Psychology Standard 11th Textbook PDF

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune 84.00 The Coordination Committee formed by GR No. Abhyas - 2116/(Pra.Kra.43/16) SD - 4 Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on...

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune 84.00 The Coordination Committee formed by GR No. Abhyas - 2116/(Pra.Kra.43/16) SD - 4 Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 20.6.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-20. Psychology STANDARD ELEVEN Download DIKSHA App on your smartphone. If you scan the Q.R. Code on this page of your textbook, you will be able to access full text. If you scan the Q.R. Code provided, you will be able to access audio-visual study material relevant to each lesson, provided as teaching and learning aids. 2019 Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune. First Edition : © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune - 411 004. 2019 The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Reprint : 2020 Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director, Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004. Psychology Subject Committee Illustrations and cover Dr. Shirisha Sathe (Chairperson) Smt. Madhura Pendse Dr. Naik Manisha Ramesh Translation Coordinator Dr. Badgujar Jitendra Pralhad Shri. Ravikiran Jadhav Shri. Bedarkar Pritamkumar Chandrakant Special Officer (Geography) Dr. Kumavat Sujit Dhanraj Shri. Ravikiran Jadhav, Member - Secretary Typesetting Nihar Graphics, Mumbai Paper Psychology Study Group 70 GSM Creamwove Smt. Dabholkar Anita Ramakant Print Order Shri. Punwatkar Anil Yashawant Shri. Mallade Shantinath Neminath Printer Shri. Shimpi Ramprasad Sukadev Shri. Deshmukh Ananadrao Shashikant Smt. Shaikh Nafeesa Begum Ghulam Jilani Production : Shri. Pardeshi Suresh Brijlal Shri Sachchitanand Aphale Smt. Jadhav Sneha Santosh Chief Production Officer Shri. Joshi Jeevan Dhondiram Shri Liladhar Atram Shri. Abhang Lalasaheb Mahadeo Production Officer Smt. Bapat Ashwini Subhash Publisher : Shri Vivek Uttam Gosavi Controller Chief Co-ordinator Maharashtra State Textbook Smt. Prachi Ravindra Sathe Bureau, Prabhadevi, Mumbai - 400 025 NATIONAL ANTHEM  Preface Dear students, Welcome to eleventh standard. Congratulations on successfully completing your secondary school education. We are extremely glad to place this Psychology textbook in your hands as you take your first steps towards higher secondary education. Psychology is primarily a study of the human mind, brain and behaviour. Whenever a person engages in any act or thought, what exactly happens in his / her brain? In a given situation, why does one individual behave differently from another? How do emotions and thoughts affect human behaviour? What leads to the development of mental illnesses? What are some of the reasons and remedies behind mental illnesses? These are some of the questions that Psychology tries to answer. Every individual feels the need for guidance, advice at some stage in his/her life. Also the stressful lifestyle of our times creates many problems for us. In these times, a Psychologist or a counsellor or a guide can empower people to deal with these challenges. Currently, the field of Psychology has many different career opportunities. Even if Psychology is classified under social sciences, it comes close to the basic Sciences in many ways. Case studies and surveys are emphasised in Psychology. The counselling process changes with every individual case and the issues concerned. This is a field where a lot of responsibility rests on the shoulders of the counsellor since any intervention directly affects human well being. The study of Psychology involves both - theory and practical. Conducting surveys, practical hands-on experience through internships, completing research projects is also a part of studying Psychology. Psychological tests, theories, mental illnesses and remedies, research methodologies are some of the topics to be studied. Since you are being formally introduced to this subject for the first time, the textbook has been designed to provide you more clarity about the scope of the field of Psychology. You will be required to complete different activities as part of the course. We urge you to complete these activities in all seriousness. They will certainly help you to achieve a deeper understanding of the concepts. The textbook also includes plenty of small tasks. These tasks are designed to stimulate your thought process. Carefully complete all the tasks. Seek help from your teachers, parents and peers whenever necessary. You are of course very well versed with the use of smartphones and computers. You can also refer to the resources available online to supplement the textbook. Let us know your feedback about the textbook - especially the parts that you liked the most or the ones you found difficult to understand. Wish you all the best for your future educational journey ! Pune (Dr. Shakuntala Kale) Date : 20 June 2019 Director Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Bharatiya Saur : 30 Jyeshtha 1941 Production and Curriculum Research, Pune  Statement of Learning objectives : Psychology This chapter aims at facilitating students to Sr.No. Units Learning objectives 1. Story of 1. know how Psychology has evolved as an important subject to understand Psychology human behaviour. 2. understand the basic concepts related to human behaviour. 3. understand the goals of Psychology. 2. Branches of 1. know about and understand difference between theoretical and applied Psychology branches of psychology. 2. acquire knowledge about applications of various branches of psychology in real life. 3. Self 1. develop an understanding about the concept of Self. 2. understand how does the concept of one’s self develop. 3. know the significance of self awareness, self image, self efficacy and self esteem. 4. identify the ways of self regulation. 5. understand Rogers theory of self. 4. Human 1. know what is human development. Development 2. understand human development and other parallel concepts. 3. understand the stages of human development with specific characteristics, problems and developmental tasks at each of them. 4. relate the principles of development in day to day life. 5. Healthy Me - 1. develop an understanding about Normal and Abnormal Behaviour. Normal Me 2. understand the criteria of normal and abnormal behaviour. 3. develop an understanding of Emotional Intelligence. 4. identify the problems faced by adolescents in general. 6. Stress 1. develop understanding of stress. 2. know the different types of stress. 3. know the sources and effects of stress. 4. identify the sources of stress from day to day life. 5. understand the different coping strategies. 7. Nervous 1. understand the human Nervous System. System 2. understand the structure and functions of the neuron. 3. understand the important parts of the brain and the spinal cord. 4. understand the functions of the endocrine glands. 5. understand the behavioural implications of the endocrine functioning. 8. Memory 1. understand the process and nature of memory. 2. understand the various methods of measuring memory. 3. understand the various causes of forgetting. 4. understand the strategies of improving memory and relate the same to day to day experiences.  For Teachers Dear Teachers, We have been given the opportunity to introduce the subject Psychology to the students of eleventh standard. This text book has been designed to fulfil the following objectives in eleventh and twelfth standard- 1. Students should understand why is Psychology classified as a branch of Science. 2. Students should understand how are matters concerning our daily life studied under this subject. 3. Students should understand the concept of ‘self’, how it applies to them personally and how could it be developed. 4. Students should be able to apply the techniques which they learn in this course in their day-to-day life; for instance, techniques to remember what is read. 5. Students should feel motivated to pursue higher education in the field of Psychology and make a career for themselves in it. To enable us as teachers to achieve the above mentioned objectives, we must keep in mind a few important points. We must ourselves go through and study the entire textbook. The main aim of the textbook for 11th and 12th standards, is introduction to Psychology. Therefore, the syllabus is divided into four core themes. 1. History and scope of Psychology 2. The concept of self 3. Mental health 4. The nervous system: structure, function and relevance to everyday life experience The book is so organised that the foundation of these themes is laid in eleventh standard whereas the themes are explored in greater details in twelfth standard. Therefore mentioned four themes would remain same in both the years. Though the concepts of ‘perception’ and ‘attention’ have been introduced to the students in lower classes, the topic of memory is very appealing to both - the students and adults alike. Thus it has been included in the text of eleventh standard. The level of difficulty of the text and the suggested activities has been decided after carefully considering the resources accessible to the students and teachers, variation in their experiences and ability to grasp different concepts as well as the resources available to the teachers. Even then, it is possible that some students may find the book too easy whereas others may find it too difficult. Here, the teacher has an important role to play. The teacher needs to facilitate the difficult concepts and provide higher challenges if they are found to be too easy and preliminary. This can be done by referring the students to appropriate resources or setting challenging activities for them to complete. Plenty of examples of poems or suggestions of movies or activities or experiments have been provided in the textbook. The teacher can use them at her discretion and choice. However, it should be ascertained that students have understood the concepts for which the material and method have been suggested in the first place. The teachers should use QR codes given in the textbook whenever possible. The teacher can of course use resources above and beyond those suggested in the textbook. We are all aware of the wide scope of the subject of Psychology. No textbook, however well written can claim to be complete. We all know that a textbook is always just a medium or an instrument towards an end. We hope that you enjoy learning as well as teaching the subject and that the students find the subject challenging, meaningful and interesting too.  Index Sr. No. Chapters Page No. 1. Story of Psychology 1 2. Branches of Psychology 11 3. Self 22 4. Human Development 33 5. Healthy Me - Normal Me 45 6. Stress 61 7. Nervous System 75 8. Memory 87  1 Story of Psychology 1.1 Introduction 1.3 What is behaviour? 1.2 The History of Psychology 1.4 Study of Cognition 1.2.1 Study of consciousness 1.5 Psychology : Indian Perspective 1.2.2 Study of unconscious 1.6 Goals of Psychology 1.2.3 Study of behaviour 1. Behaviour 2. Mental processes 3. Scientific method Learning objectives This chapter aims at facilitating students to 1. know how Psychology has evolved as an important subject to understand human behaviour. 2. understand the basic concepts related to human behaviour. 3. understand the goals of Psychology. 1.1 Introduction Although Psychology is new for us in terms of study, we are aware of this subject from our childhood, because we have been observing different forms of emotions, behaviour, moods of human beings. Human behaviour is full of diversity. This diversity amazes us. When we open daily newspaper or watch news on T.V. we see different aspects of human behaviour. Some examples are given in following pictures. 1  Following are the news in the collage. 1. Spontaneous blood donation by youth for passengers injured in Bus Accidents. 2. Neighbour saves life from a house that caught fire risking his own life. 3. Man killed his own brother due to property dispute. 4. Wife donates her kidney to her husband. 5. Officer arrested for taking a bribe of Rs. 50,000. 6. Arunima Sinha, who lost her both legs in an accident climbed Everest. 7. Student’s suicide due to failure in exam. 8. India lost a cricket match, a viewer furiously broke his T.V. set. 9. France won Football World Cup, citizens celebrated whole night. Activity 1 : l What type of emotions and human nature is expressed through above news? l Apart from above news, what type of news you read in newspapers or see on T.V.? l What could be the possible reasons of such behaviours? When we observe people around us, we realize that some individuals do not lose their courage and overcome difficult situations. On the other hand some commit suicide due to some minor failure. Some do not hesitate to harm others for their motives while some sacrifice their lives for others. We have seen diversity of human behaviour through the above examples. Why is human behaviour so diverse? What type of circumstances lead to these behaviours? Psychology helps us to understand these aspects of human behaviour. 1.2 The history of Psychology Science of soul Psychology is a vast field studying behavioural The first attempt to define psychology was aspects of mankind. This makes it difficult to made on the basis of the terminology used. The define Psychology precisely and in concrete word Psychology was derived from two Greek terms. words – ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means soul or mind and logos means science or branch Psychology did not emerge directly as a science. of knowledge. Thus Psychology was meant to be It started as a branch of philosophy. It evolved as the Science or branch of knowledge that deals a separate branch later 19th century. with soul or mind. Plato believed that knowledge is innate, whereas Do you know? John Locke thought that each child is born as an Symbol of Psychology “empty slate” and that knowledge is primarily The symbol of Psychology is acquired through learning and experience. the 23rd Greek alphabet Psi means soul or mind. But later psychologists were not satisfied with this definition. To them, soul was difficult to study as it could neither be visualized nor could be described in concrete terms. Both Soul and mind are abstract concepts. Fig. 1.1 Plato Fig. 1.2 John Locke Rational Sciences establish their facts from 2 observation and experimentation. If Psychology Do you know? is a Science, it must be based on some sort of The year 1879 is an important year in the observation and experimentation. However history of Psychology because it was the neither soul nor mind can be observed. We beginning of systematic study. Psychology cannot see or touch them. We can’t describe its emerged as an independent branch of nature nor can we say where it exists. Therefore, knowledge. the definition of Psychology was modified. Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920) Activity 2 : Do you agree with the definition of Psychology as the Science which deals with the soul? If yes why? If no why? Activity 3 : Collect information about Bahinabai Fig. 1.4 Wilhelm Wundt Chaudhri : Mana (description of Mind) l University of Leipzig, Germany l Established first Psychology Laboratory in htttp/www.youtube.com/watch? v = DEDSDQqNyg4 1879. l Defined psychology as the study of 1.2.1 Study of Conscious consciousness. In late 19th century German Physician and l He used scientific methods to study Philosopher Wilhelm Wundt established first fundamental psychological processes, such Psychological laboratory at Leipzig University as reaction time in response to visual or in 1879 to study human behaviour. He introduced auditory stimuli. the term ‘conscious experience’. The term l He introduced Introspection method. ‘conscious experience’ refers to the awareness of the mental activities of an organism. The 1.2.2 Study of Unconscious awareness includes the stored mental impressions Dr. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician or representations of the past, present and defined of Psychology as the study of future. He conducted experiment on reaction unconscious. He believed that most of our time, perception, consciousness etc. After that motives are hidden. There is an unconscious psychology emerged as a science. level of our mind where we push or repress all our threatening urges and desires. He stressed the importance of early childhood experiences and believed that personality is formed in first five years of life. If there are any major psychological problems seen in the person’s life, it has roots in the early years of life. Dr. Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) Fig. 1.3 Wundt and his colleagues in the first laboratary of psychology Fig. 1.5 Dr. Sigmund Freud 3  (2) Mental processes l Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis In Psychology, we study the external as well as internal factors of behaviour. Here we l Defined Psychology as the study of study the mental processes of an individual. It unconscious. includes thinking, memory, forgetting, emotion, l Believed that early childhood experiences motivation, attention, perception. and unconscious impulses contributed to the development of adult personality and (3) Scientific method behaviour. Experiment means an individual’s objective observations in controlled conditions. Here Activity 5 : a researcher or experimenter can test his assumptions by observing and collecting the data Do you agree with the definition that from sample population. These observations psychology is the study of unconscious? can be generalized for analyzing and predicting What could be the limitations of this human behaviour. definition? 1.3 What is Behaviour 1.2.3 Study of Behaviour John Watson - 1878 - 1958 Wilhelm Wundt defined Psychology as study of Consciousness and Dr. Sigmund Freud as study of Unconsciousness. However, here again, ‘consciousness’, and ‘unconsciousness’ are not observed directly. Hence, John B. Watson redefined Psychology as a Science of human behaviour. The latest definition is - Fig. 1.6 John Watson The study of human behaviour and mental processes. l American psychologist In this definition, following terms are important. l Established school of behaviourism. (1) Behaviour l Conducted research on animal behaviour, child rearing and advertising. In general we can say that behaviour is an organism’s response to various stimuli present in S-O-R Model our surrounding. But each individual might have different response to the same stimulus, because John Watson defined behaviour as anything a of their interest, personality and attitudes. person or animal does, that can be observed, recorded and studied. Behaviour is an organism’s Behaviour is either overt or covert. Overt response to any external or internal stimulus. behaviour includes directly observable responses like walking, talking, dancing etc. This fact is represented by the symbol : Covert behaviour includes responses which are S–O–R, where ‘S’ stands for stimulus ‘O’ stands not directly observable but can be inferred from for organism and ‘R’ stands for Response which behaviour like thinking, feeling etc. is reaction of the organism to the stimulus. 4 Example : walking, playing, dancing, singing, fighting and Stimulus is same, but individual responses are many other things which can be observed directly. different. Covert activities include mental processes like feeling, thinking, remembering, forgetting etc. Stimulus Organism Response which can’t be observed directly. These mental processes can be measured through how people Teacher Rohan – gives answer react to different problems and situations in their lives. asks some Sanika – remains silent questions Sachin – ignores Activity 7 : in the Saurabh – tries to recollect Do you agree with Watson’s definition that classroom answer in his mind psychology is the study of covert and overt behaviour? What are the limitations of this Stimulus is any physical event or condition definition? Can you think of examples which that gives rise to a reaction. The stimulus can can’t be explained with the help of this be external or internal. An Organism stands for definition? human being or an animal, who gives a response to the stimulus. A Response is a reaction of the 1.4 Study of Cognition organism to a given stimulus. During 1950s and 1960s, focus of psychology Activity 6 : shifted from behaviour to cognitive processes. Make a note of how your friends react to the Psychologists were interested in studying same stimulus in a different way. Example. processes like perception, thinking, memory examination. and other higher order activities. Cognitive psychologists are interested in studying inner Behaviour includes overt and covert activities. processes that trigger particular response to the Overt activities include bodily movements like stimulus. 1.5 Psychology in India Just for your reference Table No. 1 Professional development of Psychology in India First psychology department was established in Calcutta University by 1916 Prof. Narendra Nath Sen Gupta. 1925 Indian Psychological Association (IPA) was established and launched the Indian Journal of Psychology 1940 Lumbini Park Mental Hospital was founded in Calcutta. Psychology wing of Defence Research was established. It is part of the Defence 1945 to 1949 Science of Organization of India. National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) was 1955 established in Bangalore. 1962 Indian Academy of Applied Psychology (IAAP) was established. 1962 Establishment of Hospital for Mental diseases at Ranchi. 1968 The Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists was formed. 1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) was founded. 5  have Tamasi qualities are idle and sluggish. They 1.5.1 Psychology : Indian Perspective do not work hard. They seem to be depressed. Many ancient Indian thinkers tried to solve the Rajasi people are aristocratic. Their self esteem mystery of human mind. During the period of is very strong. They think that everything should 2000 B.C. to 500 A. C., Philosophers studied happen according to their own wish. They are mind and human behaviour from different belligerent. People those have Sattvaguna are prespectives and tried to explain ideas like soul, calm and understanding. They do their work mind, intuition and so on. All this was a part of carefully and promptly. They are aware of reality philosophy. therefore they behave calmly. Upanishadas explain the self and personality Activity 9 : structure with the help of concept called Kosha (1) Find out different characteristics of (something similar to cover). Rajas, Tamas and Sattva guna. These are Annamaya kosha, Pranmayakosha, (2) Find out which guna are observed in Manomayakosha, Vidnyanmaya kosha and your personality? Anandmaya kosha. In the fifth century B.C., Patanjali explained They also talked about factors that affected these deep thought about Psychology in Yogsutra. He koshas and also how these koshas determine was the Yogi having a great scientific vision. human behaviour. He studied levels of human consciousness and also proposed ways to evolve spiritually. His According to Ayurveda, there are three types theory of ashtangyoga is useful today also. of doshas, which are Kapha, Vata and Pitta and Eight aspects of ashtangyoga are yama, niyama, these doshas determine Prakruti (characteristics) aasana, pranayam, pratyahar, dharana, dhyan of human beings. For example, individuals who and Samadhi. have kapha as a dominant doshas are calm, flexible, patient, and caring. They have strong memory. It is said, that they take longer to grasp a subject but once they understand it they are able to retain it for a longer time. Individuals who have Vata as a dominant dosha are unpredictable. Their moods and thoughts fluctuate. They get angry very quickly but they also calm down very fast. They are art lovers. Individuals who have Pitta as a dominant dosha are believed to be very sharp. They are known to be short tempered. Activity 8 : Find out more attributes of vata, kapha and pitta and try to find out which two dosha dominate your personality. Fig. 1.7 Aspects of Ashtang yoga Besides doshas, there is another concept to It also helps us to control our wishes and desires. explain human temperament called Guna Many Indian saints and philosophers have made namely, Sattva Guna, Rajas guna, Tamas Guna many comments about mind or human behaviour. Jain Tirthankar, Saint Kabir, Samartha Ramdas, Human body is made up of Rajas, Tamas and Swami Vivekanand etc. highlighted various Sattva Guna. The influence of Gunas is seen in aspects of human mind and behaviour. It reflects the person’s behaviour. For example, people who their understanding of human nature. 6  1.6 Goals of Psychology 1.6.1 Describe: What is happening? (1) Why did you opt for psychology in The primary goal of Psychology is to identify 11th std? and classify behaviours and mental processes as accurately as possible. How do individuals (2) Why did you select psychology over other think? What factors are responsible to stimulate subjects? their behaviour? How do individuals react to (3) Why should we study psychology? a specific situation? To know these answers, researchers need to record a particular behaviour Activity 10 : in the socio-economic, cultural, geographical space. For example People behave differently in Look at the statements given below. Analyse formal and informal situations and their reactions each one of them and come up with goals of are studied in psychology. For this purpose Psychology or role that Psychology plays in researchers use various psychological tools. For real life. example Standardized psychology tests, psycho- (1) A group of psychologists observed analytical techniques, survey method, laboratory 1000 individuals and recorded their experiments and observations. behaviour and reactions. 1.6.2 Explanation : Why it is happening? (2) After analysing their responses, they tried to understand the reasons behind Second major goal of Psychology is to their behaviours. understand the causes of the observed responses by explaining the facts in a meaningful way. (3) These observations can be generalized Psychologists are interested in knowing the to entire population. Therefore reasons behind their reactions. They use behaviour of an individual under standardized psychological tests to understand stressful situation can be predicted. the causes of their behaviour. If a particular behaviour is observed only in one individual, (4) The psychologists came up with some it can not be generalized to entire population. conclusions so that people can change Whereas if it is observed in most of the people, their responses to stressful situations then we can generalize it to entire population. for better. For example, accidents of bike riders are more There are four main goals of Psychology. fatal due to head injury therefore wearing helmet should be made compulsory for bike riders. Four Goals of Psychology 1.6.3 Prediction : What will happen next? 1 Describe What Third major goal of Psychology is to predict how a given condition or set of conditions will affect or lead to particular behaviour and mental 2 Explain Why processes of an individuals. Prediction involves knowledge about the possible outcomes of 3 Predict Anticipate behaviour. Example : If someone drinks alcohol, it will 4 Control Change or Modify slow down his reactions and that will increase possibility of an accident. So driving after consuming alcohol should be strictly avoided. 7  1.6.4 Control : How can it be changed? For example, if some students remain absent in the school or do not study then school Control or modification of behaviour is psychologist can help them to find out the the fourth goal of Psychology. Controlling causes and modify their behaviour. For this behaviour means shaping or moulding behaviour purpose, they may organize some intervention in a particular direction. It is accomplished programs in school. School counsellors can when the researcher uses various principles of study psychological problems of students and psychology to bring successful and smooth help them with proper guidance and counselling. changes in behaviour so that unwanted behaviour Now a days, students experience stress due to patterns can be avoided. Psychologist use bullying, parental expectations, unhealthy various psychotherapeutic techniques to shape competition etc. Counsellor can help these and modify human behaviour. students by making them accept the reasons behind it so that they can modify their behaviour wherever necessary. Fig. 1.8 Describing Behaviour by noting behaviour, Explaining behaviour, Predicting behaviour, Changing behaviour Activity 11 : Activity 12 : Find more examples of each of the above Go through internet and search for researches goals of psychology. They could be real which fit into either of the four categories. examples that you know or you have read Find at least one example each. about or they could be fictional examples. Let us look at the different branches of Psychology in the next chapter. v v v 8 Summary : Psychology has evolved from the quest of man to understand behaviour. From perceiving as a study of soul, mind, consciousness to behaviour and mental processes, it has been still exploring the behavioural aspects of man. It was only in 1879 when Wilhelm Woundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig that it was known to be an independent science. We saw in this chapter that how in India too, the study of human behaviour has been reflected in our Ayurveda and Patanjali Yogsutra. The important goals of Psychology are description, explanation, prediction and control. Key Terms : Key Psychologists : Psychology John Locke : John Locke was an English Behaviour philosopher in the 17th century and gave theory of mind which suggested that each child Overt Behaviour is born as a “an empty slate” and the knowledge Covert Behaviour is primarily acquired through learning and experiences. Stimulus Plato : Plato was Athenian philosopher who Response believed that knowledge is innate. Kapha Wilhelm Wundt : A German physician and Vaat philosopher who established first Psychology Pitta Laboratory in 1879. Ashtanga Yog Sigmund Freud : An Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst who put forth the concept of Prediction unconscious level of human consciousness and asserted that the unconscious forces have a very strong impact upon behaviour. John Watson : American psychologist who established school of behaviourism. 9  Exercise Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements (D) Identify the odd item from the following 1. Psychology is a study of................... and give reasons for the same. a. Mind b. Behaviour 1. Soul, Mind, Feeling, Consciousness, Behaviour. c. Soul 2. Walking, dancing, playing, thinking, 2................... processes include thinking, eating. memory, emotions etc. 3. Yam, Niyam, Karya, Aasana, Pratyahar. a. Mental b. Cognitive c. Spiritual 4. Feeling, memory, attention, perception (B) Match the following pairs. (E) Complete the following table. A B 1. - Soul 1. Tri-doshas a) First laboratory 2. John Locke - of psychology 3. - Leipzig university 2. Tri-gunas b) Study of unconscious 4. Sigmund Freud - 3. Wilhelm Wundt c) Perception, 5. - Behaviour thinking, memory etc Q. 2. Explain the following concepts 1. Psychology 4. Sigmund Freud d) Satva, Rajas, Tamas 2. Behaviour 3. Overt Behaviour 5. Cognitive processes e) Ashtanga Yog 4. Covert Behaviour 6. Patanjali f.) Kapha, Vaat 5. Stimulus and Pitta 6. Response (C) State whether the following statements are true or false. Q. 3. Answer the following questions in 35 to 1. Psychology is a study of mind. 40 words 2. The first mental hospital in India was 1. Psychology is a science: explain why? established in Mumbai. 2. Explain the S-O-R model, with your own 3. There was no study of mental processes experience. in India till the formal discipline of 3. Explain the goals of Psychology. Psychology was recognized as a science. 4. Dr. Sigmund Freud proposed the concept Q. 4. Give a historical account of emergence of unconscious. of Psychology as a science. 5. Control is one of the objectives of Psychology. Q. 5. Describe the goals of Psychology. 10  2 Branches of Psychology 2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Applied branches 2.2 Branches of Psychology 1. Educational Psychology 2.2.1 Theoretical branches 2. Clinical Psychology 1. Developmental Psychology 3. Counselling Psychology 2. Child Psychology 4. Criminal Psychology 3. Social Psychology 5. Sports Psychology 4. Cognitive Psychology 5. Experimental Psychology 6. Industrial Psychology 6. Abnormal Psychology 2.3 Careers in Psychology Learning objectives This chapter aims at facilitating students to 1. know about and understand difference between theoretical and applied branches of psychology. 2. acquire knowledge about applications of various branches of psychology in real life. 2.1 Introduction Psychology is an important science in modern time. Scope of Psychology is getting wider everyday. Knowledge of psychology is needed to understand and combat behavioural problems. Therefore new branches of Psychology are emerging. For example now a days sports psychology is emerging as a new branch of psychology to deal with psychological issues faced by sports persons. Internet made financial transactions and social interaction easier, but it also gave rise to online cheating and fraud. So to understand and deal with these issues a branch called ‘cyber psychology’ has emerged. Now a days more than 50 branches of psychology are existing to study human behaviour from various angles. 2.2 Branches of Psychology Activity 1 : In the last chapter, we understood the Look at the following pairs of tasks. Can you history of Psychology and its main goals in differentiate between task 1 and 2 on the basis brief. Let us now take an in depth look at of what are they trying to do? Can you see the the different branches of Psychology. same pattern in other pairs as well? 11 Task 1 : Which factors motivate student’s Modern psychology touches every aspect of behaviour in the classroom? Write them down. human life. The scope of psychology is extremely Task 2 : Use the information found in task 1 to wide which has led to development of many sub create a better classroom environment. fields. Let us look at these main branches one by one. Task 1 : Try and identify qualities of successful student. Make a list. 2.2.1 Theoretical Psychology Task 2 : Using the information found in task 1 Psychology as a theoretical science includes prepare guidelines for other students. many areas of specialization. Psychologists Task 1 : Note down the causes of unhappiness working in theoretical fields focus mainly on or sadness among people. conducting research and formulating theories. Basic focus is on developing principles and Task 2 : Using the information found in task 1 establishing laws to explain human behaviour. write down how you can help them. As you might have realized, task 1 in all Activity 2 : pairs deals with finding out new information, Look at the five columns below in table connections, relationships between an individual no. 1. Each column represents one sub-branch and his environment. In other words, the task of theoretical branches of psychology. Can 1 deals with ‘theorizing’ about individual you look at the content of each column and responses. Task 2 in all pairs, deals with figure out which aspect of human behaviour is ‘applying’ that information to make changes studied in that branch. in existing structures or conditions. These two tasks typically exemplify the two broad areas of As one can see – Refer to table No. 1 Psychology. Column 1 contains questions related to the Theoretical branches of Psychology changes that happens during entire life span. Applied branches of Psychology These qualities fall under Developmental Psychology. Table 1 - Theoretical Branches of Psychology Developmental Child Social Cognitive Experimental Abnormal Psychology Psychology Psychology Psychology Psychology Psychology What are the What are the What incites What are Is it possible Why do some developmental causes of the mob to the factors to conduct people behave changes misbehaviour resort to that affects experiments abnormally? that take in children? violence? the span of on human place during attention of an behaviour? childhood? individual? What are How does When do people Why and How do we What are the the changes separation of follow norms when do understand causes of that take parents and when do people forget? the human depression? place during affects a they break behaviour? adolescence? child? rules? Why do some Why are some How does use How we can Why are some Why do old devise the people extremely people behave children suck qualities valued of language principles of in certain ways their thumb? more in some affect concept suspicious of human behaviour others or why some as they do? societies and formation? through have extreme mood less in others? experiments? swings? 12 Column 2 contains questions focusing on Developmental psychology is the scientific children and their responses. They come under study of how and why human beings change Child Psychology. over the course of their life. It aims to explain Column 3 contains questions which focuses on how thinking, feeling, and behaviour change individual responses to group influence. They throughout life. A developmental Psychology fall under Social Psychology. may study a specific period of life such as childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. Column 4 contains questions which focus on This field examines changes across three major specific cognitive abilities. They fall under dimensions : physical development, cognitive Cognitive Psychology. development, and social development. Column 5 contains how experiments should (2) Child Psychology be conduct on human behaviour under Experimental Psychology. It deals with the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur during childhood. Column 6 contains questions which focus on These changes occur as the individual progresses abnormal behaviour. They fall under Abnormal being dependent to becoming independent. Psychology. (Refer to fig. 2.1) It is important to note that there are various sub- For example psychologist working in this area branches in theoretical Psychology. However to may study problems related to children such as limit our scope, we will only look at the main six lying, bunking school, stealing, bed wetting etc. branches mentioned above. They use standardized psychological tests to (1) Developmental Psychology measure intelligence, adjustment etc. They also conduct researches on effective child rearing Developmental Psychology studies changes practices, role of reinforcement in motivating in behaviour from conception to death. children etc. Fig. 2.1 Child Psychology deals with study of childhood span, changes in behaviour from childhood to adolescence. 13 (3) Social Psychology (5) Experimental Psychology We spend much of our lives in the presence The experimental psychologist tries to of other people, with whom we interact in a understand the fundamental causes of variety of ways and in different settings. Social behaviour. They conduct experiments to Psychology studies how an individual influences study how people react to sensory stimuli and others and gets influenced by others. According to Myers, social Psychology refers to the perceive the world. Experimental Psychology scientific study of how an individual’s behaviour studies how people learn and remember, reason is affected by others. and respond emotionally. It deals with such problems as sensation, perception, learning The primary focus of social Psychology is on and memory. The method of investigation understanding how individuals are affected by others. Social Psychology examines issues in this field is that of laboratory experiment. such as co-operation or conflicts within groups, attitudes, prejudice, friendliness or leadership qualities of an individual. (4) Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology focuses on higher mental processes such as thinking, reasoning and decision making. It is concerned with the study of attention, perception, language development, thinking, memory and problem solving. Some of the topics of research in this field could be – How does memory disruption occur? What are Fig. 2.3 the different types of learning styles and learning disorders? What causes them? What leads to Ivan Pavlov conducted experiments on speech impairment? How does the decision classical conditioning taking dog as his subject making mechanism work? etc. Refer to fig. 2.2 Cognitive Psychology (6) Abnormal Psychology Abnormal psychology is the branch of Human Intelligence psychology that studies unusual patterns of behaviour, emotions and thinking. It aims to study the causes and factors leading to Perception Language abnormal reactions. For example : excessive suspiciousness, extreme mood swings, Cognitive perceiving objects or situations which are not Psychology real, mental retardation, extreme fear of objects, Thinking animals or situation etc. Attention & problem solving Activity 3 : Memory Try to find at least one example that can fit into each of the above sub-branches of Fig. 2.2 Mental processes studied in theoretical Psychology. cognitive psychology 14  2.2.2 Applied Psychology Learner Learning or pupil experiences The knowledge and principles generated through research in theoretical Psychology are used to Scope of develop techniques to solve practical problems Educational of individuals. Through various branches of Psychology Learning Teacher applied psychology, psychologists are putting process knowledge into practice so as to help individuals to adjust to their real life situations. Learning situation Applied Psychology is further divided into many and environment sub-branches. Let us see a few of these branches. Fig. 2.4 Scope of Educational Psychology (1) Educational Psychology The field of Educational Psychology examines Activity 4 : and studies all factors related to education. It Can you think of at least one problem that is concerned with increasing the efficiency of educational psychologist can find solutions teaching and learning process. The educational to, concerning the following areas? psychologist is concerned with developing effective methods of teaching / learning, 1. Behaviour of the student preparing intervention programs for exceptional 2. Teaching methods children, developing personality development programs, preparing relevant curriculum etc. 3. Teacher’s behaviour in the class It is also concerned with the general problems of teaching and learning process. It focuses on (2) Clinical Psychology learning difficulties of slow learners, exceptional Clinical Psychology is concerned with the as well as average children. They try to design study, diagnosis and treatment of emotional and intervention programs to develop motivation, behavioural problems such as mental illness, effective study habits and better classroom marital and family conflict, drug addiction, severe environment. depression, alcoholism, delinquency etc. For Educational psychologists are primarily the purpose of diagnosis, clinical psychologists associated with schools, colleges and collect detailed information about the client by universities. They conduct psychological tests using psychological tests, interviews of client to provide guidance to students. They deal with and his significant others like family and friends. behavioural issues of children such as learning They use appropriate psychotherapy to help the disorder, hyperactivity, lack of concentration, client to deal with his problem. ADHD etc. 15 The Clinical Psychologists either work in (4) Criminal Psychology hospitals and community health centers or have This branch is closely related with social their private practice. This is the largest sub field Psychology. Criminal psychologists are of Psychology. concerned with identifying the causes of crime, studying personality of criminals, suggesting preventive measures to control criminal behaviour and implementing plans for criminal rehabilitation. Criminal psychology deals with the motives behind the criminal behaviour. They play significant role in forensic department to uncover the scene of crime by understanding and interpreting the behavioural clues of the criminals. They generally work with the law enforcement department or the criminal investigation department or social organisations Fig. 2.5 Clinical Psychology working for rehabilitation of criminals. Activity 5 : Activity 7 : Watch any movie like ‘Dear Zindagi’ and Watch any crime investigation series to note down how a clinical psychologist helps understand the causes of criminal behaviour the female character in the movie. and make a write up on it. (3) Counselling Psychology (5) Sports Psychology This field of Psychology is similar to clinical Sports Psychologists help sports persons to Psychology but counselling psychologists maintain their motivation, stamina during actual deal with milder behavioural problems. performance and also maintaining themselves They offer guidance about adjustment issues when they are not on the field. faced by a person. Counselling psychologists will be involved with vocational and career They help players to maintain composure when guidance. Some problems dealt by counselling they are working under pressure, help them to psychologists are related to issues or difficulties maintain their emotional balance when they are experienced by a person in studies, personal life going through a bad patch and guide them to issues or workplace issues. maintain themselves when they are recovering from personal injuries. Activity 6 : Activity 8 : Can you think of at least one problem that a counselling psychologist can find solutions Think of at least one problem that a sports to, concerning the following areas? psychologist can find solutions to, concerning the following areas. 1. Adjusting with peers 1. Improving team spirit 2. Adjusting with parents and siblings 2. Emotional management 3. Making decision about career 3. Improving self confidence 16  Improve preparation for a competitive event Develop self- Increase motivation awareness Help managing emotions Help managing stress and anxiety Sports Improve well-being Psychology Teach relaxations Improve self-esteem skills and self-confidence Improve focus and Improve teamwork concentration skills and team cohesion Sports skills Fig. 2.6 Sports Psychology : Goals (6) Industrial Psychology Activity 9 : Industrial psychology is concerned with 1. Talk to your parents / teachers and enlist behaviour of people working in organization. the factors that give them satisfaction at their They play important role in selection and work. placement of employees, motivation, job 2. While buying something from market, satisfaction, appraisals and grievances. They which factors affect your desires? Enlist help to enhance motivation, group morale, these factors that influence your choice. For leadership skills among the employees. example : advertisement, brands, etc. Consumer psychology which is a branch of Now that we have seen the various branches of industrial psychology deals with consumer Psychology, you may have got some idea about behaviour, quality of products, brand loyalty and the fields and also possible opportunities for influence of advertisement on purchasing. higher studies and employment. Let us now look at how we could use Psychology for our own betterment. 17 2.3 Careers in Psychology Table 2 - Careers in Psychology Psychological Fields Career Opportunities Description (1) Counselling psychology (1) Educational counsellor Help to solve problems in various fields of life. (2) Vocational counsellor (3) Marriage counsellor (2) Educational psychology (1) School counsellor Work in schools and educational fields. They (2) Educational counsellor assess and minimize student’s learning problems. (3) Clinical psychology (1) Clinical and counselling Work in hospitals, school psychologist. for children with special needs, social agencies and (2) Psychoanalyst independent private practice. (3) Psychotherapist (4) Psychiatric Nurse (5) Rehabilitation Psychologist (6) Hypnotherapist (4) Industrial / Organizational (1) Organisational Help in selection and evaluation Psychology psychologist of employees, marketing of products, Examine effects (2) Consumer psychologist of working conditions on (3) Ergonomist (Human employee’s behaviour. accessible tools making) (5) Social psychology (1) Public Relation officer Deal with social fields. They attempt to solve social (2) Social welfare officer problems. Work in NGO. (3) Labour welfare officer (6) Sport psychology Sports counsellor Work in gyms, schools, professional sport teams. Help to improve confidence, concentration and morale of players. 18 (7) Rehabilitation psychology (1) Special educator Work for specially abled persons. Help in disaster (2) Rehabilitation management and rehabilitation. psychologists Work in remand homes. (3) Disaster management and Rehabilitation officer. (8) Child psychology (1) Child psychologists Focus on child development work to solve the problem (2) Women and child related to children. development (3) Remand home superintendent. (9) Military psychology (1) Army Mental Health Working in selection of Specialist officers. Improving morale and Rehabilitation of people (2) Army Psychologist working in defence services. (3) Navy Psychologist (4) Air Force Psychologist (5) Marine Psychologist v v v 19  Summary : Psychologists try to understand and help to address and resolve problems in today’s life. Therefore many branches of psychology are emerging. For example : to understand and deal with behavioural problems related to internet use, branch of Cyber Psychology has emerged. In theoretical branch, Developmental psychology discusses about various developmental stages of human life. Child psychology talks about changes that take place during childhood and behavioural patterns of children. Social psychology tries to study effect of an individual on the group and group’s effect on individual behaviour. Abnormal psychology discusses patterns, reasons and remedies of abnormal behaviour. Experimental psychology studies patterns of fundamental problems of human life. Applied field of psychology has contributed in a great way for better adjustment of human being. E.g. Clinical psychology, Counselling psychology, School psychology. All psychologists have their share in the welfare of human beings. Key Terms : Developmental Psychology Educational Psychology Child Psychology Clinical Psychology Social Psychology Counselling Psychology Cognitive Psychology Sports Psychology Experimental Psychology Criminal Psychology Abnormal Psychology Industrial Psychology Exercise Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements 4..................... Psychology is concerned with 1. The branches of Psychology which diagnosis and treatment of psychological explore into relationships among different disorders. variables and human behaviour are known a. Counselling b. Cognitive as.................... Psychology. c. Clinical a. Theoretical b. Applied (B) Identify the odd item from the following. c. Common 1. Experimental Psychology, Social 2. The study of human behaviour at work Psychology, Industrial Psychology, place is the concern of............. Psychology. Cognitive Psychology. a. Social b. Industrial 2. Clinical psychology, Industrial c. Experimental Psychology, Sports Psychology, Abnormal 3. One can study the problems of adolescence Psychology in..................... a. Developmental b. Social c. Cognitive 20 (C) Match the following pairs. Q. 3. Write Short Notes A B 1. Clinical Psychology 1. Developmental a) studies organizations, 2. Cognitive Psychology Psychology human factor design 3. Developmental psychology and employee 4. Industrial Psychology training Q. 4. Suggest appropriate branch of 2. Criminal b) studies how psychology related to the following Psychology people become who situations they are from 1. A husband and wife do not understand conception to death each other so they keep fighting. 2. My friend’s father lost his job and he is in 3. Educational c) Studies thinking depression Psychology process 3. A 5th standard student is unable to concentrate 4. Industrial d) Helps educators to 4. I want to study the process of thinking and Psychology promote learning learning. 5. Social e) studies criminal 5. I want proper information about attitude, prejudice or conflicts in a group. Psychology behaviour Q. 5. Answer the following questions in detail. 6. Cognitive f) studies the influence Psychology of other people upon 1. Explain any five theoretical branches of an individual’s Psychology. behaviour. 2. Describe any five applied branches of Psychology. Q. 2. Compare and contrast 3. Write any five career opportunities in 1. Theoretical and Applied branches of Psychology. psychology. 2. Abnormal psychology and Clinical Psychology 21  3 Self 3.1 Introduction 3.5 Gender Identity and Gender Role 3.2 Dimensions of Self concept 3.6 Aspects of Self 3.3 Definition 3.7 Self regulation 3.4 Self and the Life cycle 3.8 Carl Rogers theory of self Learning objectives This chapter aims at facilitating students to 1. develop an understanding about the concept of Self. 2. understand how does the concept of one’s self develop. 3. know the significance of self awareness, self image, self efficacy and self esteem. 4. identify the ways of self regulation. 5. understand Rogers theory of self. Activity 1 : 3.2 Dimensions of self concept Complete the following sentences Your answers to specific questions related to Who are you? self concept can be unique and different but the My favourite activity is… overall organization of self concept is common I am good at…. for all. When Rentsch and Heffener (1994) asked I would like to be ….. 20 questions to 200 university students, they found that there were eight categories by which The most important thing about me is ….. the participants defined themselves. Some of the I am………... categories are concerned with personal attributes, such as interpersonal characteristics (‘I am a 3.1 Introduction student’ or ‘I am the team leader of my class’), While answering the first activity, we all will interest (‘I like psychology’, or ‘I like dancing’), be aware of the fact that we all are part of most personal beliefs (‘I am against honour killing’ or complicated world. We play many roles as a ‘I am against child abuse’) and self awareness son, daughter, student, teacher, friend, pal. We (‘I am a good person’ or ‘I don’t get angry without could answer these questions in many ways. The sum total of these answers could define valid reason’).Others referred to our social our uniqueness. This is called as self concept. environment such as ascribed characteristics It includes our thoughts and feelings about (‘I am a citizen of India’) or social differentiation ourselves and others, our behavioural patterns, that is how we differ from others (‘I am from our beliefs, our emotional make-up and so on. another country’ or ‘ I am from another part of Our self concept develops rapidly during early childhood and adolescence, it continues to India’). The point here is that ‘who am I ?’ has form and change throughout our life span as we many meanings for us. change. 22 Activity 2 : 3.4 Self and the life cycle (1) Make statements about yourself by using categories of Rentsch and On an average, till the age of six months the child Heffener model. is unaware of himself. As the child grows, he (2) Tally these statements with your starts making distinction between his own body parents, teachers and friends. and everything else. He develops distinction (3) Find out whether their thinking matches between ‘me’ and ‘what is not me’. Slowly, he with the statements about yourself. realizes that he is different from the rest of the world. (4) If there is discrepancy between their opinion and your self image, would you like to do anything about it? When psychologists conducted a simple experiment of recognizing oneself in mirror 3.3 Definition with a simple technique of placing a mark which can’t be seen without mirror. Then, when the The self concept is our total image of us. It is our total picture of our abilities and traits. It is subject faced with mirror they tend to touch the basically cognitive construct which determines mark on their face. (Gallop, 1977a). In normal how we feel about ourselves and guides our children, face recognition with mirror occurs at actions (Harter, 1996). the average age of one and half years (Lewis and Self concept is defined as the totality of Ramsay, 2004) They are capable of pretend play perceptions each person has of themselves. like they may pretend to feed their baby doll. OR The totality of complex organized and When they start recognizing themselves they dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and start using personal pronoun like I,me, mine. opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence (Purkey, 1988). By the age of 2, the child becomes aware of According to Symonds (1957) It is the way general expectations like what is good and individual reacts to himself. There are four bad behaviour. They will smile when others aspects. (1) How a person perceives himself. (2) what he thinks about himself. (3) How he are smiling at them and frown when others are values himself. (4) How he enhances or defends getting angry with them. They are developing himself. a sense of themselves by comparing them with the standard role model. This is beginning of Activity 3 : self esteem. (1) Make a list of your strength and weaknesses. By the age of three, they start recognizing (2) Chart a plan about how and where you themselves and others as boys or girls. Between can use your strengths and how you the age of 3-12, the self concepts are based on can overcome your weaknesses. developing talents and skills. Child thinks of (3) If someone criticizes you, how will you himself as what he can do or what he can’t do. react to the situation? Say for example, Such as he can sing, he can draw or he can travel off hand comment on your dressing alone. At this age, the self concept is defined sense or your presentation in the class. mainly in terms of sex, age, family and what (4) How can you avoid a clash while child believes he or she can or can’t do. expressing your opinion about it? 23 When the schooling starts at the age of 5-6, You may say that ‘this girl is so masculine’ child begins to compare himself or herself such or you may observe a boy who is interested as ‘I am intelligent, smart, faster than others’. in artistic things or nursing, cooking, caring This is beginning of social comparison. etc. Here, people may give loose comments Also during this stage, children learn that they like ‘the boy is so girly’ which may make the can lie and keep secrets. There is hidden side person very uncomfortable. Remember, there is of self which includes thoughts, feelings and nothing wrong if a man takes up feminine role desires which parents are unaware of. This or woman behaves in a masculine way. You may development of private self- concept is major notice that some men like Pt. Birjoo Maharaj, but often difficult developmental stage in the Sanjeev Kapoor or Vikram Gaikwad are famous growth of self concept. It may start out with in female dominated areas. Or females like some imaginary friend, someone only they can Phogat sisters, Kalpana Chawla, Kiran Bedi, hear or see. (Please watch the Hollywood film Avani Chaturvedi (first Indian fighter pilot) are Bogus on YouTube). A child may not share this successful in male dominated areas. Here, we information with others. can conclude that gender based roles are diluting now. Society is approving and accepting these Final unfolding of self concept during changes with open mind which is reflecting in adolescence involves perspective taking advertisements also like a father is getting his that is, they are able to think and understand daughter ready for the school or a man is doing other’s point of view. This is the main reason dish washing at home. why teenagers become self conscious and why they are very cautious about their appearance. Now let us discuss some more concepts which They might enter into the stage of objective self are related to self concept…. awareness where they want to become center of attraction and popular. Many adolescents accept 3.6 Aspects of Self group’s mannerisms and behaviour patterns for There are four major aspects of self. They are the sake of this need. self awareness, self image, self efficacy and self esteem. 3.5 Gender identity and gender role (A) Self Awareness : Gender role and gender identity are important This is a component of self concept. It is the aspects of self-concept. ‘Gender identity’ and quality or trait that involves conscious awareness ‘Gender role’ are two different concepts. Gender of one’s thoughts, feelings, behaviours and traits. identity is biological one. It is the perception of (Cherry, 2018A). To have proper self concept, oneself as male or female. The sex chromosome one must have some level of self awareness. It determines whether the child will be boy or a is the understanding that a person has separate girl. identity from others. According to Piaget, ‘Gender role’ is an acquired attribute which self consciousness starts emerging between is psycho-social by nature. Gender role is 15-24 months. Self awareness is necessary determined by family atmosphere, cultural before the child becomes aware of being a focus influences where the child learns through of attention so that he can understand what observation and imitation. Sometimes, you may others are feeling. Because on this basis they can notice a girl behaving assertively by leading the differentiate between something that belongs to group and by taking firm decisions. them and something that belongs to others. 24  Table no. 1 Activity 4 : Specific steps to develop a positive self-image Place your name in the centre. Choose five different aspects of your identity and write Make a list of your positive qualities. each of them in the identity circles provided. Ask your parents, friends to describe your positive qualities. Define personal goals and objectives that are achievable. Try to overcome illogical, irrational thinking. Avoid comparing yourself to others. Develop your strengths. Learn to love yourself. Give positive affirmations. Remember that you are unique. Fig. 3.1 Self Awareness Remember how you have dealt with problems of your life. Make a list of 5 strengths and 5 weaknesses of yours. Discuss how can you convert your weaknesses into strengths. (B) Self Image : Self image is a personal view or mental picture that we have of ourselves. Self image is an internal dictionary that describes an individual including things such as intelligent, beautiful, ugly, talented, selfish or kind. It is a collection of assets (strengths) and liabilities (weaknesses) of an individual. Self image is dynamic and changing. We can develop healthier and accurate view of ourselves. A healthy self image starts with learning to accept and love ourselves. It will also include Fig. 3.1 Self Image being accepted and loved by others. 25 Body image is a part of self-image. Our body Table no. 2 image includes more than what we look like or Characteristics of self efficacy how others see us. It also refers to how do we think, feel, and react to our physical attributes. Characteristics of high self efficacy For example, a normal girl till the age of 25, Self confidence Anagha Modak, became visually challenged Accurate self evaluation after attack of dengue, is now successful compere in Marathi who is positively and confidently Willingness to take risks helping others to look at life more positively. Sense of accomplishment Body image development is affected by cultural Characteristics of low self efficacy images and the influence of family, peers, and Fear of risks others. A positive body image contributes to enhanced psychological adjustment (less Fear of uncertainty depression, positive self-worth, life satisfaction, Fear of failure less interpersonal anxiety, fewer eating Impression management disorders). Distortions in our thinking contribute to a negative body image which will lead to How self efficacy can be improved? maladjustment. Develop skills (B) Self Efficacy : Accept role model and follow him/her regarding that particular activity. Self efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to Ask others to give specific and accomplish some specific goal or a task. It depends constructive feedback on his trust in his own competency. Competence can vary from one situation to another. Say for Reinforce yourself. example, a teenager’s self efficacy may be high Use verbal persuasion by a counsellor in Psychology but his self efficacy may be low Learn various techniques to control in mathematics. Maddux (2002) defined it as your arousal which is lowering your performance for example : meditation, ‘what I believe I can do with my skills under mindfulness, biofeedback, hypnosis, certain conditions’. There are two factors related relaxation. to it, one is Outcome expectancies means the skills required to complete the goal and efficacy Activity 5 : expectancies is person’s analysis about whether he has those capacities. Self efficacy is based Refer to Table no. 2 and evaluate yourself on on Social cognitive theory holds that humans characteristics of high self efficacy and low self efficacy. In a group of friends, think and actively shape their lives rather than passively discuss about various ways of improving self reacting to environment (Barone, Maddux and efficacy. Make a note of it and share it on Snyder,1997). college notice board. 26 More recently, Chen et al. (2001) have (D) Self – esteem : developed an 8 - item New General Self-Efficacy Self esteem is general evaluation of an Scale. individual along a dimension. For example, good- Table no. 3 bad or like – dislike. According to Seligman, self