Psychology Revision - Exam Notes PDF

***[Psychology revision- End of terms]*** **3 SAQs (no options)- 27 marks** **Paper 3- 24 marks** **SAQ:** Discuss/ describe/ Explain The response is fully [focused on the question] and meets the command term requirements. Knowledge and [understanding] are accurate and addresses the main topics...

***[Psychology revision- End of terms]*** **3 SAQs (no options)- 27 marks** **Paper 3- 24 marks** **SAQ:** Discuss/ describe/ Explain The response is fully [focused on the question] and meets the command term requirements. Knowledge and [understanding] are accurate and addresses the main topics+ problems identified in the question. The response is supported by [appropriate research] which is [described] and explicitly [linked] to the question. 1. Thesis statement in Introduction- focus 2. Key terms defined; theory defined- understanding 3. ASMPRCE of study- appropriate research+ described 4. Conclusion links how study explains theory/ concept- explicitly linked *PEE- point evidence explanation* Introduction central argument supporting evidence conclusion ***Cognitive approaches to understanding behaviour*** - According to cognitive psychologists, our brain can be conceptualised as a set of mental process such as memory, perception, thinking, decision making, language and attention - Cognitive misers- do not want to actively process information to save time and effort - Schemas are mental frameworks or pre-existing cognitive templates that are based on our past experiences that we use to help us guide behaviour, assist recall and make sense of new experiences- predisposed - Bartlett introduced the study- distortion, assimilation, levelling, omission, sharpening= cognitive schemas can be seen as specific knowledge organised and stored in memory that can be accessed when needed - Bartlett- war of the ghosts- narrated to British people- serial reproduction (chain), repeated reproductions (fixed time intervals)- social context- people tend to change aspects of the story based on their pre-existing schemas- assimilation, order changed, omitting, sharpening based on personal and emotional relevance - Assimilation: words replaced by what made more sense to people according to cultural schema - Memory is highly malleable and therefore, has very less reliability - Atkinson and Shiffrin suggested MSM- separate sequential independent stores (visual+ auditory)- if paid enough attention to- information is transferred to STM and after rehearsal to LTM - A diagram of a memory Description automatically generated - Displacement decay explains memory loss in STM, where information is lost either due to new information pushing out older information due to limited capacity or the fading of information over time if not rehearsed - Primacy effect and recency effect together make up the serial position effect where people tend to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in a middle, due to the beginning items having been moved to LTM already and the end ones still being in STM. It supports the concept of multiple memory stores in MSM and demonstrates the role of position in memory encoding. - Short term memory only lasts a few seconds - Baddeley and Hitch proposed the WMM -  - Biases do not promote conscious decision- making, critical thinking or evaluation- individual differences, emotion, context, motivation - Thinking is the process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the world, make predictions about the world in general- it involves problem-solving, creativity, reasoning, decision-making - Decision-making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker - As thinking is a prerequisite of decision-making, we can predict the process of thinking and decision making through observing decisions - An anchoring bias is an adjustment heuristic which provides a foundation or reference towards which the decision-maker choices are inclined. It acts like an "anchor" to which a decision is skewed towards - Schemas influence which information is attended and remembered, and they guide our retrieval and reconstruction of memories - Dual processing model- intuitive vs rational thinking, system 1 and system- Stanovich and west - System 1: fast, automatic, emotional, heuristic-driven - System 2: slow, deliberate, logical, analytic - Kahneman said there is not specific part of the brain for each system - Heuristics are mental shortcuts used to make decisions or form judgement - Bartlett argued that when we create memories, we often tend to reconstruct them based on our thinking of what could have or should have happened - Reconstructive memory refers to the concept that memory is not a passive retrieval of exact events, but an active process of reconstruction influenced by our schemas, leading to possible distortions- helps explain why memories can be altered or "filled in" over time, especially by new information or suggestions (misinformation effect) - Post event information, misinformation effect - Leading questions are questions that either by form or content suggest to a witness which answer is desired - Emotions are complex experiences that results in physiological arousal, subjective feelings, and associated behaviours - Flashbulb memories are memories of events that are exceptionally vivid, highly detailed due to the event being emotionally arousing or surprising- surprise, novel, relevance, over-rehearsal, consequentiality - Flashbulb memories are far more emotional than ordinary memories **Question 1.**  Explain **one** model of memory with reference to **one** study- MSM- Landry and Bartling **Question 2.**  Explain schema theory with reference to **one** study- Loftus and Palmer **Question 3**.  Explain **one** model of thinking and decision-making with reference to **one** study- Englich and Mussweiler **Question 4.**  Explain **one** ethical consideration in one study of **one** cognitive process- Loftus and Palmer - Potential for psychological harm through the car accident footage - Importance of debriefing to reduce distress and discomfort- process of informing participants about the true purpose of the study after their involvement has ended. This includes explaining any deception used during the study, addressing potential misunderstandings, and ensuring participants leave without stress or confusion - Deception of aim- deliberately withholding or altering information about the study's true purpose to prevent participants from altering their behavior, which helps achieve more accurate results- avoid demand characteristics **Question 5.**  Explain the use of **one** research method in one study of one cognitive process- Loftus and Palmer - Laboratory experiment- IV is manipulated in a highly controlled environment to measure its effect on DV- clear CE relationship- high internal validity - Minimization of extraneous factors with settings that permit rigorous control over variables- limits external validity due to artificial nature of the environment - LE allowed researchers to isolate the effect of language on memory recall in this experiment - The standardized procedure makes it highly easy to replicate- increasing reliability of results **Question 6.**  Explain the Working Memory Model with reference to **one** study- Glanzer and Cunitz **Question 8**.  Explain reconstructive memory with reference to **one** study- Loftus and Palmer **Question 9.**  Explain **one** bias in thinking and decision-making with reference to **one** study- - Englich and Mussweiler **Question 10.** Explain **one** study of the influence of emotion on **one** cognitive process- Brown and Kulick **Question 11.** Explain the use of **one** research method in **one** study of the reliability of **one** cognitive process- Englich and Mussweiller - Quasi- experiment is where the IV is not directly manipulated by the experimenter and participants are often assigned to groups based on pre-existing characteristics or conditions - Researchers observe naturally rather than formulating conditions for the study- real-world settings- high ecological validity and limits causal inferences- low internal validity - Manipulating the judicial decision-making process would be ethically challenging so this design allowed researchers to ethically study the bias - This design involves groups that may not represent broader population- could affect generalizability **Question 12.** Explain **one** ethical consideration in **one** study of the reliability of cognitive processes- Englich and Mussweiler - Deception- fictitious case scenarios and manipulation of sentence suggestions - Crucial in this context as revealing the true aim would have altered their natural responses- demand characteristics - Raises ethical concerns because participants have the right to make informed choices about their involvement, and withholding information can undermine this autonomy- Participants in a professional setting such as this, participants might feel manipulated or professionally compromised if they realize they were misled - Thorough debriefing required- integrity to minimize harm, provide respect, explain why deception was necessary to achieve results here **Question 13. **Explain **one** ethical consideration in **one** study of the effect of emotion on cognition- Brown and Kulick - The study's primary aim was to investigate the unique features of flashbulb memories- specifically the clarity, vividness and longevity they exhibit compared to everyday memories - Risk of psychological distress as they were asked to recall personal memories and, in some cases, traumatic events- risk of triggering negative emotions or re-traumatization - While Brown and Kulik took care not to force participants into overly personal or probing recollections, the nature of the study's focus on intense emotional memories inherently posed a potential risk for discomfort - Right to withdraw should be emphasized and addressed explicitly- especially when studying emotion-laden memories **Question 14**.  Explain the use of **one** research method in **one** study of the effect of emotion on cognition- Brown and Kulick - Questionnaire- self reported retrospective data - The survey required participants to detail the event and their reactions, including where they were, what they were doing, and their feelings at the time - Helped provide insight, support hypothesis - Disadvantages: reliance on self-report- social desirability, inaccuracies- limits reliability of findings, doesn't account for memory reconstruction ***Biological approaches to understanding behaviour*** - Our brains and neurochemistry including neurotransmitters, hormones and pheromones play an important role in human behaviour - Biology and behaviour are bidirectional i.e., they both affect each other - Nature vs nurture debate: researchers debate whether human behaviour is the result of biological or environmental factors, interactionist approach says it's both - Modern technology is now extensively used in psychology because it provides an opportunity to study not only brains structures and their localised functions but also the active brain while avoiding ethical concerns of animal experimentation - MRI- magnetic resonance imaging gives a three-dimensional picture of brain structures using a magnetic field and radio waves to map the activity of hydrogen molecules, which are present in different brain tissue to different degrees- non-invasive, minimal, harm, high resolution, only structure though not actual function - MRI uses a magnetic field and radio waves to generate images of the brain. The technique leverages the behaviour of hydrogen molecules in the body, which are abundant due to the body's high-water content. When a person is placed inside an MRI machine, a powerful magnetic field causes the hydrogen nuclei to align in a particular direction. Radiofrequency pulses are then applied which disrupts this alignment. As protons return to their original positions, they emit energy which is then detected by the MRI scanner - Localisation of function is the theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours or cognitive processes - However, it is argued that parts may also work together for specific behaviour - Neurons are the simplest units of the nervous system and aid in communicating electrical and chemical signals through synapses - Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter its own structure following changes within the body or in the external environment. It can do so by rearranging connections between neurons- eliminating or building them, thereby ensuring efficiency of brain function - Dendritic branching refers to when neurons grow branches increasing their connections and enhancing communication- this and repeated stimulation leads to long-term potentiation which is a mechanism for learning and memory (dendritic arborization) - Neural pruning is the process by which extra synapses are eliminated, enhancing the efficiency of neuronal transmissions and refining neural circuits, often occurring during development - Neurotransmitters are the body's natural chemical messengers that transmit information from one neuron to another- after crossing the synapse, they fit into receptor sites to pass a message - Inhibitory decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing by hyper-polarising the neuron (GABA), excitatory increase the likelihood of a neuron firing by depolarising the neuron (acetylcholine) - Agonists are chemicals that mimic the action of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptors and activating them- physostigmine for acetylcholine - Antagonists are substances that block or inhibit the action of neurotransmitters by binding to the receptors and not activating them, preventing them from having their effect- scopolamine for acetylcholine - Neurotransmission is the process by which signals are transmitted between neurons across synapses through the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron which can lead to inhibitory or excitatory effects - A synapse is the junction between two neurons where the transmission of signal occurs by releasing neurotransmitters - Hormones are chemicals released by the endocrine system directly into the bloodstream, taking longer to produce changes, but produce effects that last longer than those by neurotransmitters - Adrenaline is the fight or flight hormone- When we are afraid, the amygdala signals the release of adrenaline, which then stimulates the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in increased blood flow to muscles, increased heart rate, and increased breathing rate - A pheromone is a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal, affecting the behaviour or physiology of others of its own species- primer pheromones (slow, hormonal), signalling pheromones (rapid- mating) - Although some research shows that there may be potential pheromones in humans, now there are no true examples of pheromones in humans that have been found - Patterns of behaviour may be inherited as a means of adapting to our environment and increasing our chance of survival - Behaviour is the interaction of genetic inheritance and environmental factors - Sometimes genes are permanently switched off through methylation of the DNA molecule as part of the developmental process. This effect on genes is sometimes referred to as epigenetics as there is no alteration in the actual structure of the DNA- argues there must be some interaction on gene-environment to produce the physiological and behavioral changes - Darwin's theory of natural selection explains how species acquire adaptive characteristics to survive in an ever-changing environment- leads to adaptation - Evolutionary psychology shows that as genes mutate, those that are advantageous are passed down through a process of natural selection- basically certain human behaviours are a result of the development of a species over time - Genetic research may be problematic for the participants' family, may be stigmatising- not given jobs, can reveal unexpected information- misattributed paternity, unrevealed adoptions, genetic disorders - Genetic predisposition: certain genes may influence susceptibility but do not guarantee outcome - Genetic vulnerability: inherited susceptibility to develop certain conditions or behaviour due to specific genetic factors - Genetic determinism: belief that biological factors hold full control over human development, disregarding environmental factors - Major histocompatibility complex: a group of genes that play an important role in the immune system in recognising pathogens- they are inherited from both our parents and are codominant- Wedekind et al- based on our MHC, women are attracted to men with a smell that's different from hers to maximise the immune system of her child, suggests that MHC influences human mate selection- evolutionary advantage - Kinship studies leverage the natural variations in genetic relatedness among family members to assess the relative contributions of genetics and environment to specific behaviours or traits- family studies allow researchers to observe natural variation, control shared environment factors by them, degree to which traits are inherited and influenced by the environment. However can often rely on specific cultural contexts, limiting generalisability, have small limiting samples too - Informed consent required to ensure transparency as it involved the administration of scopolamine- an external chemical to participants which can lead to changes in physiological and cognitive functioning - Debriefing followed to explain findings, address concerns, ensuring the respect and well-being of participants involved - Laboratory experiment- high level of control over variables, random assignment of groups, controlled environment, artificiality - Scopolamine was the antagonist and was hypothesized to impair the encoding of memories - Antagonists can provide insight into the neurochemical mechanisms underlying cognitive processes - Increased gray matter: formation and strengthening of neural networks - How engaging in new activities can induce structural changes, forming and reinforcing neural pathways through experience and practice - Physostigmine served as an agonist that enhances the action of acetylcholine by inhibiting the enzyme that breaks it down, thus increasing its availability in the synaptic cleft - Agonists can be used to manipulate neurotransmitter systems to explore their roles in cognitive functions here they improved performance - Acetylcholine acts through excitatory receptors and scopolamine, acted through inhibitory ones to significantly influence memory - Field experiment is conducted in a natural setting rather than in a controlled lab environment to allow researchers to observe and measure behaviors in real-world contexts while manipulating one or more variables - High ecological validity- genuine behaviors that reflect real-life mate selection processes, naturalistic behavior, reduced demand characteristics that enhances reliability of findings - Lack of control- individual differences, prior experiences, ethical concerns, limited replicability due to unique contexts, biases or cultural or social factors, limited generalizability - Informed consent+ lack of full disclosure - Participants were rather told they were participating in a study on "sweat and odor" rather than pheromones - The effectiveness of debriefing after is contingent on how well the researchers clarified the study's aims and addressed any misconceptions - Very personal experiment- could evoke personal feelings related to attractiveness, rejection or social dynamics- discomfort **Question 16**. Explain the role of **one** gene in **one** behavior with reference to **one** study- Caspi et al - Participants were informed about their genetic predisposition to depression, which could potentially lead to distress or anxiety about their mental health - Thorough debriefing, support and resources to those who might have felt vulnerable after learning about their genetic risks - Longitudinal case study- extended period, hereditary nature, establishment of patterns and correlations, holistic approach - No cause effect, limited sample, not as generalizable, cannot be replicated or standardized, verification is hard, self-reporting and family members - By analysing these familial relationships, the researchers were able to calculate concordance rates, which measure the likelihood that if one family member is diagnosed with depression, another family member will also be diagnosed - The study design strengthens the argument for the role of genetics in behaviour, as it allows researchers to discern patterns of depression among genetically related individuals, thereby providing insights into how both nature and nurture may contribute to the development of depressive disorders ***Sociocultural approaches to understanding behaviour*** - Our behaviour is influenced by others, even when we believe that we are acting independently - We have both an individual and a social identity that influence our behaviour depending on groups such as family, community, club or nationality - Human beings are social animals that have a basic need to "belong" - Culture are the norms and values that define a specific group or even a society - Reciprocal determinism was a concept introduced by Bandura that suggests that a person's behaviour, their environment and their personal characteristics all influence each other - Social comparison: we evaluate ourselves by comparing our abilities, opinions and traits with those of others to understand how we stand socially - Informational social influence: look to others to understand what is correct in a situation - Normative social influence: when we conform to be liked or accepted by a group even if we don't agree internally - Qualitative research in social psychology tend to be more holistic, reporting much richer detail about the lives of individual participants- descriptive data - Naturalistic research to capture real behaviour, but since independent variables aren't manipulated, direct causation cannot be determined- trends are noticed - Participant observation: researcher immerse themselves in a social setting for an extended period of time and observe behaviour- overt (aware), covert (not aware- deceit, no informed consent, difficulty taking notes, often rely on memory, no interviews) - Social identity theory- introduced by Tajfel and Turner- person has several social selves- one can become more salient and influence behaviour- suggests that part of our identity comes from the group we belong to, influencing how we perceive ourselves and others- three components: posits that a person's sense of who they are is based on their membership of social groups 1. Social categorisation: groups based on similar characteristics, mental distinction, in group favouritism and out group discrimination- also lays groundwork for biases and stereotypes 2. Social identification: adopt identity of the group they feel they belong- loyalty, belonging, self-concept 3. Social comparison: boosting our self esteem by favouring the in-group, help maintain a positive self-concept, sense of superiority, almost always negative 4. Positive distinctiveness: we want our group to be positively distinct from others to help promote self-esteem - Social cognitive learning theory or SLT- Albert Bandura- assumes that humans learn behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions by observing others, especially role models- key components: 1. Attention 2. Retention: forming a mental image 3. Motivation: want to replicate, arises from expected consequences (outcome expectancies)- vicarious reinforcement comes here which means we learn by observing the rewards or punishments that others receive 4. Potential: high self-efficacy- we are more likely to imitate a model if we believe in our ability to succeed - Inter-rater reliability refers to the level of agreement between different overseers of raters addressing the same behaviour, response or data- helps measure consistency, ensuring that results aren't subjective to a single person's judgement to strengthen validity of findings - A stereotype is defined as a social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes- generalisation - Stereotypes affect behaviour as it is a type of social categorisation which then affects the behaviour of those who hold the stereotype - Out-group homogeneity is the tendency to see members outside as all alike and can strengthen stereotypes- they cause us to generalise behaviour, not relate to others easily, ignore context, limit empathy, oversimplify or exaggerate observations - Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek, interpret and remember information that support our existing beliefs, while ignoring evidence that contradicts them- reinforces stereotypes and prejudices and limits objective thinking - Stereotype threat: threat of being judged or treated stereotypically- spotlight anxiety- emotional distress, pressure - Stereotypes can also lead to memory distortion - Often stereotypes are negative or false, or both - Grain of truth hypothesis suggests that stereotypes may originate from limited experience or observation- weak foundation for understanding complex social behaviour - Illusory correlation refers to perceiving a relationship between two variables when none exists- basis for stereotype - A cultural norm is a set of rules based on socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave to be accepted within that group- regulate behaviour - Culture can be surface- easily seen, deep- beliefs, attitudes, values - The process of adopting or internalising the cultural schemas that are present in your specific culture is called enculturation or socialisation - A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviours and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for people based on their biological or perceived sex- can be encultured - The process by which someone comes into contact with another culture and begins to adopt the norms or behaviours of that culture is known as acculturation - Acculturation can lead to: 1. Assimilation: abandoning original culture and adopting new 2. Integration: balance 3. Separation: maintain their own culture and minimise new culture 4. Marginalisation: not really possible to maintain one's original culture due to exclusion or discrimination - Wanting to maintain culture (enculturation) and change culture to fit (acculturation)- acculturative stress- can result in various forms of mental or physical stress - Etic approach assumes certain behaviours are universal across cultures and emic focuses on culturally specific behaviours and understanding local contexts - Cultural dimensions (theory by Geert Hofstede) are frameworks that describe how the values of a society influence behaviour and social interactions- they help to identify and compare different cultural trends and practices across various societies - Cultural dimensions help explain why people from different cultures act differently and how infact culture does impact behaviour - Individualism vs collectivism: societies prioritise different values that shape behaviour and identity- individualism values personal achievement and uniqueness, encouraging people to express their opinions and define themselves by their accomplishments. In contrast, collectivism prioritises social harmony and the well- being of the group, where modesty and indirect communication and emphasised. Identity is linked to group membership, and advancing the group's interests is more important than personal desires (I vs We) **Question 1.** Explain Social Identity Theory with reference to one study- Hilliard and Liben **Question 2. **Explain Social Cognitive Theory with reference to one study- Bandura - Boys\> girls, more even when the model was male and more verbal when the model was female- goes against their ideal women behavior - Girls imitated women models more- each gender identified with their same gender model more - Pattern of aggression varied, and typical gender effects were reversed - Children learned and repeated behaviors through observation and modeled actions without direct reinforcement - Since the models had no punishment- vicarious reinforcement- children mimicked- identification with same gender also increased their self-efficacy- more likely to mimic them **Question 3**. Explain **one** theory of the formation of stereotypes with reference to **one** study- Hilliard and Liben - Social categorization under SIT where people create stereotypes to simplify their understanding of social groups - As children internalized certain gender distinctions in the high salience group, they started to view boys and girls as fundamentally different, reinforcing the stereotypes associated with each gender **Question 4. **Explain **one** study of the effects of stereotyping on behavior- Hilliard and Liben - Led to internalization of stereotypes and limitation of behavior accordingly- restrictive effect on behavior with who they chose to play with- conforming with the stereotype - Self-perception and self-expression were influenced, as the children adjusted their behavior to align with societal expectations to belong, even if it limited their interests - Other than this- can lead to stereotype threat, spotlight anxiety, memory distortion **Question 5.** Explain **one** ethical consideration in **one** study of the individual and the group- Bandura - Protection from harm, minimize risk and lasting impact of involvement - Aggression might influence behavior long term- make them more desensitized to violence since such young kids are highly impressionable - Could result in harm that extends beyond the study's duration - Children may not understand nature of experiment, cannot give informed consent **Question 6.** Explain the use of **one** research method in **one** study of the individual and the group- Bandura - Lab experiment- control ensured that the only significant variable influencing the children's behavior was the model they were exposed to - Easier to isolate observational learning - Matched pairs- systematic allocation, apt comparison - Standardized procedure- easy to manipulate IV and extraneous variables- true experiment- see cause effect- easily replicated- reliable results **Question 7. **Explain **one** study of the enculturation of **one** behavior- Hilliard and Liben - How exposure to gendered expectations shapes children's behavior and perceptions of gender roles - How children acquire internal standards for behavior through modeling- supported by both personal experiences and vicarious learning **Question 8.** Explain **one** cultural dimension with reference to **one** study- individualism vs collectivism- Kulfofsky et al - Cultural dimensions show what a culture views as most important - Collectivistic cultures give less importance to personal experience and the display of emotion is frowned upon- so they spend less time talking about it to others and therefore do not carry out the rehearsal that is important for FBM **Question 9.** Explain **one** study of acculturation- Berry - Cultural cue was informing them that most people in their culture believed a specific line was the correct match to see if they conform - Importance of cultural context in shaping behavior in social groups **Question 10.** Explain **one** ethical consideration in the study of cultural origins of behavior and cognition, with reference to **one** study- Kulkofsky et al - Informed consent: in cross cultural studies where variations in cultural norms and values can influence participant's understanding and engagement- it's important to ensure clear communication- done through back translation into native languages as well - Cultural sensitivity refers to the awareness and understanding of cultural differences and the importance of respecting and valuing diverse cultural perspectives in research- prevent harm or misrepresentation of cultures to therefore avoid stereotype, globalized assumptions, ensure respect, recognize differences, prevent emotional distress **Question 11.** Explain the use of **one** research method **in one** study of cultural influences on behavior and cognition- Kulkofsky et al - Cross-cultural research involves comparing psychological phenomena across different cultures to identify both universal and culture-specific aspects of cognitive processes - Questionnaire- recall and importance rating scales of context and personal importance- was also in participant's native languages ensuring that language did not impede understanding or lead to misrepresentation of questions - Cross-cultural comparison - Social desirability, memory limitations, self-reported data, middle- class focus, cultural stereotyping, emotion cannot be measured per se **Question 12**. Explain **one** example of a potential influence of culture on behavior or cognition- cognition- Kulkofsky et al - Cultural categorization on cognition- FBM **Question 13**.  Explain **one** study of cultural (or social) groups- Kulkofsky et al **Question 14**.  Explain **one** study of assimilation- Miranda and Methany ***Paper 3*** 1. **a. Identify the research method used and outline two characteristics of this method (3)** **b. Describe the sampling method used in the study (3)** \- sampling method (1 mark) \- two characteristics and examples in stimulus (2) **c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice (3)** \- statement- description (2 characteristics)- why? Beneficial? 2. **Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied (6)** - 3 applied in the study, 3 suggestions explained - CARDUD: informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality, right to withdraw, deception, protection from harm, debriefing - Studies should be approved by an ethics review committee before being carried out 3. **Discuss the possibility of generalizing/ transferring the findings of the study (9)** - Generalizability refers to the extent to which findings from one study can be applied to populations beyond those in the study 1. Sample size? Sampling method? Selection bias stratified sampling, larger diverse sample? Demographics? Culture? Population validity? 2. Nomoethic study- aims to create general rules for a large group so you need robust validity 3. Type of experiment? Internal and external validity? Construct validity? 4. Research design? (independent measures, repeated measures, matched pairs) 5. Triangulation+ test retest- reliability (checking if same results come when repeated- reliability and credibility), self-reported data? (social desirability bias, memory bias, participant bias, demand characteristics, memory distortion) Data triangulation - Transferability refers to applying findings in a similar context or situation rather than widely 1. Idiographic study focuses on a few unique cases, so you only need transferable insights to use elsewhere and contribute to deeper theoretical understanding 2. Representational generalization (groups of same population, context- such as students, but then that wouldn't apply for working professionals) 3. Theoretical generalization (broader theories- like psychological theories- does it support) 4. Inferential generalization (similar contexts and settings- physical) - Overall, the extent to which findings from the study can be generalized/ transferred depends on the study design and approach. If findings were replicated reliably in similar studies, this would further support the generalizability/ transferability **How a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible (9)** - Credibility refers to the trustworthiness or believability of research findings - Triangulation? Supports credibility - Reflexivity- researcher's influence on the study such as bias or self-reflection to minimize their influence on data interpretation - Self- reported data improves authenticity of participant's experiences but may not be as accurate due to memory distortion, participant biases **How the researcher could avoid bias (9)** - Biases could lead to misinterpretation of data - Researcher bias, participant biases (social desirability, demand characteristics, order effects), sampling biases, due to research designs? - Standardization can help minimize procedural biases - Triangulation - Blind procedures - Limitations- like issues of practicality related to triangulation For Q3: The question is understood and answered in a [focused] and effective manner with an accurate argument that addresses the requirements of the question. The response contains [accurate references] to approaches to research about the question, describing their [strengths and limitations.] The response makes [effective use of the stimulus material.] 1. PEE 2. Since 9 marks- at least 3 strengths, 3 limitations- after each point u make, connect to stimulus