Psych Exam 2 Notes PDF

Consciousness Awareness States of Consciousness - Sleep and Dreaming - Drug States - Hypnosis Attention - Paying from limited resources - Selective attention - Divided attention - Dichotic listening States of Consciousness Highe...

Consciousness Awareness States of Consciousness - Sleep and Dreaming - Drug States - Hypnosis Attention - Paying from limited resources - Selective attention - Divided attention - Dichotic listening States of Consciousness Higher-level: controlled processes–totally aware Lower-level: automatic processing (daydreaming, phone #s) Altered States: produced through drugs, fatigue, hypnosis Subconscious: sleeping and dreaming No awareness: knocked out Metacognition: thinking about thinking Selective Attention ”Cocktail Party” phenomenon/ “Kegger” phenomenon Selectively choosing who and what you are paying attention to one stimuli and ignore everything else - Sensory Adaptation: brain keeps you from attending everything, so shuts off all the noise you don’t need to pay attention to, to one singular thing Dichotic Listening: use two ears to listen - Headphones - hears message in one side, and pay attention to everything else in one ear (Attended Message); instructed to pay attention to - Unattended Message - ignore the message in the other ear - Shadowing - shadowing a message, repeat someone elses message a lil behind; recorded message, you can repeat the same message back - Shadowing allows for a slight focus on the Unattended message - Allows for someone to selectively attend to a message without being distracted; ignore - Multi-tasking/Divided Attention - Automaticity: requires no attention e.g., Your Name, Your Mom, Loud Noise, Big Changes in your environment, Naked People, predators, etc  Consciousness Ways of studying consciousness (better to combine) 1. Structuralism - Introspection (asking the questions and answering yourself) 2. Behaviorism 3. Psychophysiology 4. Subjective Report - e.g. how are you feeling, creative or not? Sad or not? (Questions asked by a second party to you) Altered states of consciousness 1. Dreaming 2. Drug states 3. Hypnosis 4. Meditation 5. Near death experiences Sleep and Dreaming Stages of Sleep - Stage 1 and stage 2: light sleep - Stage 3 and stage 4: deep sleep - Rem (rapid eye movement): dreaming, longer rem sleep right before waking up, as cycles go, rem increases - Non-rem sleep: sleep in any stage besides rem - EEG Waves: different waves by each stage ➔ Awake: beta waves ➔ Drowsy, relaxes: alpha waves ➔ Stage 1: theta waves, light sleep ➔ Stage 2: sleep spindles, K complexes ➔ Stage 3: delta waves  ➔ Stage 4: deep sleep ➔ REM: fast, random → dreaming - REM sleep: ➔ Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep ◆ Eyes move rapidly ◆ Dreams: wake up a person from Stage 2, Stage 4, or REM Sleep–they report their dreams ◆ “Paradoxical sleep” = voluntary muscles essentially paralyzed, but other body systems are active Genital arousal Increased heart rate, breathing ➔ NREM sleep- any stage that’s not REM ➔ Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs in between/with each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night REM rebound - Increased amounts of REM after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights - when you don't get enough sleep to make it to rem stage, when you do have longer sleep then rem stage will appear more often or take longer - Fatigue, irritability, lucidity, etc. How much sleep? - Sleep pattern changes with age ➔ 3-5 months: ~8 hrs of non-rem sleep,~7 hrs in rem sleep, ~9 hrs awake ➔ 19-30: ~6hrs non-rem sleep, ~2hrs rem sleep, ~16 hrs awake ➔ 75-85: ~4 non-rem sleep, ~ sum of parts - Sudden and unpredictable - Kohler Both… Sometimes insight, sometimes trial & error Prior Knowledge Sometimes, prior knowledge is useful: - Reproductive problem solving: using knowledge … Problem Solving And Creativity 12 x 12 = 144 Long-term Memory 12 x 13 = 156 LTM + memory for math rules Reproductive Problem Solving Using known solutions Anagram: rearrange letters to make one word - THO → HOT 1. Rearrange letters 2. Check to see if it is a word Continue until all arrangements have been checked Algorithm: step-by-step solution, follow the rule until the solution is reached legal letter combinations Pronounceable Compound words Known prefixes and suffixes Heuristics “Rules of thumb” Usually work (not always) Shortcuts Used by experts Representative Heuristics: make inferences based on your experience (like a steryotype) – assume someone must be a librarian because they’re quiet  Availability Heuristics: relying on availability of judge the frequency of something (over estimating death due to plane crashes due to events) Functional Fixedness: keep using one strategy — cannot think outside of the box Belief Bias: tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions Belief Preserverance: tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence Inductive reasoning: data driven decisions, general → specific Deductive Reasoning: driven by logic, specific → general Divergent Thinking: ability to think about many different things at once Using known solutions Algorithms & Heuristics Rearrange to make one word: New Door Likely rearrangements: Redwood Woodenr Answer: One Word Creative Problem Solving 4 stages - Preparation - fixation → prior knowledge to try and solve the problem - Incubation: time you put the fixated problem aside - Illumination (insight): “now I get it” Sometimes, prior knowledge is an impediment Fixation & Mental Set Effects Prepared to solve a problem a certain way, using prior knowledge Functional Fixedness (Fixation) Effects Ex. two string problem Insight Problems  Solution appears suddenly … —----------------------------------------------------------- 10/17/24 Motivation and Emotion Drive reduction theory Hunger Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Yerkes-Dodson law (optimal arousal) Emotion: Valence & Intensity Theories of emotion: James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Cognitive (2-factor) Motivation & Emotion Sources of psychological energy or arousal - Sympathetic nervous system is aroused to motivation or emotional energy - Energy source that “pushes” and “directs” behavior - Fulfill your motivational need - Energy Source: “seek sex or die in pain” Example: - Choose between: video games, pizza, or conversation Motivation is affected by: - States – fast changing - Traits – personality Motivation vs. Learning - 1st have to learn how to do something to be able to feel motivation to continue doing that thing - Learning has to do more with direction Instinct: complex behaviors that have fixed patterns and are not learned (explains animal motivation) Drive Reduction Theory – Hull - Drive: energy that “drives” someone to do something, changes in motivational state (driven by homeostasis:equilibrium) - Long-term - Primary Drive: unlearned drive based on survival (hunger, thirst) - Secondary Drive: learned drive (wealth or success) Motivation Drive Reduction Theory - Drive = Motivation (Arousal)  Deprivation → Need → (Push) Drive or (Direct) Learning (Habit, S-R) → Consummatory Behavior - Motivation is a reduction theory as it reduces/stops this drive - Ex: Hungry for Food Take two rats from the same liter, hungry deprive one for an hour and then another for 8 hours; measure how fast they would run for the reward; will receive/reward Hunger and the Brain Lateral hypothalamus - If removed, you will never be hungry - When stimulated makes you hungry, when lesioned you will never eat again Ventromedial hypothalamus - If removed, you will feel hungry all the time - When stimulated you feel full, when destroyed you eat - Leptin: signals the brain to reduce appetite - Rat with a lesion in its Ventromedial Hypothalamus Food does not linger in the stomach of the VMH rat long enough to trigger feelings of fullness. The rat continues to eat as long as it has good-tasting food. Signals of Hunger: - Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry - Glucose (sugar): level is maintained by the pancreas (endocrine system) - Insulin: decreases glucose, too little glucose → hungry - Orexin is released by the hypothalamus – telling us to eat - Other Chemicals: Ghrelin, Obestatin, and PPY Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Top to bottom (pyramid): fundamental needs have to be met before one can deal with psychological and self-actualization needs 1 - Self-actualization needs - Fulfillment of one’s talent and potential, a need present in everyone - State of being where everything is fantastic, peak experience - Motivated to be the best person possible, to always be happy, etc. (not always possible but we try to be close as possible) - Psychological needs  - Esteem Needs & Belongingness and Love Needs - Fundamental (basic) needs - Safety and security needs - Physiological needs - Fulfill only basic needs, once fulfilled will be motivated to achieve other needs Intrinsic Motivation: inner motivation – you do it b/c you like it Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain a reward (trophy) Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal Level of Arousal Graph of tasks performance and arousal level - ‘Best’ in the middle (optimal or best/ideal level); goes up and then at middle point it starts goin down - Difficult Task: - Low → Arousal Level - Optimal Best is lower than arousal level–too low you still so sleepy, arousal level → test anxiety - Easy Task: - Arousal Level → High - More caffeine to get the arousal up to do better on the task, but not too high you are too confident - Hypoactive People: - Low → Arousal Level - Low level or arousal to do best - Hyperactive People: - High level of arousal to do best: ex. Need loud and interactive environment to focus - Adderall given to ADHD, able to focus better on that level of arousal Emotion How to Assess Someone’s Emotion - Subjective report: when you ask someone how they feel - Behavior: Body Language and Face Expressions - Physiological responses: what their body is doing - Increased Heart Rate: In love or Pissed Off? - Valence + Low Intensity High - Valence: rate the emotion, positive or negative - Intensity: low/strong emotions, rate intensity Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory (Slow Path)  - SE → Physiological Response → Experience of Emotion - SE: Emotional Stimulus - Ex: Carnivore Finna Eat you, etc - Stimulus causes the body to react fast; sweating, heart-beating - Bodily reaction is reacting through experience of emotion → scared, mind reacts after (cerebral cortex) - Body Reflex Cannon-Bard Theory (Fast Path) - SE → Thalamus → Experience of Emotion or Physiological Response Suggest that if the body has a reaction, you will have a physical reaction for one emotion, and another physical reaction for a different emotion Regardless of emotional stage (happy, grossed-out, in love) showed the same reaction (sympathetic reaction) James-Lange theory doesn't work because it states every emotion will result in the same reaction Thalamus will send two different signals at once Schacter’s Cognitive Theory of Emotion (2-factor) - Memories, SE, & Physiological Arousal → Cognitive Appraisal → Experience of Emotion - Some stimuli are routed directly to the amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut reaction to a cockroach) - Behavioral Factors: 6 universal emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, dsigust, fear) seen across ALL cultures - Non-verbal Cues: gestures, duchenne smile (can tell a real smile from a fake one) - Facial Feedback Hypothesis: being forced to smile will make you happier (facial expressions influence emotion) Sexuality Biology of Sex: ○ Hypothalamus: stimulation increases sexual behavior, destruction leads to sexual inhibition ○ Pituitary Gland: monitors, initiates, and restricts hormones Males: Testosterone Females: Estrogen ○ Sexual Response Pattern: excitement phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period (resolution phase)(cannot “fire” again until you reset, guys only)  Alfred Kinsey: 1st researcher to conduct studies in sex, suggested that people were very promiscous. Studies lacked a representative sample, created a scale of homosexuality Homosexuality: biological roots: differences in the brain, identical twins more likely to both be gay, later sons more likely to be (hormones from mom) Stress and Health General Adapatation Syndrome (GAS): 3 phases of a stress responses (SELYE came up with this) ○ Alarm: body; you freak out in response to stress ○ Resistance: body; you are dealing with stress ○ Exhaustion: body; you cannot take any stress Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person, perfectionist. - Risk for heart disease Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed