sport. - For instance, a recent study of British gymnasts demonstrated that conscientiousness was positively associated with athletes' quality of preparation in the lead-up to competition and emotional stability was positively associated with effective coping during competition. - Studies show that athletes with low levels of agreeableness, extraversion and/or emotional stability are more prone to aggressive behaviours, athletes with low levels of openness and/or emotional stability are more prone to using avoidance coping strategies, and athletes with high levels of conscientiousness, extraversion and/or emotional stability are more prone to using problem-focused coping strategies. - Studies have consistently demonstrated that team sport athletes have different personality characteristics to individual sport athletes, most often differing on facets of extraversion (team sport athletes show greater levels of extraversion and lower levels of conscientiousness than individual sport athletes). - There is considerable practical as well as theoretical value in being able to statistically predict athletic behaviour. In addition to being able to select (or deselect) appropriate persons to fit the needs of a team (or a particular competition), understanding personality can help coaches and practitioners to identify athletes requiring greater support during important personal or career transitions. - If personality can affect how athletes respond to positive or negative emotions, this information has important consequences for the emotional control strategies targeted toward certain groups of athletes. - By creating awareness that coaches and athletes are susceptible to such personality clashes it becomes possible to develop intervention strategies that support relationships if and when these conflicts arise. This can also help individuals to communicate and interact more effectively with their teammates and prevent members from adopting tendencies that might conflict with those of other team members. *[Identity Foreclosure, Athletic Identity, and Career Maturity in Intercollegiate Athlete] (Murphy, Petitpas & Brewer, 1996)* - Identity development necessitates an active exploration of possible roles and behaviours, followed by a commitment to the occupational and ideological options that are most consistent with an individual\'s values, needs, interests, and skills. - It has been proposed that the commitment and exclusive dedication necessary to excel in sport may restrict student-athletes\' opportunities to engage in exploratory behaviour, which is critical for subsequent personal and career identity development. - individuals who make commitments to role without engaging in exploratory behaviour are said to be in a state of [identity foreclosure]. - Foreclosure: may be brought on by the demands and expectations of the environment or may be a result of individual choice. - Characteristics of foreclosed men - authoritarian, immature in moral and ego development, low level of autonomy, and external locus of control. - [Athletic identity]: consists of the cognitive, affective, behavioural, and social concomitants of identifying with the athlete role. - It has been suggested that many student-athletes either lack the time or interest to do career planning or view it as a threat to their athletic identity and their dream of being a professional athlete. - Athletic identity has been inversely related to post sport career career planning before retirement from elite amateur sport and ease of adjustment following sport career termination. Athletic identity also has been shown to be positively associated with identity foreclosure. *[The role of confidence in world-class sport performance, Journal of Sports Sciences.] (Hays, Thomas, Maynard, & Bawden, 2009)* - Significant correlation between self-confidence and successful sporting performance (Feltz, 2007) - Vealey: provided the first model of sport confidence in 1986 in an attempt to develop a sport-specific framework and inventories to operationalize confidence in competitive sport. - Twofold model: first, it provided an organizational framework from which meaningful extensions to the literature could be generated, and second, the model served as a foundation from which interventions designed to enhance confidence in athletes could be developed. - **The integrative model of sport confidence (Vealey 2001)** predicts that organizational culture (e.g. competitive standard, motivational climate, and the goals and structural expectations of sport programmes) and the personality characteristics, attitudes and values of individual athletes influence the development, as well as the three domains they use to source confidence (achievement, self-regulation and social climate). Subsequent levels of sport confidence then influence an athlete\'s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, which determine sporting performance. - Sport confidence: viewed as critical to human functioning and sport performance. - Confident individuals tend to be more skilled and effective in using cognitive resources necessary for sporting success. - Bandura and Wood (1989): showed that confident individuals remain task diagnostic by focusing on process solutions to problems in the face of obstacles, whereas less confident individuals are more likely to become self-diagnostic and focus on their perceived inadequacies. - Recent investigations within the stress domain have found self-confidence to be a moderating factor in the interpretation of pre-competition symptoms, where high confidence in some way protects or overrides debilitative interpretations of pre-competition emotions usually perceived as negative (i.e. anxiety). Athletes seem to compete exceptionally well when they are feeling both anxious and confidence. - Confidence has also been linked to productive achievement behaviours such as increased effort and persistence. - Bandura, 1986: a strong sense of confidence has been associated with the setting of challenging goals and the expenditure of maximal effort and persistence to achieve those goals. - Research proved that female world-class athletes tend to be situationally dependent on external information in establishing performance expectations. - Vealey (1998) suggested that athletes who derive their confidence from uncontrollable sources could develop weaker or unstable perceptions of control and competence. - Research also showed that although male athletes generally demonstrate greater confidence than female athletes, they are also less susceptible to changes in self-confidence during the pre-competition period. - When confidence was low, nerves were perceived as negative and interpreted as fear, panic, worry, and/or anxiety. In contrast, when sport confidence was high, the athletes interpreted their nerves positively and felt excitement rather than fear. - Athletes are more likely to make bold or decisive movements because they believed in their ability to perform successfully. In contrast, when the athletes were experiencing low sports confidence, they doubted in their ability to execute their skills and thought they could be beaten. - The athletes\' sport confidence were directly related to the sources of sport confidence identified by Hays (2007). For example, poor performances, poor preparation, poor coaching, and illness/injury demonstrate a lack of physical and mental preparation, performance accomplishments, and coaching sources of sport confidence. *Paul D. Saville & Steven R. Bray (2016) Athletes' Perceptions of Coaching Behavior, Relation-Inferred Self-Efficacy (RISE), and Self-Efficacy in Youth Sport, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 28:1, 1-13, DOI: 10.1080/10413200.2015.1052890* Self-efficacy is defined as one\'s belief in their capabilities to organize and execute actions required to achieve specific goals. It has been extensively studied in sport psychology, showing a strong correlation with enhanced effort, persistence, and performance among athletes. Key determinants of self-efficacy include mastery experiences, verbal persuasion, vicarious experiences, and physiological/emotional states. Coaches can apply self-efficacy theory by providing mastery experiences through challenging yet achievable tasks that build athletes\' skills and confidence. They should use verbal persuasion, offering positive reinforcement and encouragement to enhance athletes\' beliefs in their capabilities. Additionally, coaches can create a supportive environment that fosters vicarious experiences, allowing athletes to learn from observing peers\' successes, thereby strengthening their self-efficacy. Self-efficacy theory can be used to understand how individuals\' beliefs in their capabilities influence their motivation, behaviour, and persistence in various life domains, such as education, work, and health. At a societal level, fostering a culture that promotes self-efficacy through supportive environments, positive feedback, and role models can enhance collective motivation and achievement. By recognizing the importance of self-efficacy, policymakers and educators can design interventions that empower individuals, leading to improved outcomes in community engagement, productivity, and overall well-being. Young athletes deal with self-efficacy theory applications by interpreting feedback from coaches, peers, and parents, which influences their beliefs about their abilities. They often rely on verbal encouragement and observed successes of others to build their self-efficacy, especially when they struggle to assess their performance objectively. Additionally, supportive coaching behaviors and positive reinforcement help young athletes develop a stronger sense of self-efficacy, leading to increased motivation and persistence in their sports activities. *Chen, Steve; Snyder, Shonna; and Magner, Monica (2010) \"The Effects of Sport Participation on Student-Athletes' and Non-Athlete Students' Social Life and Identity,\" Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics: Vol. 3: Iss. 1, Article 10.*\ *Available at: * Sport participation significantly influences one\'s identity by fostering a strong athletic identity, which is linked to health benefits, self-esteem, and social relationships. It can also lead to a heightened sense of commitment and belonging within a sport, although it may cause individuals to neglect other life aspects. Additionally, athletic identity can vary based on factors such as gender and the nature of the sport (individual vs. team). Having an athletic identity can negatively impact one\'s social life by leading individuals to prioritize their athlete role over extracurricular activities and friendships, potentially resulting in social isolation. However, some athletes manage to balance their athletic commitments with social interactions, maintaining healthy relationships. Overall, the degree of social impact varies among individuals and can be influenced by the support systems in place. Athletic identity foreclosure occurs when an athlete strongly identifies with their athletic role without exploring other personal identities or life paths. This can lead to an overemphasis on sports, resulting in potential negative consequences such as social isolation, mental health issues, and difficulties in transitioning away from sports. Athletes experiencing foreclosure may struggle to adapt to life after their athletic careers, as they have not developed a broader sense of self beyond their sport. The research indicated that athletic identity foreclosure impacted participants by influencing their perceptions of the benefits and drawbacks of athletic participation. Student-athletes often reported a strong commitment to their athletic roles, which could lead to both positive outcomes, such as enhanced self-esteem, and negative consequences, like social isolation and neglect of academic responsibilities. The study highlighted the need for support systems to help student-athletes navigate their identities and mitigate the risks associated with foreclosure. *Piepiora, P. (2020) "A review of personality research in sport", Pedagogy and Psychology of Sport, 6(4), pp. 64--83. doi: 10.12775/PPS.2020.06.04.007.* Personality traits influence sports by affecting athletes\' performance, decision-making, and coping strategies under pressure. Traits such as low neuroticism, high extraversion, and conscientiousness are associated with better performance and interpersonal relationships in sports. Additionally, specific traits can predict success in different sports disciplines, shaping how athletes respond to competition and stress. Athletes can leverage an understanding of personalities to enhance team dynamics, improve communication, and tailor training approaches to individual strengths. By recognizing their own personality traits and those of their teammates, athletes can develop effective coping strategies for stress and competition. This knowledge can also guide coaches in creating personalized training regimens that align with each athlete\'s psychological profile, ultimately leading to better performance outcomes. Coaches can leverage their understanding of athletes\' personalities to tailor training approaches, enhance motivation, and improve communication. By identifying individual strengths and weaknesses, coaches can create personalized development plans that align with each athlete\'s traits. This knowledge also helps in fostering team dynamics, as coaches can assign roles and responsibilities that suit each player\'s personality, ultimately leading to better performance and cohesion. Using the theoretical perspective of personality traits, we can better understand individual behaviors and societal dynamics by examining how traits influence interactions, decision-making, and group cohesion. This framework allows for insights into how personality shapes social roles, cultural values, and collective behaviors, providing a basis for predicting responses to social norms and pressures. Additionally, understanding personality at a societal level can inform interventions and policies aimed at promoting well-being and enhancing community engagement. *Schinke, RJ, McGannon, KR, & Smith, B (eds) 2016, Routledge International Handbook of Sport Psychology, Taylor & Francis Group, Oxford.* 1. Performance Prediction: Personality traits, particularly from the Big 5 model, can predict athletic performance, with traits like conscientiousness positively influencing performance and neuroticism negatively affecting it. 2. Coping Strategies: Understanding personality helps identify how athletes cope with stress and pressure, as different traits are associated with varying coping mechanisms, impacting their emotional responses and performance under pressure. 3. Tailored Coaching: Recognizing individual personality differences allows coaches and practitioners to customize training and motivational strategies, optimizing athletes\' performance by aligning approaches with their unique psychological profiles. Comparing group versus individual athletes on personality scales does not contribute meaningfully to understanding how personality affects performance, as it lacks theoretical and practical value. To enhance the understanding of the personality-performance relationship, research should focus on interactions, such as person-environment dynamics or interactions among different personality facets, rather than just main effects. Emphasizing the individual athlete\'s psychological profile, rather than solely their athletic identity, will deepen insights into the psychological processes that drive optimal performance in sports. *Williams, J 2020, Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Perf Ise, McGraw-Hill US Higher Ed ISE, New York. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. \[3 December 2024\].* - Psychological Skills: Research has focused on identifying the psychological skills that differentiate successful athletes from less successful ones, revealing that high self-confidence, effective imagery use, and anxiety control are key factors. - Measurement Tools: Various questionnaires, such as the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport and the Test of Performance Strategies, have been developed to assess these skills, consistently showing that elite athletes utilize similar mental strategies. - Common Skills: Successful athletes commonly employ skills like imagery, attentional focusing, concentration maintenance, positive self-talk, and goal-setting, which contribute significantly to their performance levels. This chapter began with the questions "Is there an ideal body--mind state associated with peak performance?" and "If so, is this ideal state similar from one athlete to another or from one sport to another?" Across a wide range of sources, a certain psychological profile appears to be linked with successful athletic performance. Although there are individual variations, in most cases this general profile is depicted by the characteristics listed in Table 9-1. This ideal performance state does not just happen. Top-level athletes have learned to create and maintain this state so that their talents and physical skills thrive. Additionally, successful athletes have strong support networks that include their families, friends, teammates, and coaches. Having high team cohesion, good communication and relationships with coaches, and minimal organizational stress also are associated with elite performances Psychological skills are learned through knowledge and practice, just as physical skills and competitive strategies are learned. Some gifted athletes may perfect these mental states on their own, but most need to be taught specific training techniques. The remaining chapters in this section of the book provide techniques for creating and maintaining desirable mental and physiological states. Just as improving physical skills, strategies, and conditioning increases the likelihood of peak performance, learning to control psychological readiness and the ideal mental climate for peak performance also enhance performance **Exam criteria** ----------------- In-class test information - Could be summative or formative. - Essay tests: short form essays - Time-limited - Computer-based: ON MOODLE - Depth analysis - Expecting wider readings - Creativity - 3 sections: 1- Psychology; 2- Sociology; 3- Both together - Open 10th December from 09:15 to 17:15 (latest start time: 15:00) - Feedback: 24th January - 2 hours and 15 minutes to complete the test.   - Criteria: - Reading and research: knowledge and understanding of relevant ideas and methods - Inclusion of definitions/theories relevant to the question - Evidence of reading from multiple, appropriate sources including core research (i.e. covered in class) and independent reading. - Effective use of reading to inform and support the answer. - Analysis and Synthesis - Evidence that the question has been understood and answered. - Effective application of theory/ research to answer the question. - Demonstration of understanding through the integration of examples from sport - Communication - Structure of the answer is clear and logical. - Conceptual language and terminology are deployed accurately.   - Week 1 and 2: terminology important - Submit each page. - Can be taken at home or at lecture hall 11:00-14:00 - Plan - write - review (30 minutes)   Sociology: critical disability theories, critical race and feminism Gender fluidity, gender as a social construct, looking to overcome women\'s oppressions over patriarchy.