Cognitive Psychology Textbook PDF

Goldstein Cognitive CONNECTING MIND, RESEARCH,...

Goldstein Cognitive CONNECTING MIND, RESEARCH, AND EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE 5E Cognitive Psychology Psychology E. Bruce Goldstein AND EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE CONNECTING MIND, RESEARCH, 5E Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 SE/Goldstein - Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e   ISBN-13: 978-1-337-40827-1 ©2019 9781337408271_CVR_hr.indd 1 4/6/18 10:50 AM Designer: D Davidson Printer: Quad   Binding: Casebound   Trim: 9" x 10.875"   CMYK  Fit your coursework into your hectic life. Make the most of your time by learning your way. Access the resources you need to succeed wherever, whenever. Study with digital flashcards, listen to audio textbooks, and take quizzes. Review your current course grade and compare your progress with your peers. Get the free MindTap Mobile App and learn wherever you are. Break Limitations. Create your own potential, and be unstoppable with MindTap. MINDTAP. POWERED BY YOU. cengage.com/mindtap Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 9781337408271_END_hr_002.indd 1 3/27/18 2:09 PM  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience ❘ 5E E. Bruce Goldstein University of Pittsburgh University of Arizona Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 1 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, © 2019, 2015 Cengage Learning, Inc. Research, and Everyday Experience, Fifth Edition Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage. E. Bruce Goldstein ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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Marketing Manager: Heather Thompson Content Project Manager: Ruth Sakata Corley Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951368 Production and Composition: MPS Limited Student Edition: Intellectual Property Analyst: Deanna Ettinger ISBN: 978-1-337-40827-1 Loose-leaf Edition: Intellectual Property Project Manager: ISBN: 978-1-337-61628-7 Carly Belcher Illustrator: Jan Troutt Cengage 20 Channel Center Street Art Director: Vernon Boes Boston, MA 02210 USA Text and Cover Designer: Cheryl Carrington Cover Image: E. Bruce Goldstein Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at www.cengage.com. Cengage products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, visit www.cengage.com. Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01   Print Year: 2018 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 2 4/18/18 6:55 PM  To Barbara Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 3 4/18/18 6:55 PM  iv  Contents About the Author E. BRUCE GOLDSTEIN is Associate Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh and Adjunct Professor of Psychology at the University of Arizona. He received the Chancellor’s Distinguished Teaching Award from the University of Pittsburgh for his classroom teaching and textbook writing. After receiving his bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering from Tufts University, he had a revelation that he wanted to go to graduate school in psychology, rather than engineering, and so received his PhD in psychology, specializing in visu- al physiology, from Brown University. He continued his research in vision as a post-doctoral fellow in the Biology Department at Harvard University and then joined the faculty at the University of Pittsburgh. He continued his research at Pitt, publishing papers on retinal and cortical physiology, visual attention, and the perception of pictures, before focusing exclusively on teaching (Sensation & Perception, Cognitive Psychology, Psychology of Art, Introductory Psychology) and writing textbooks. He is the author of Sensation and Perception, 10th edition (Cengage, 2017), and edited the Blackwell Handbook of Perception (Blackwell, 2001) and the two-volume Sage Encyclopedia of Perception (Sage, 2010). In 2016, he won “The Flame Challenge” competition, sponsored by the Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science, for his essay, written for 11-year-olds, on What Is Sound? Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 4 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Brief Contents CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 3 CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Neuroscience 25 CHAPTER 3 Perception 59 CHAPTER 4 Attention 93 CHAPTER 5 Short-Term and Working Memory 129 CHAPTER 6 Long-Term Memory: Structure 161 CHAPTER 7 LTM: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation 191 CHAPTER 8 Everyday Memory and Memory Errors 225 CHAPTER 9 Conceptual Knowledge 263 CHAPTER 10 Visual Imagery 297 CHAPTER 11 Language 321 CHAPTER 12 Problem Solving & Creativity 355 CHAPTER 13 Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning 393 GLOSSARY 428 REFERENCES 445 NAME INDEX 475 SUBJECT INDEX 483 v Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 5 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 6 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 3 Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind 5 What Is the Mind? 5 Studying the Mind: Early Work in Cognitive Psychology 6 Abandoning the Study of the Mind 10 Watson Founds Behaviorism 10 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning 11 Setting the Stage for the Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology 11 The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind 13 Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts 13 Introduction of the Digital Computer 14 Conferences on Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory 15 The Cognitive “Revolution” Took a While 15 The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology 16 What Neisser Wrote 16 Studying Higher Mental Processes 17 Studying the Physiology of Cognition 18 New Perspectives on Behavior 18 Something to Consider 19 Learning from This Book 19 TEST YOUR SELF 1.1 20 Chapter Summary 21 Think About It 22 Key Terms 22 CogLab Experiments 22 CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Neuroscience 25 Levels of Analysis 26 Neurons: Basic Principles 27 Early Conceptions of Neurons 27 The Signals That Travel in Neurons 29 METHOD Recording from a Neuron 30 Representation by Neural Firing 32 The Story of Neural Representation and Cognition: A Preview 32 Feature Detectors 33 vii Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 7 4/18/18 6:55 PM  viii  Contents Neurons That Respond to Complex Stimuli 35 Sensory Coding 36 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 2. 1 38 Localized Representation 38 Localization Determined by Neuropsychology 38 METHOD Demonstrating a Double Dissociation 40 Localization Determined by Recording from Neurons 40 Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging 40 METHOD Brain Imaging 41 Distributed Representation 43 Looking at a Face 43 Remembering 44 Producing and Understanding Language 44 Neural Networks 45 Structural Connectivity 45 Functional Connectivity 46 METHOD Resting-State Functional Connectivity 46 The Dynamics of Cognition 49 The Default Mode Network 50 Something to Consider: Technology Determines the Questions We Can Ask 52 TEST YOUR SELF 2.2 55 Chapter Summary 56 Think About It 56 Key Terms 57 CogLab Experiment 57 CHAPTER 3 Perception 59 The Nature of Perception 60 Some Basic Characteristics of Perception 60 A Human Perceives Objects and a Scene 61 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Perceptual Puzzles in a Scene 62 A Computer-Vision System Perceives Objects and a Scene 63 Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? 65 The Stimulus on the Receptors Is Ambiguous 65 Objects Can Be Hidden or Blurred 65 Objects Look Different from Different Viewpoints 66 Scenes Contain High-Level Information 67 Information for Human Perception 67 Perceiving Objects 67 Hearing Words in a Sentence 68 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 8 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   ix TEST YOUR SELF 3.1 70 Conceptions of Object Perception 70 Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference 70 The Gestalt Principles of Organization 71 Taking Regularities of the Environment into Account 74 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Visualizing Scenes and Objects 75 Bayesian Inference 76 Comparing the Four Approaches 77 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 3. 2 78 Neurons and Knowledge About the Environment 78 Neurons That Respond to Horizontals and Verticals 78 Experience-Dependent Plasticity 79 Perception and Action: Behavior 80 Movement Facilitates Perception 80 The Interaction of Perception and Action 81 Perception and Action: Physiology 82 What and Where Streams 82 METHOD Brain Ablation 82 Perception and Action Streams 83 Mirror Neurons 85 Something to Consider: Knowledge, Inference, and Prediction 87 TEST YOUR SELF 3.3 88 Chapter Summary 88 Think About It 89 Key Terms 90 CogLab Experiment 91 CHAPTER 4 Attention 93 Attention as Information Processing 95 Broadbent’s Filter Model of Attention 95 Modifying Broadbent’s Model: More Early Selection Models 96 A Late Selection Model 98 Processing Capacity and Perceptual Load 99 D E M O N S T R AT I O N The Stroop Effect 100 TEST YOUR SELF 4.1 101 Directing Attention by Scanning a Scene 102 Scanning a Scene With Eye Movements 102 Scanning Based on Stimulus Salience 103 Scanning Based on Cognitive Factors 104 Scanning Based on Task Demands 104 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 9 4/18/18 6:55 PM  x  Contents Outcomes of Attention 105 Attention Improves Our Ability to Respond to a Location 105 METHOD Precueing 106 Attention Improves Our Ability to Respond to Objects 106 Attention Affects Perception 107 Attention Affects Physiological Responding 107 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 4. 2 109 Divided Attention: Can We Attend to More Than One Thing at a Time? 110 Divided Attention Can Be Achieved With Practice: Automatic Processing 110 Divided Attention Becomes More Difficult When Tasks Are Harder 111 Distractions 112 Distractions by Cell Phones while Driving 112 Distractions by the Internet 113 METHOD Experience Sampling 113 Distraction Caused by Mind Wandering 114 What Happens When We Don’t Attend? 115 Inattentional Blindness 116 Inattentional Deafness 116 Change Detection 117 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Change Detection 117 What About Everyday Experience? 118 Attention and Experiencing a Coherent World 119 Feature Integration Theory 119 Evidence for Feature Integration Theory 120 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Searching for Conjunctions 121 Something to Consider: Attentional Networks 122 TEST YOUR SELF 4.3 124 Chapter Summary 124 Think About It 125 Key Terms 126 CogLab Experiment 127 CHAPTER 5 Short-Term and Working Memory 129 The Modal Model of Memory 132 Sensory Memory 134 The Sparkler’s Trail and the Projector’s Shutter 134 Sperling’s Experiment: Measuring the Capacity and Duration of the Sensory Store 135 Short-Term Memory: Storage 137 METHOD Recall 138 What Is the Duration of Short-Term Memory? 138 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 10 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xi How Many Items Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? 138 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Digit Span 139 METHOD Change Detection 139 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Remembering Letters 141 How Much Information Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? 141 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 5. 1 142 Working Memory: Manipulating Information 143 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Reading Text and Remembering Numbers 144 The Phonological Loop 145 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Articulatory Suppression 146 The Visuospatial Sketch Pad 146 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Comparing Objects 146 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Recalling Visual Patterns 147 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Holding a Spatial Stimulus in the Mind 148 The Central Executive 148 An Added Component: The Episodic Buffer 149 Working Memory and the Brain 150 The Effect of Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex 150 Prefrontal Neurons That Hold Information 152 The Neural Dynamics of Working Memory 153 Something to Consider: Why is More Working Memory Better? 154 METHOD Event-Related Potential 156 TEST YOUR SELF 5.2 157 Chapter Summary 158 Think About It 159 Key Terms 159 CogLab Experiment 159 CHAPTER 6 Long-Term Memory: Structure 161 Comparing Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Processes 162 Serial Position Curve 164 Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory 166 METHOD Measuring Recognition Memory 168 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Reading a Passage 168 Comparing Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory 169 Locating Memory in the Brain 170 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 6. 1 171 Episodic and Semantic Memory 172 Distinctions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory 172 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 11 4/18/18 6:55 PM  xii  Contents Interactions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory 174 What Happens to Episodic and Semantic Memories as Time Passes? 175 METHOD Remember/Know Procedure 176 Back to the Future 177 TEST YOUR SELF 6.2 179 Procedural Memory, Priming, and Conditioning 179 Procedural Memory 180 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Mirror Drawing 181 Priming 182 METHOD Avoiding Explicit Remembering in a Priming Experiment 183 Classical Conditioning 184 Something to Consider: Memory Loss in the Movies 185 TEST YOUR SELF 6.3 187 Chapter Summary 188 Think About It 189 Key Terms 189 CogLab Experiment 189 CHAPTER 7 LTM: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation 191 Encoding: Getting Information into Long-Term Memory 193 Levels of Processing Theory 193 Forming Visual Images 194 Linking Words to Yourself 194 Generating Information 194 Organizing Information 195 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Remembering a List 195 Relating Words to Survival Value 197 Retrieval Practice 197 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 7. 1 199 Effective Studying 199 Elaborate 199 Generate and Test 200 Organize 200 Take Breaks 200 Avoid “Illusions of Learning” 200 Be An “Active” Note-Taker 201 Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory 202 Retrieval Cues 202 METHOD Cued Recall 203 Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval 204 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 12 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xiii TEST YOUR SELF 7.2 207 Consolidation: Establishing Memories 208 Synaptic Consolidation: Experience Causes Changes at the Synapse 208 Systems Consolidation: The Hippocampus and the Cortex 210 METHOD Multivoxel Pattern Analysis (MVPA) 213 Consolidation and Sleep: Enhancing Memory 214 Reconsolidation: The Dynamics of Memory 216 Reconsolidation: A Famous Rat Experiment 216 Reconsolidation in Humans 218 A Practical Outcome of Reconsolidation Research 219 Something to Consider: Alternative Explanations in Cognitive Psychology 220 TEST YOUR SELF 7.3 220 Chapter Summary 221 Think About It 222 Key Terms 222 CogLab Experiment 222 CHAPTER 8 Everyday Memory and Memory Errors 225 The Journey So Far 226 Autobiographical Memory: What Has Happened in My Life 227 The Multidimensional Nature of Autobiographical Memory 227 Memory Over the Life Span 228 Memory for “Exceptional” Events 231 Memory and Emotion 231 Flashbulb Memories 232 METHOD Repeated Recall 233 TEST YOUR SELF 8.1 236 The Constructive Nature of Memory 236 Source Monitoring Errors 236 The Illusory Truth Effect 238 How Real-World Knowledge Affects Memory 238 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Reading Sentences 240 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Memory for a List 242 What Is It Like to Have “Exceptional” Memory? 242 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 8. 2 243 The Misinformation Effect 244 METHOD Presenting Misleading Postevent Information 244 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 13 4/18/18 6:55 PM  xiv  Contents Creating Memories for Events in People’s Lives 246 Creating Childhood Memories 246 Legal Implications of False Memory Research 247 Why Do People Make Errors in Eyewitness Testimony? 248 Errors of Eyewitness Identification 248 Errors Associated with Perception and Attention 249 Misidentifications Due to Familiarity 250 Errors Due to Suggestion 251 What Is Being Done to Improve Eyewitness Testimony? 252 Eliciting False Confessions 254 Something to Consider: Music- and Odor-Elicited Autobiographical Memories 255 TEST YOUR SELF 8.3 257 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Reading Sentences (Continued) 258 Chapter Summary 258 Think About It 259 Key Terms 260 CogLab Experiment 260 CHAPTER 9 Conceptual Knowledge 263 Basic Properties of Concepts and Categories 266 How Are Objects Placed into Categories? 266 Why Definitions Don’t Work for Categories 267 The Prototype Approach: Finding the Average Case 268 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Family Resemblance 269 METHOD Sentence Verification Technique 270 The Exemplar Approach: Thinking About Examples 272 Which Approach Works Better: Prototypes or Exemplars? 272 Is There a Psychologically “Basic” Level of Categories? 273 Rosch’s Approach: What’s Special About Basic Level Categories? 273 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Listing Common Features 274 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Naming Things 274 How Knowledge Can Affect Categorization 275 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 9. 1 275 Network Models of Categorization 276 Representing Relationships Among Categories: Semantic Networks 276 Introduction to Semantic Networks: Collins and Quillian’s Hierarchical Model 276 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 14 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xv METHOD Lexical Decision Task 279 Criticism of the Collins and Quillian Model 279 The Connectionist Approach 280 What Is a Connectionist Model? 280 How Are Concepts Represented in a Connectionist Network? 282 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 9. 2 285 How Concepts Are Represented in the Brain 285 Four Proposals About How Concepts Are Represented in the Brain 285 The Sensory-Functional Hypothesis 286 The Multiple-Factor Approach 286 The Semantic Category Approach 288 The Embodied Approach 290 Summarizing the Approaches 291 Something to Consider: The Hub and Spoke Model 291 METHOD Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) 292 TEST YOUR SELF 9.3 293 Chapter Summary 293 Think About It 294 Key Terms 295 CogLab Experiment 295 CHAPTER 10 Visual Imagery 297 Imagery in the History of Psychology 299 Early Ideas About Imagery 299 Imagery and the Cognitive Revolution 299 METHOD Paired-Associate Learning 299 Imagery and Perception: Do They Share the Same Mechanisms? 300 Kosslyn’s Mental Scanning Experiments 300 M E T H O D / D E M O N S T R AT I O N Mental Scanning 301 The Imagery Debate: Is Imagery Spatial or Propositional? 302 Comparing Imagery and Perception 303 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 0. 1 305 Imagery and the Brain 305 Imagery Neurons in the Human Brain 305 METHOD Recording from Single Neurons in Humans 305 Brain Imaging 306 Multivoxel Pattern Analysis 308 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 15 4/18/18 6:55 PM  xvi  Contents Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 308 Neuropsychological Case Studies 310 Conclusions from the Imagery Debate 312 Using Imagery to Improve Memory 312 Placing Images at Locations 313 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Method of Loci 313 Associating Images with Words 314 Something to Consider: Individual Differences in Visual Imagery 314 TEST YOUR SELF 10.2 317 Chapter Summary 317 Think About It 318 Key Terms 318 CogLab Experiment 318 CHAPTER 11 Language 321 What is Language? 322 The Creativity of Human Language 322 The Universal Need to Communicate with Language 323 Studying Language 323 Understanding Words: A Few Complications 325 Not All Words Are Created Equal: Differences in Frequency 325 The Pronunciation of Words Is Variable 325 There Are No Silences Between Words in Normal Conversation 326 Understanding Ambiguous Words 327 Accessing Multiple Meanings 327 METHOD Lexical Priming 327 Frequency Influences Which Meanings Are Activated 328 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 1. 1 330 Understanding Sentences 331 Parsing: Making Sense of Sentences 331 The Garden Path Model of Parsing 332 The Constraint-Based Approach to Parsing 332 Prediction, Prediction, Prediction… 336 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 1. 2 337 Understanding Text and Stories 337 Making Inferences 337 Situation Models 339 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 16 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xvii Having Conversations 342 The Given­–New Contract 342 Common Ground: Taking the Other Person into Account 343 Establishing Common Ground 343 Syntactic Coordination 345 METHOD Syntactic Priming 345 Something to Consider: Music and Language 347 Music and Language: Similarities and Differences 347 Expectations in Music and Language 348 Do Music and Language Overlap in the Brain? 349 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 1. 3 350 Chapter Summary 351 Think About It 352 Key Terms 353 CogLab Experiment 353 CHAPTER 12 Problem Solving & Creativity 355 What Is a Problem? 356 The Gestalt Approach 356 Representing a Problem in the Mind 356 The Idea of Insight 357 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Two Insight Problems 358 Functional Fixedness and Mental Set 359 D E M O N S T R AT I O N The Candle Problem 359 The Information-Processing Approach 362 Newell and Simon’s Approach 362 D E M O N S T R AT I O N The Tower of Hanoi Problem 363 The Importance of How a Problem Is Stated 366 The Mutilated Checkerboard Problem D E M O N S T R AT I O N 366 METHOD Think-Aloud Protocol 368 TEST YOUR SELF 12.1 369 Using Analogies to Solve Problems 369 Analogical Transfer 369 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Duncker’s Radiation Problem 370 Analogical Encoding 372 Analogy in the Real World 373 METHOD In Vivo Problem-Solving Research 373 How Experts Solve Problems 374 Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems 374 Expertise Is Only an Advantage in the Expert’s Specialty 376 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 17 4/18/18 6:55 PM  xviii  Contents Creative Problem Solving 376 What Is Creativity? 377 Practical Creativity 377 Generating Ideas 378 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Creating an Object 380 Creativity and the Brain 381 Opening the Mind to Think “Outside the Box” 382 METHOD Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation 382 Brain “Preparation” for Insight and Analytical Problem Solving 382 Networks Associated with Creativity 383 Something to Consider: Wired to Create: Things Creative People Do Differently 386 Daydreaming 386 Solitude 387 Mindfulness 388 TEST YOUR SELF 12.2 389 Chapter Summary 390 Think About It 391 Key Terms 391 CHAPTER 13 Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning 393 Inductive Reasoning: Making Judgments from Observations 394 The Availability Heuristic 396 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Which Is More Prevalent? 396 The Representativeness Heuristic 398 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Judging Occupations 398 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Description of a Person 399 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Male and Female Births 400 Attitudes Can Affect Judgment 400 Evaluating False Evidence 402 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 3. 1 404 Deductive Reasoning: Syllogisms and Logic 404 Categorical Syllogisms 404 Mental Models of Deductive Reasoning 407 Conditional Syllogisms 409 Conditional Reasoning: The Wason Four-Card Problem 410 D E M O N S T R AT I O N The Wason Four-Card Problem 411 TEST YOUR SELF 13.2 413 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 18 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xix Decision Making: Choosing Among Alternatives 413 The Utility Approach to Decisions 413 How Emotions Affect Decisions 416 Decisions Can Depend on the Context Within Which They Are Made 417 Decisions Can Depend on How Choices Are Presented 418 D E M O N S T R AT I O N What Would You Do? 419 Neuroeconomics: The Neural Basis of Decision Making 420 Something to Consider: The Dual Systems Approach to Thinking 422 Postscript: Donders Returns 424 TEST YOUR SELF 13.3 424 Chapter Summary 425 Think About It 426 Key Terms 427 CogLab Experiment 427 GLOSSARY 428 REFERENCES 445 NAME INDEX 475 SUBJECT INDEX 483 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 19 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 20 4/18/18 6:55 PM  CogLab Experiments Numbers in parentheses refer to the experiment number Attentional Blink (8)* Testing your ability to detect stimuli in CogLab. that are presented in rapid succession. The first experiments in each chapter are “Primary Experiments” Change Detection (9) A task involving detecting changes in that are directly or closely related to discussion in the text. alternating scenes. Inhibition of Return (10) Inhibition of return (10) How Asterisks (*) indicate “Related Experiments.” These presentation of a target away from fixation can cause a experiments are relevant to the topic of the chapter, but are not slowing of responding. directly related to the discussion in the text. Simon Effect (11)* How speed and accuracy of responding Chapter 1 are affected by the location of the response Simple Detection (2) A simple reaction time task that to a stimulus. measures how fast you react to the appearance of a dot. Spatial Cueing (12) How cueing attention affects reaction Chapter 2 time to the cued area. Evidence for the spotlight model of Brain Asymmetry (15)* How speed of processing for shapes attention. and words may be different in the left and right hemispheres. Stroop Effect (13) How reaction time to naming font colors is affected by the presence of conflicting information from Chapter 3 words. Signal Detection (1)* Collect data that demonstrate the Von Restorff Effect (32)* How the distinctiveness of a principle behind the theory of signal detection, which stimulus can influence memory. explains the processes behind detecting hard-to-detect stimuli. Chapter 5 Apparent Motion (3) Determining how fast two dots have Modality Effect (17)* How memory for the last one to be flashed, one after another, to achieve an illusion of or two items in a list depends on whether the list is movement. heard or read. Garner Interference: Integral Dimensions (4)* Making Partial Report (18) The partial report condition of light-dark judgments for a square. A one-dimensional task. Sperling’s iconic memory experiment. Garner Interference: Separable Dimensions (5)* Brown-Peterson Task (20) How memory for trigrams Making light-dark judgments for squares of different sizes. fades. An additional dimension is added. Position Error (21)* Memory errors when trying to Müller-Lyer Illusion (6)* Measure the size of a visual remember the order of a series of letters. illusion. Sternberg Search (22)* A method to determine how Blind Spot (14)* Map the blind spot in your visual field that information is retrieved from short-term memory. is caused by the fact that there are no receptors where the Irrelevant Speech Effect (22) How recall for items on a list optic nerve leaves the eye. is affected by the presence of irrelevant speech. Metacontrast Masking (16)* How presentation of a Memory Span (24) Measuring memory span for numbers, masking stimulus can impair perception of another stimulus. letters, and words. Categorical Perception: Discrimination (39)* Operation Span (25) Measuring the operation-word span, Demonstration of categorical perception based on the a measure of working memory. ability to discriminate between sounds. Phonological Similarity Effect (26) How recall for items Categorical Perception: Identification (40)* on a list is affected by how similar the items sound. Demonstration of categorical perception based on the Word Length Effect (27) Measurement of the word length identification of different sound categories. effect. Statistical Learning (47) How learning can occur in Von Restorff Effect (32)* How the distinctiveness of a response to exposure to sequences of forms. stimulus can influence memory. Chapter 4 Neighborhood Size Effect (42)* How recall in a short- Visual Search (7) Feature search experiment. Searching for term memory task is affected by the size of a word’s a green circle among blue lines, with different numbers “neighborhood” (how many words can be created by of blue lines. changing a letter or phoneme). xxi Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 21 4/18/18 6:55 PM  xxii  CogLab Experiments Chapter 6 Chapter 10 Suffix Effect (19)* How adding an irrelevant item to the end Link Word (37) A demonstration of how imagery can be of a list affects recall for the final items on a list in a serial used to help learn foreign vocabulary. position experiment. Mental Rotation (38) How a stimulus can be rotated in Serial Position (31) How memory for a list depends on an the mind to determine whether its shape matches another item’s position on the list. stimulus. Remember/Know (36) Distinguishing between remembered items in which there is memory for learning the item and Chapter 11 items that just seem familiar. Categorical Perception: Identification (40)* Implicit Learning (45) How we can learn something Demonstration of categorical perception based on the without being aware of the learning. identification of different sound categories. Categorical Perception: Discrimination (39)* Chapter 7 Demonstration of categorical perception based on the Encoding Specificity (28) How memory is affected by ability to discriminate between sounds. conditions at both encoding and retrieval, and the relation Lexical Decision (41) Demonstration of the lexical between them. decision task. Levels of Processing (29) How memory is influenced by Neighborhood Size Effect (42)* How recall in a short- depth of processing. term memory task is affected by the size of a word’s Von Restorff Effect (32)* How the distinctiveness of a “neighborhood” (how many words can be created by stimulus can influence memory. changing a letter or phoneme). Production Effect (30)* How memory depends on whether Word Superiority (43) How speed of identifying a letter words are read out loud or silently. compares when the letter is isolated or in a word. Chapter 8 False Memory (33) How memory for words on a list Chapter 12 sometimes occurs for words that were not presented. None Forgot it All Along Effect (34) How it is possible to Chapter 13 remember something and also have the experience of having Monty Hall (49)* A simulation of the Monty Hall previously forgotten it three-door problem, which involves an understanding of Memory Judgment (35) A test of how accurate people are probability. at predicting their memory performance. Decision Making (48) An experiment that demonstrates Chapter 9 how decisions can be affected by the context within which Lexical Decision (41) Demonstration of the lexical the decision is made. decision task, which has been used to provide evidence for Risky Decisions (50) How decision making is influenced by the concept of spreading activation. framing effects. Absolute Identification (44)* Remembering levels that Typical Reasoning (51) How the representativeness have been associated with a stimulus. heuristic can lead to errors of judgment. Prototypes (46) A method for studying the effect of Wason Selection Task (52) Two versions of the Wason concepts on responding. four-card problem. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 22 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Demonstrations Chapter 3 Chapter 9 Perceptual Puzzles in a Scene 62 Family Resemblance 269 Visualizing Scenes and Objects 75 Listing Common Features 274 Chapter 4 Naming Things 274 The Stroop Effect 100 Chapter 10 Change Detection 117 Mental Scanning 301 Searching for Conjunctions 121 Method of Loci 313 Chapter 5 Chapter 12 Digit Span 139 Two Insight Problems 358 Remembering Letters 141 The Candle Problem 359 Reading Text and Remembering Numbers 144 The Tower of Hanoi Problem 363 Articulatory Suppression 146 The Mutilated Checkerboard Problem 366 Comparing Objects 146 Duncker’s Radiation Problem 370 Recalling Visual Patterns 147 Creating an Object 380 Holding a Spatial Stimulus in the Mind 148 Chapter 13 Chapter 6 Which Is More Prevalent? 396 Reading a Passage 168 Judging Occupations 398 Mirror Drawing 181 Description of a Person 399 Chapter 7 Male and Female Births 400 Remembering a List 195 The Wason Four-Card Problem 411 Chapter 8 What Would You Do? 419 Reading Sentences 240 Memory for a List 242 Reading Sentences 258 xxiii Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 23 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Methods Chapter 2 Chapter 8 Recording from a Neuron 30 Repeated Recall 233 Demonstrating a Double Dissociation 40 Presenting Misleading Postevent Information 244 Brain Imaging 41 Chapter 9 Resting-State Functional Connectivity 46 Sentence Verification Technique 270 Chapter 3 Lexical Decision Task 279 Brain Ablation 82 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) 292 Chapter 4 Chapter 10 Precueing 106 Paired-Associate Learning 299 Experience Sampling 113 Mental Scanning 301 Chapter 5 Recording from Single Neurons in Humans 305 Recall 138 Chapter 11 Change Detection 139 Lexical Priming 327 Event-Related Potential 156 Syntactic Priming 345 Chapter 6 Chapter 12 Measuring Recognition Memory 168 Think-Aloud Protocol 368 Remember/Know Procedure 176 In Vivo Problem-Solving Research 373 Avoiding Explicit Remembering in a Priming Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation 382 Experiment 183 Chapter 7 Cued Recall 203 Multivoxel Pattern Analysis (MVPA) 213 xxiv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 24 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Preface to Instructors The Evolution of a Cognitive Psychology Textbook This edition is the culmination of a process that began in 2002, when I decided to write the first edition of this book. From a survey of more than 500 instructors and my conversations with colleagues, it became apparent that many teachers were looking for a text that not only covers the field of cognitive psychology but is also accessible to students. From my teaching of cognitive psychology, it also became apparent that many students perceive cognitive psy- chology as being too abstract and theoretical, and not connected to everyday experience. With this information in hand, I set out to write a book that would tell the story of cognitive psychology in a concrete way that would help students appreciate the connections between empirical research, the principles of cognitive psychology, and everyday experience. I did a number of things to achieve this result. I started by including numerous real-life examples in each chapter, and neuropsychological case studies where appropriate. To provide students with firsthand experience with the phenomena of cognitive psychology, I included more than 40 Demonstrations—easy-to-do mini-experiments that were con- tained within the narrative of the text—as well as 20 additional suggestions of things to try, throughout the chapters. The Demonstrations in this edition are listed on page xxi. One thing I avoided was simply presenting the results of experiments. Instead, when- ever possible, I described how experiments were designed, and what participants were doing, so students would understand how results were obtained. In addition, most of these descriptions were supported by illustrations such as pictures of stimuli, diagrams of the ex- perimental design, or graphs of the results. Students also received access to more than 45 online CogLab experiments that they could run themselves and could then compare their data to the class average and to the results of the original experiments from the literature. The first edition (2005) therefore combined many elements designed to achieve the goal of covering the basic principles of cognitive psychology in a way that students would find interesting and easy to under- stand. My goal was for students to come away feeling excited about the field of cognitive psychology. The acceptance of the first edition was gratifying, but one thing I’ve learned from years of teaching and textbook writing is that there are always explanations that can be clarified, new pedagogical techniques to try, and new research and ideas to describe. With this in mind as I began preparing the second edition (2008), I elicited feedback from students in my classes and received more than 1,500 written responses indicating areas in the first edition that could be improved. In addition, I also received feedback from instructors who had used the first edition. This feedback was the starting point for the second edition, and I repeated this process of eliciting student and instructor feedback for the third and fourth editions, as well. Thus, in addition to updating the science, I revised many sections that students and instructors had flagged as needing clarification. Retained Features All of the features described above were well received by students and instructors, and so they are continued in this new fifth edition. Additional pedagogical features that have been retained from previous editions include Test Yourself sections, which help students review the material, and end-of-chapter Think About It questions, which ask students to consider questions that go beyond the material. xxv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 25 4/18/18 6:55 PM  xxvi  Preface to Instructors Methods sections, which were introduced in the second edition, highlight the inge- nious methods cognitive psychologists have devised to study the mind. Over two dozen Methods sections, which are integrated into the text, describe methods such as brain im- aging, the lexical decision task, and think-aloud protocols. This not only highlights the importance of the method but makes it easier to return to its description when it is referred to later in the text. See page xxiv for a list of Methods. The end-of-chapter Something to Consider sections describe cutting-edge research, important principles, or applied research. A few examples of topics covered in this section are Technology Determines What Questions We Can Ask (Chapter 2); Autobiographical Memories Determined by Odors and Music (Chapter 8); and The Dual Systems Approach to Thinking (Chapter 13). Chapter Summaries provide succinct outlines of the chapters, without serving as a substitute for reading the chapters. What Is New in the Fifth Edition As with previous editions of this book, this edition features updates to material throughout, and in a few cases chapters have been rewritten or reorganized to improve clarity and ped- agogy. One indication of the updating of this edition is the inclusion of 96 new boldfaced terms in the text, which also appear in the Glossary. Following is a list that highlights a few of the new or updated topics in this edition. Italicized items are new section headings. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology ➤➤ What is consciousness? fMRI study of a comatose person. ➤➤ Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts ➤➤ The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Neuroscience ➤➤ Structural Connectivity ➤➤ Functional Connectivity ➤➤ Method: Resting State Functional Connectivity ➤➤ The Default Mode Network ➤➤ The Dynamics of Cognition ➤➤ Technology Determines What Questions We Can Ask CHAPTER 3 Perception ➤➤ Knowledge, Inference, and Prediction. CHAPTER 4 Attention ➤➤ Method: Experience Sampling ➤➤ Distraction Caused by Mind Wandering ➤➤ Prediction controlling eye movements ➤➤ Attentional Networks ➤➤ Effective connectivity CHAPTER 5 Short-Term and Working Memory ➤➤ Why Is More Working Memory Better? Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 08271_fm_ptg01.indd 26 4/18/18 6:55 PM  Preface to Instructors   xxvii CHAPTER 6 Long-Term Memory: Structure ➤➤ Interactions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory ➤➤ Loss of Semantic Memory Can Affect Episodic Memories ➤➤ Back to the Future (Episodic memory and imagining the future, updated) ➤➤ Procedural Memory and Attention ➤➤ A Connection Between Procedural Memory and Semantic Memory CHAPTER 7 Long-Term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval ➤➤ The involvement of hippocampus in remote memory—fMRI evidence. ➤➤ Alternative Explanations in Cognitive Psychology CHAPTER 8 Everyday Memory and Memory Errors ➤➤ Music and Odor-Elicited Autobiographical Memories CHAPTER 10 Visual Imagery ➤➤ Individual Differences in Imagery ➤➤ Contrasting object imagery and spatial imagery CHAPTER 11 Language ➤➤ Major revision: 25 references deleted; 30 new references added; 11 figures replaced by 8 new figures; 17 new key terms ➤➤ Updated: Garden path sentences; multiple meanings of words; common ground in conversation. ➤➤ Language and Music CHAPTER 12 Problem Solving and Creativity ➤➤ Brain “Preparation” for Insight and Analytical Problem Solutions ➤➤ Opening the Mind to Think “Outside the Box” ➤➤ Networks Associated With Creativity ➤➤ Wired to Create: Things Creative People Do Differently ➤➤ Method: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation CHAPTER 13 Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning ➤➤ Poor decision making in the NBA draft. ➤➤ Evaluating false evidence, linking to idea of fake news ➤➤ Illusory truth, backfire effect ➤➤ Neuroeconomics, updated Ancillarie