PSY 11 Cognitive Psychology SLM 2 PDF

PSY 11 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SLM 2 | LESSON 3 & 4 Instructor: Haira Aguinaldo | BS Psychology 4P3 1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025 First, it helps in monitoring our interactions with the...

PSY 11 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SLM 2 | LESSON 3 & 4 Instructor: Haira Aguinaldo | BS Psychology 4P3 1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025 First, it helps in monitoring our interactions with the LESSON 3 environment. Through such monitoring, we maintain ATTENTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS our awareness of how well we are adapting to the ATTENTION refers to systems involved in the selection situation in which we find ourselves. and prioritization of information processing. Also, it is the means by which we actively process a limited Second, it assists us in linking our past experiences amount of information from the enormous amount of (memories) and our present (sensations) to give a information available through our senses, our stored sense of continuity of experience. Such continuity memories, and our other cognitive processes. may even serve as the basis for personal identity. It includes both conscious and unconscious processes Third, it helps us in controlling and planning for our (a) conscious processes are relatively easy future actions. We can do so based on the to study because of a mental operation of information from monitoring and from the links which a person is explicitly aware and often in between past memories and present sensations. control while Some information that currently is outside our conscious awareness still may be available to (b) unconscious processes are harder to study consciousness or at least to cognitive processes. because of lack of awareness or outside of Information that is available for cognitive processing awareness. For example, you always have but that currently lies outside conscious awareness available to you your memory of where you exists at the preconscious level of awareness, where it slept when you were ten years old, but you includes stored memories that we are not using at a probably do not often process the information given time but that we could summon when needed. actively. You have very little reliable information about what happens when you PRIMING PHENOMENON occurs when recognition of sleep. Additionally, the contents of attention certain stimuli is affected by prior presentation of can reside either within or outside of similar stimuli. This phenomenon is what the awareness. Psychologists have solved about the problem of how we can study things that lie outside conscious CONSCIOUSNESS includes both feelings of awareness awareness. For example, if a child sees a bag of and the content of awareness, some of which may candy next to a red bench, they might begin looking be under the focus of attention. Therefore, attention for or thinking about candy the next time they see a and consciousness form two partially overlapping bench. sets. At one time, psychologists believed that attention was the same thing as consciousness. Now, TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE PHENOMENON occurs when one however, they acknowledge that some active tries to remember something that is known to be attentional processing of sensory information and the stored in memory but that cannot easily be retrieved. remembered information proceeds without our In a study, it was found out that some participants conscious awareness. For example, at this time of could not come up with the word but thought they your life, writing your own name requires no conscious knew it. These results indicate that particular awareness. You may write it while consciously preconscious information, although not fully engaged in other activities – although not if you are accessible to conscious thinking, is still available to completely unconscious. In contrast, writing a name attentional processes. that you have never encountered requires attention to the sequence of letters. FOUR MAIN FUNCTIONS OF ATTENTION ❖ SIGNAL DETECTION AND VIGILANCE is when we The benefit of attention is particularly salient try to detect the appearance of a particular when referring to conscious attentional processes. In stimulus. Vigilance refers to a person’s ability to addition to the overall value of attention, conscious attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged attention served three purposes in playing a causal period, during which the person seeks to detect role for cognition. the appearance of a particular target stimulus of interest. On many occasions, we vigilantly try to  PYS 11 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2 LESSON 3 -4 detect whether we target a stimulus of interest. attentional resources to allocate them prudently, Through vigilant detection to detecting signals, as needed. It is studied by presenting at least two we are primed to take speedy action when we stimulus inputs at the same time. However, it do not detect signal stimuli. differs from focused attention in that individuals are instructed they must attend (and respond) to SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY is a framework that all stimulus inputs. It is also known as multitasking; explains how people pick out the few important it provides useful information about our stimuli when they are embedded in a wealth of processing limitations and the capacity of irrelevant, distracting stimuli. It is relevant in the attentional mechanisms. Research on divided context of attention in terms of whether one is paying attention has shown that with practice, people enough attention to perceive objects that are there. can learn to simultaneously do two things that at FOUR POSSIBLE OUTCOMES OF SIGNAL DETECTION first may have seemed fairly difficult. THEORY HITS (TRUE POSITIVES) is when we correctly identify THEORIES OF SELECTIVE ATTENTION the presence of a target. DICHOTIC LISTENING is the process of receiving different auditory messages presented simultaneously FALSE ALARMS (FALSE POSITIVES) is when we to each ear. This kind of experiment was done by incorrectly identify the presence of a target that Colin Cherry in which dichotic listening is when one is actually absent. message is presented to the left ear and another message is presented to the right ear. Participants are MISSES (FALSE NEGATIVES) is when we fail to instructed to pay attention to one message (the observe the presence of a target. attended message) and to ignore the other one (the unattended message) and to repeat the attended CORRECT REJECTIONS (TRUE NEGATIVES) is when message out loud, as they are hearing it. This we correctly identify the absence of a target. procedure of repeating a message out loud is called shadowing. The shadowing procedure is used to ❖ SEARCH refers to a scan of the environment for ensure that the participants are focusing their attention on the attended message (Figure below). particular features; made difficult with distracters a non-target stimulus that divert our attention away from the stimulus. Trying to locate a particular brand of an item in a grocery store or a particular key term in a crowded textbook are examples of search. It is also made difficult by distracters, non-target stimuli that divide our attention away from the target stimulus. ❖ SELECTIVE ATTENTION is the ability to stay focus on BROADBENT MODEL posits that stimuli are filtered, or one message and ignore all others; it is studied by selected to be attended to, at an early stage during presenting individuals with two or more stimulus processing. Donald Broadbent’s filter model was one inputs at the same time and instructing them to of the first to describe the human as an information respond to only one. It tells how effectively we processor, and it was the first to depict the course of can select certain inputs and avoid being this information processing with a flow diagram. distracted by non-task inputs. It is also known as Broadbent’s model, which was designed to explain focused attention where we choose to attend to selective attention, states that information passes some stimuli and ignore others. through the following stages (Figure below). ❖ DIVIDED ATTENTION is when we prudently allocate our available attentional resources to coordinate our performance of more than one task at a time. We often manage to engage in more than one task at a time and we shift our 2  PYS 11 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2 LESSON 3 -4 ⮚ SENSORY MEMORY holds all of the incoming least some of the unattended message gets through the attenuator, Treisman’s model has been called a information for a fraction of a second and then “leaky filter” model. The final output of the system is transfers all of it to the next stage. determined in the second stage when the message is analyzed by the dictionary unit – it contains stored ⮚ THE FILTER identifies the attended message based words, each of which has thresholds for being on its physical characteristics— things like the activated. A threshold is the smallest signal strength speaker’s tone of voice, pitch, speed of talking, that can barely be detected. Thus, a word with a low and accent—and lets only this message pass threshold might be detected even when it is through to the detector in the next stage. All presented softly or is obscured by other words. other messages are filtered out. ⮚ THE DETECTOR processes information to determine higher-level characteristics of the message such as its meaning. Because only the important, attended information has been let through the filter, the detector processes all of the information that enters it. AUTOMATIC PROCESSING is a result of many trials of practice, a type of processing that occurs (1) without ⮚ SHORT-TERM MEMORY receives the output of the intention (it automatically happens without the detector. Short-term memory holds information person intending to do it), and (2) at a cost of only for 10–15 seconds and also transfers information some of a person’s cognitive resources. Example, one into long- term memory, which can hold student described a situation in which she used information indefinitely. automatic processing during her summer job working as a mail sorter at the post office. She found the job ATTENUATION MODEL involves a filtering mechanism. If to be boring but became so good at it that she could the stimuli possess those target properties, we pass listen to audiobooks as she sorted the mail. She said the signal on to the next stage; if they do not possess she was able to do so “unconsciously, without those target properties, we pass on a weakened thinking about it,” which is one of the properties of version of the stimulus. In a next step, we perceptually automatic processing. analyze the meaning of the stimuli and their relevance to us, so that even a message from the But what about the situation that occurred unattended ear that is supposedly irrelevant can when the boy ran out in front of Sam’s car? As soon come into consciousness and influence our as that happened, being on “automatic” no longer subsequent actions if it has some meaning for us. worked. Sam had to devote all of his attention to dealing with the emergency, and so was no longer Anne Treisman proposed that selection occurs in able to divide his attention among a number of tasks. stages, and she replace Broadbent’s filter with an Divided attention is affected when task difficulty is attenuator (Figure below) - analyzes the incoming increased. It simply means that automatic processing message in terms of (1) its physical is not possible when the tasks are difficult. characteristics—whether it is high-pitched or low-pitched, fast or slow, (2) its language—how the CONTROLLED PROCESSING refers to which the message groups into syllables or words, and (3) its individuals had to pay close attention at all times and meaning—how sequences of words create had to search for the target among the distractors in meaningful phrases. a much slower and more controlled way. It is accessible to conscious control and such processes Once the attended and unattended are performed serially. In other words, they occur one messages are identified, both messages are let step at a time. They take relatively long time to through the attenuator, but the attended message execute, at least as compared with automatic emerges at full strength, and the unattended processes. messages are attenuated—they are still present, but are weaker than the attended message. Because at 3  PYS 11 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2 LESSON 3 -4 HABITUATION involves becoming accustomed to a SKILLS describes that the more practiced and stimulus so that we gradually pay less and less skilled you are in performing a task, the more your attention to it; a response of being familiarized to a attention is enhanced. situation or certain stimulus. WHEN OUR ATTENTION FAILS US DISHABITUATION is a change in a familiar stimulus The real importance of attention becomes prompts us to start noticing the stimulus again; clear in situations in which we cannot concentrate. responding to the new stimulus as if it is new again. Cognitive neuropsychologists also have learned a great deal about attentional processes in the brain THEORIES OF DIVIDED ATTENTION by studying people who do not show normal ATTENTIONAL RESOURCES THEORY suggests that attentional processes, such as people who show attentional capacity can change size in reaction to specific attentional deficits and who are found to changes in task demands. As such, the performance have either lesions or inadequate blood flow in key decrements related with mental underload can be areas of the brain. explained by a lack of appropriate attentional resources. For example, most people can ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER is a brain simultaneously listen to music and concentrate on disorder that affects attention and controlling of writing. But it is harder to listen to news station and behavior. People with ADHD have difficulties in concentrate on writing at the same time. The reason focusing their attention in ways that enable them to is that both are verbal tasks. The words heard from the adapt in optimal ways to their environment. Three news interfere with the words you are thinking about. primary symptoms of this are inattention, hyperactivity Similarly, two visual tasks are more likely to interfere (i.e., levels of activity that exceed what is normally with each other than are a visual task coupled with shown by children of a given age), and impulsiveness. an auditory one. One is predominantly hyperactive- impulsive and the second is predominantly inattentive while the third RESOURCE THEORY explains that each complex task combines inattentiveness with hyperactivity and becomes increasingly automatized, performance of impulsiveness. each task makes fewer demands on limited- capacity attentional resources. It was found out that The condition was first described by Dr. working on more than one task at the same time not Heinrich Hoffman in 1845. Until today, no one knows only makes you slower but also increases your for sure its cause but it may be partially a heritable chances of making mistakes. Your reaction time goes condition and some evidences are link to maternal down by up to one second when you do two things smoking and drinking alcohol during pregnancy. It is at once. often treated with a combination of psychotherapy and drugs. Interestingly, in children, the rate of boys FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE OUR ABILITY TO PAY who are given medication for treatment of ADHD is ATTENTION more than double that of girls. However, in adults, the ANXIETY refers to being anxious, either by nature number of studies has noted that, although (trait-based anxiety) or by situation (state-based medication is a useful tool in the treatment, it is best anxiety), places constraints on attention. used in combination with behavioral interventions. AROUSAl is the state of being tired, drowsy, or CHANGE BLINDNESS is the inability to detect changes drugged, which may limit attention. Being in objects or scenes that are being viewed. In one excited sometimes enhances attention. study, a stranger asks by a bystander for directions. As the interaction proceeds, two workers carrying a TASK DIFFICULTY states that if you are working on wooden door walk between the stranger and the a task that is very difficult or novel for you, you’ll bystander. When the workers have passed by, the need more attentional resources than when you original bystander has been replaced by a different work on an easy or highly familiar task. It stranger (one of the workers). The interaction then particularly influences performance during continues as before. How likely to you think that it is divided attention. that the bystander would notice that the person to whom he or she is talking is no longer the same person? Oddly enough, only about half of the 4  PYS 11 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2 LESSON 3 -4 bystanders notice that a switch has been made. ✔ Cued Recall Task is also called as Many do not even notice the change when they are “paired-associates recall” where one must explicitly told that the person to whom they are memorize a list of paired items; then when you talking is not the one with whom are given one item in the pair, you must recall the they originally were conversing. pair for that item. INATTENTIONAL BLINDNESS is a phenomenon in which IMPLICIT MEMORY is described when we use people are not able to see things that is actually information but are not consciously aware that we there and where failure to notice the existence of an are doing so. Everyday we engage in many tasks that unexpected item. For example, a person would be involve your unconscious recollection of information. going through a red light while driving because your Even when you read this, you are unconsciously are attention was focused on texting. remembering various things. LESSON 4 EXPLICIT MEMORY is when one engages in conscious MEMORY recollection. For example, they might recall or MEMORY is the means by which we retain and draw recognize words, facts, or pictures from a particular on our past experiences to use that information in the prior set of items. present. Also, it refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with storing, retaining, and retrieving COMMON OPERATIONS OF MEMORY information about past experience. ❖ ENCODING refers to transforming of sensory data into a form of mental representation. The fact that memory retains information that is no longer present means that we can use our memory as a “time machine” to go back just a ❖ STORAGE is to keep encoded information in moment—to the words you read at the beginning of memory. this sentence—or many years—to events as early as a childhood birthday party. This “mental time travel” ❖ RETRIEVAL is pulling out or use information stored afforded by memory can place you back in a in memory. situation, so you feel as though you are reliving it, MODELS OF MEMORY, ATKINSON & RICHARD SHIFFRIN even to the extent of experiencing feelings that were (1968) occurring long ago. But memory goes beyond re-experiencing events. We also use memory to ❖ SENSORY STORE is capable of storing information remember what we need to do later in the day, to limited amounts of information for very brief remember facts we have learned, and to use skills we periods; initial repository; an initial stage that have acquired. holds all incoming information for seconds or TASKS USED IN MEASURING MEMORY fractions of a second. RECALL is when one produces a fact, a word, or other item from memory. Fill-in- the-blank and most essay ❖ SHORT-TERM STORE is capable of storing test requires that you recall items from memory. information for a few seconds and occasionally up to couple of minutes; holds 5–7 items for RECOGNITION is when you select or otherwise identify about 15–30 seconds. an item as being one that you have been exposed to previously. Multiple-choice and true-false tests involve ❖ LONG-TERM STORE is capable of large capacity some degree of this. TYPES OF RECALL of storing information for long periods, perhaps even indefinitely; can hold a large amount of ✔ Serial Recall Task refers to the recalling items in information for years or even decades. the exact order in which they were presented. LEVELS OF PROCESSING MODEL (CRAIK AND TULVING, 1975) ✔ Free Recall Task Is the repeating items in a list of postulates that memory does not comprise any order. three or even any specific number of separate stores, but rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding. 5  PYS 11 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2 LESSON 3 -4 simplest tasks. The disease was first identified by ⮚ PHYSICAL refers to encoding physical qualities of Alois Alzheimer in 1907. The brains of people with the disease show plaques and tangles that are something. not found in normal brains. It is often diagnosed when memory is impaired and there is at least ⮚ PHONOLOGICAL refers to encoding sounds. one other are of dysfunction in the domains of language, motor, attention, executive function, ⮚ SEMANTIC refers to encoding the meaning of the personality, or object recognition. The symptoms word and relates to similar meaning. are gradual onset, and the progression is continuous and irreversible. Levels of Basis for Example Electroconvulsive Therapy involves the passing of an Processing Processing electric current through the brain in an effort to alleviate depression however; it was also observed Physical Visually apparent Word: TABLE that use of ECT causes memory loss. features of the Question: Is the letters word written in capital letters? ✔ MEMORY LOSS in the Normal Elderly have indicated that the normal elderly tends to show a Phonological Sound Word: CAT decline in recall ability but not in recognition combinations Question: associated with Does the ✔ AMNESIA refers to the severe loss of explicit the letters (e.g., word rhyme memory. The loss can be temporary or rhyming) with “MAT”? permanent. Its causes include head and brain Semantic Meaning of the Word: Daffodil injuries, certain drugs, alcohol, traumatic events, word or conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease. TYPES OF AMNESIA ⮚ RETROGRADE AMNESIA occurs when someone OTHER TYPES OF MEMORY EPISODIC MEMORY Stores personal experienced sustains a concussion. People with retrograde events or episodes. amnesia remember events today but may not remember memories that occurred before the DECLARATIVE MEMORY can be reported in a event that caused the amnesia. It usually affects deliberate and conscious way. more recently stored memories than older memories. PROCEDURAL MEMORY is demonstrated by performing some skilled procedure such as motor ⮚ ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA. Inability to remember task. events that occur after a traumatic event; Mnemonist is someone who demonstrates impaired capacity for new learning. People with extraordinarily keen memory ability usually based on anterograde amnesia may remember details using special techniques for memory enhancement. about their high school prom, for instance, but Perhaps, the most famous of mnemonists was a man have difficulty remembering what they ate for called “S”. A Russian Psychologist Alexander Luria lunch on the current day. discovered that the man’s memory appeared to have virtually no limits that he could reproduce ⮚ INFANTILE AMNESIA is also known as childhood extremely long strings of words, regardless of how much time had passed since the words has been amnesia, described as the inability of adults to presented to him. recall episodic events that occurred during the first few years of life (generally 0-3 years old and DISORDERS OF MEMORY the tendency to have sparse recollection of episodic experiences that occurred before the ✔ ALZHEIMER’ DISEASE is a progressive brain disorder age of ten. that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills and, eventually, the ability to carry out the 6