Chapter 4: Attention PDF

CHAPTER 4 ATTENTION Attention is the means by which we actively select and process a limited amount of information from all of the information captured by our senses, our stored memories, and our other cognitive processes. Consciousness includes both the feeling of awareness a...

CHAPTER 4 ATTENTION Attention is the means by which we actively select and process a limited amount of information from all of the information captured by our senses, our stored memories, and our other cognitive processes. Consciousness includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of awareness, some of which may be under the focus of attention Sensations + Memories + Thought processes Attention: Controlled processes (including consciousness) + Automatic processes Actions Driving a car It's cold in the car You think about your new study assignment You watch the street You notice a child running across the street in front of you You brake 4 MAIN FUNCTIONS OF ATTENTION Table 4.1 Four Main Functions of Attention Function Description Example Signal detection and a particular stimulus. We try to detect the vigilance appearance of In a research submarine, we may watch for unusual sonar blips; on a dark street, we may try to detect unwelcome sights or sounds;  following an earthquake, we may be wary of the smell of leaking gas or of smoke. Search We engage in an active If we detect smoke (as a search for particular result of our vigilance), we stimuli. may engage in an active search for the source of the smoke. We may search for missing keys, sunglasses, and other items. Selective attention We choose to attend to We may pay attention to some stimuli and ignore reading a textbook or to others. Focusing our listening to a lecture while attention helps us execute ignoring such stimuli as a other cognitive processes, nearby radio or latecomers such as verbal to the lecture. comprehension or problem solving. Divided attention We engage in more than Experienced drivers one task at a time, and we easily can talk while driving shift our attentional under most circumstances, resources to allocate them but if another vehicle is as needed. swerving toward their cars, they quickly switch all their attention toward driving (and away from talking). SIGNAL-DETECTION THEORY (SDT) A framework to explain how people pick out the important stimuli embedded in a wealth of irrelevant, distracting stimuli. SDT often is used to measure sensitivity to a target's presence. Signal Detection Matrix: SIGNAL  DETECT A SIGNAL DO NOT DETECT A SIGNAL Present Absent Hit False Alarm Miss Correct Rejection Vigilance - person's ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target stimulus of interest. SEARCH: ACTIVELY LOOKING Search refers to a scan of the environment for particular features-actively looking for something when you are not sure where it will appear Search is made more difficult by distracters, nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus. SEARCH: ACTIVELY LOOKING Feature Search - we look for just one feature (e.g., color, shape, or size) that makes our search object different from all others, therefore, the number of distracters does not really play a role in slowing us down. Conjunction Search - we have to combine two or more features to find the stimulus we're looking for. (a) (b) SEARCH: ACTIVELY LOOKING Feature-integration Theory explains why it is relatively easy to conduct feature searches and relatively difficult to conduct conjunction searches. According to Anne Treisman, 2 stages are involved when we perceive objects: According to Stage 1 Feature Search Stage 2 Conjunction Search Similarity Theory, the more similar target Analyze features (color, size, shape, orientation etc.) and distracters are, Combine features into object the more difficult it is to find the target. Can be done in parallel (all at once) Occurs at preattentive stage No display size effect Must be done sequentially (one object at a time) Requires attentional resources Display size effect present SELECTIVE ATTENTION Shadowing - listening to two different messages, presenting separate message to each ear, known as dichotic presentation. distinctive sensory characteristics of the target's speech (e.g., high versus low pitch, pacing, and rhythmicity) sound intensity (loudness) location of the sound source SELECTIVE ATTENTION Shadowing - listening to two different messages, presenting separate message to each ear, known as dichotic presentation. distinctive sensory characteristics of the target's speech (e.g., high versus low pitch, pacing, and rhythmicity) sound intensity (loudness) location of the sound source STUDENT A STUDENT B It was obvious she was hot, sweaty, and tired. There are over two: starfish in the bathroom drawer. SELECTIVE ATTENTION Early Filter Model - all the incoming information is being perceived and stored in sensory memory for a split second and then forwards it to a filter that allows only one message to move forward to be processed in more detail, based on loudness, pitch, or accent. Selective Filter Model - filter blocks out most information at the sensory level, but some personally important messages are so powerful that they burst through the filtering mechanism. Attenuation Model - at least some information about unattended signals is being analyzed. Instead of blocking out stimuli, the filter (attenuator) merely weakens (attenuates) the strength of all stimuli other than the target stimulus. READ THIS: The secret ingredient... to his wonderful life... was faith... and happiness... SELECTIVE ATTENTION Late-Filter Model - suggested that stimuli are filtered out only after they have been analyzed for both their physical properties and their meaning. A Synthesis of Early Filter and Late-Filter Models - Ulric Neisser synthesized the early and late-filter models and proposed that two processes govern attention: Preattentive Processes - automatic processes are rapid and occur in parallel, they can be used to notice only physical sensory characteristics of the unattended message, but they do not discern meaning or relationships. Attentive, Controlled Processes - processes that occur later, they are executed serially and consume time and attentional resources, such as working memory. Information is processed in much more detail here. DIVIDED ATTENTION TASK 1 PLAY APPEAR, DISAPPEAR, 1/2, 1/4 TASK 2 : SOLVE 3 (12 * 5) / 2 = ? Capacity Models of Attention - people have a fixed amount of attention that they can choose to allocate, which can be explained by 2 models: one single pool of attentional resources can be divided freely multiple sources of attention are available, one for each modality (e.g., verbal or visual). Stimulus inputs Stimulus inputs Mental resources available Allocated Task 1 Allocated to Task 2 Mental available Modality Modality Possible activities selected Possible activities selected Possible activities selected Actual responses (a) Actual responses (b) FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE OUR ABILITY TO PAY ATTENTION ANXIETY Trait-based of state-based AROUSAL tired, drowsy, drugged, excitement TASK DIFFICULTY task novelty/familiarity, easiness/ difficulty SKILLS higher practice / skill enhances attention® SUBFUNCTIONS OF ATTENTION Alerting - being prepared to attend to some incoming event, and maintaining this attention, also includes the process of getting to this state of preparedness Orienting - the selection of stimuli to attend to, needed when we perform a visual search Executive Attention - includes processes for monitoring and resolving conflicts that arise among internal processes. These processes include thoughts, feelings, and responses. WHEN OUR ATTENTION FAILS US Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - difficulties in focusing their attention. 3 primary symptoms include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. 3 types are: Hyperactive-impulsive type (AHD) Inattentive type (ADD) Combination (ADHD) They are easily distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds. They often fail to pay attention to details. They are susceptible to making careless mistakes in their work. They often fail to read instructions completely or carefully. They are susceptible to forgetting or losing things they need for tasks as pencils or books. They tend to jump from one incomplete task to another WHEN OUR ATTENTION FAILS US Change Blindness - an inability to detect changes in objects or scenes that are being viewed Inattentional Blindness - inability to see things that are actually there Copying: Spatial Neglect or Hemineglect - attentional dysfunction in which participants ignore the half of their visual field that is contralateral to (on the opposite side of the hemisphere of the brain that has a lesion. AUTOMATIC AND CONTOLLED PROCESSES Automatic Processes such as writing your name involve no conscious control, nevertheless, you may be aware that you are performing them. They may demand little or no effort. Parallel Processes - Multiple automatic processes may occur at once, or at least quickly, and  in no particular sequence. Controlled Processes - accessible to conscious control and even require it, occur sequentially / serially, one step at a time. Automatization/Proceduralization - tasks that start off as controlled processes eventually become automatic ones as a result of practi Instance Theory - automatization occurs because we gradually accumulate knowledge about specific responses to specific stim Stroop Effect - when automatization in reading works against us Table 4.4 Slips Associated with Automatic Processes Occasionally, when we are distracted or interrupted during implementation of an automatic process, slips occur. In proportion to the number of times we engage in automatic processes each day, slips are relatively rare events (Reason, 1990). Type of Error Description of Error Example of Error Capture errors Intending to deviate from a Automatically following a routine activity we are usual routine, such as implementing in familiar undressing from work surroundings, but at a clothes, then putting on point at which we should pajamas and climbing into depart from the routine, we bed -only to realize you fail to pay attention and to intended to remove your regain control of the work clothes to dress to go process; hence, the out to dinner (James, automatic process 1890/1970, cited in Langer, captures our behavior, and 1989). we fail to deviate from the routine. Omissions* An interruption of a routine When going to another activity may cause us to room to retrieve skip a step(s) in something, a distraction implementing the (e.g., a phone call) remaining portion of the interrupts you and you routine. return to the first room without retrieving the item. Perseverations* After completing an If, after starting a car, you automatic procedure, one become distracted, you or more steps of the may turn the ignition procedure may be switch again. repeated. Description errors An internal description of When putting away the intended behav-lor groceries, you may end up leads to performing the putting the ice cream in the correct action on the cupboard and a can of wrong object. soup in the freezer. Data-driven errors Incoming sensory While intending to dial a information may override familiar phone num-ber, if the intended variables in you overhear someone call an automatic action out another series of sequence. numbers, you dial some of those numbers instead. Associative-activation Strong associations may When expecting someone errors trigger the wrong to arrive at the door, if the automatic routine. phone rings, you may call out, "Come in!" Loss-of-activation errors The activation of a routine Going to another room to may be insufficient to carry do something and getting it through to completion. there only to ask ourselves, "What am I doing here?" Perhaps  even worse is the nagging feeling, *I know I should be doing something, but I can't remember what." Something in the environment triggers our recollection. PRIMING Priming - participants are presented with a 1st stimulus (the prime), followed by a break that can range from milliseconds to weeks or months. Then, the participants are presented with a 2nd stimulus and make a judgment to see whether the presentation of the st stimulus affected the perception of the 2nd. (Example: Say Father 10x, the ask the person "Ano ang English ng pakpak?") TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE When you try to remember something that is stored in memory but that cannot readily be retrieved BLINDSIGHT traces of visual perceptual ability in blind areas, "seeing" despite his unawareness of seeing