Psychology 101 Notes PDF

PSYCHOLOGY: pysch (mind & study) ➔ Black Box Approach ➔ there are instances that people S → BOX → Response understand how and what people ➔ i.e. give food to a hungry pigeon are thinking. food (stimulus) eat...

PSYCHOLOGY: pysch (mind & study) ➔ Black Box Approach ➔ there are instances that people S → BOX → Response understand how and what people ➔ i.e. give food to a hungry pigeon are thinking. food (stimulus) eating/not eating ➔ included behavior in its field (response) ➔ study of human behavior & mental ➔ allows us to see and observe processes ➔ stimulus: which we find in the environment BEHAVIOR: any kind of action that we engage in in which we can observe and 4. Gestalt Psychology - the whole is measure. greater than the sum of all its parts ➔ Voluntarily (the meaning depends on the ➔ through behavior, we understand context) mental processes ➔ whole (context): when we perceive ➔ there are instances that mental something we always interpret and processes and behavior are not finds it meaning by looking at the necessarily consistent (because of context in which it occurs --> norms) ➔ norms: expectations to our behavior 5. Psychoanalysis - Freud believed in from our society instincts ➔ certain situations, certain ➔ 2 instincts: life & death expectations ➔ People undergo: Psychosexual stages SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT 1. Structuralism - study of the Freud believed that personality was structures of the mind, the structure determined by… of the mind which are indicated by 3 PERSONALITY STRUCTURES: the sensation through introspection. ➔ ID, EGO, & SUPEREGO (meron nga bang structures ang ➔ unconscious, preconscious, mind) conscious part of the mind Introspection - looking inward (looking inside/reflecting your experiences) ★ ID - most primitive part of the mind, ➔ experiences which are indicated by follows the immediate gratification the sensation principle, it operates in the pleasure principle (I.E. kumain ka) 2. Functionalism - studying how the ★ EGO - follows the reality principle, mind works (tinitignan yung function and if the ID once immediate ng mind) gratification of its needs, the ego Adjustment - observing people through postpones IG until the proper their environment condition is available, delays IG of its needs, the strength of the ego is 3. Behaviorism - focused on the reliant on certain factors such as sitmulus that gave rise to a behavior (family upbringing, environment) ➔ mas observable  ★ Superego - Tip of the iceberg, 5. Phenomenological - other known as embodiment of the society's norms Humanistic Perspective and values, conscience ➔ theory of growth and self-fulfillment ➔ the direction of man is always Example: toward growth and self-actualization ID - Eat now ➔ we are not determined by faith, but Ego - 5 mins before recess, you can wait we are rational beings - we do things Superego - Bawal kumain in our free will (free will vs deterministic) The character of a person is dependent how ➔ subjective experiences strong the ego. The child is father to the man. (Freud) CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES Research Methods 1. Biological Perspective - they found 1. Observation out that the mind was connected to ➔ naturalistic - you are not part of the the biological part of the human subject/context/situation anatomy (brain) ➔ participant - the observer is part ➔ brain is the seed of the mind. ➔ Broca - who found out that the left 2. Experimental - used to study hemisphere of the brain is the cause-and-effect relationships speech center of the brain called - will have to identify its variables (has Broca's area value you can manipulate) 2 basic variables: 2. Behavioral Perspective - nanggaling independent - whose value you sa school of thought manipulate ➔ emphasized the study of stimulus dependent - and response Extraneous variable - 'extra', something S → R → Reinforcement that occurs in the experimental design and What reinforcements maintained the disturbs the causal relationship between the response? independent and dependent variable. - this must be controlled, minimized, 3. Cognitive Perspective - the eliminated responses to a particulur stimulus are not necessarily the same 3. Correlational - looking at ➔ give rise to a variety responses relationships but not causal S → R1, R2, R3... relationships ➔ give importance also the the ➔ positive linear relationships: both mind/mental processes of the increases person depends on the experiences ➔ inverse/negative relationships: as S → Mind → (experiences) → R one increases the other one decreases 4. Psychoanalytic Perspective  4. Case Studies - study one person, ○ Brain usually done overtime ○ Spinal cord - consist of ➔ provide interventions (problematic) bundle of nerves Bundle of nerves 5. Survey - quantify data consists of neurons ➔ Questionnaires Neurons - individual ➔ large populations nerve cells, building blocks of 6. Testing neuro-system ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Nerves exit or enter the spinal cord 1. Minimal Risks and brain, linking the brain to every 2. Informed Consent part of the body ➔ deception → debriefing ○ Some nerves carry 3. Right to privacy messages from the different ➔ anonimity parts of the body to the brain 4. Voluntary Participation ○ Some nerves carry ➔ Freedom from coercion messages from the brain to the different parts of the body 2 approaches: 1 bundle of nerve - 1 direction 1. Biological 2. Social The neuron is an individual nerve cell that plays the most important BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF role in the nervous system PSYCHOLOGY ○ In the early 1900s, Santiago Importance of Studying Biology in Ramon y Cajal described Psychology them as “the mysterious 1. Psychological life depends on butterflies of the soul, the biological life for its very existence beating of whose wings may 2. The brain is the part of the body someday clarify the secret of most intimately linked to mental life.” psychological life 3. Individuals are psychological beings living in biological machines Biological makeup - set limits and parameters of human behavior (always elastic - stretch) Dendrites - to receive information to the Nervous System: Biological Control other neuron Center The human nervous system consists Cell body/soma - provide of 2 large parts: nourishment/preservation for the neuron  body at a junction called the Axon - the passage way of information to axon hillock the next neuron 4. The myelin sheath is a white, fatty coating that encases many axons. It Axon terminal - end point, transmit insulates the axon and greatly information from neurons to neurons increases the speed at which the - Neurotransmitter - releasing parts axon conducts neural impulses. The - Synapses - gaps myelin sheath continues to grow in Myelin - cover/insulate the axon thickness into late adulthood. - speeds up the process by which the 5. The axon terminals (terminal information is travelled buttons) are located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for GO BACK - undergo reuptake transmitting signals to other neurons. Neural Axons Schwann cell nucleus - provide NEURAL AXONS nourishment for the axons Nodes of Ravier - jump electrical impulse from one aspect of the axon to the next Electrical impulse - information processing PARTS OF THE NEURON PARTS OF THE NEURONS 1. Dendrites - branches that extend out from the cell body and receive messages from other neurons. They are usually shorter and more numerous than axons. 2. The soma/cell body - contains the nucleus and other components necessary for the cell’s preservation and nourishment. The cell body is Neuronal Communication enclosed by a membrane that Neurons transmit messages in the protects it and allows it to interact nervous system (either to or from) in with its immediate surroundings. the following steps: 3. Axon - branch at the other end of 1. Transmission of the message the neuron that mostly carry neural from one end of the neuron messages away from the cell body to the other end (neural and transmit them to the next transmission or action neuron. potential) a. Called a nerve fiber and is a a. Within the neuron tail-like structure of the 2. Transmission from one neuron that joins the cell neuron to the next neuron (synaptic transmission)  a. Within the synapse 5. During an action potential, a small (outside the section of the axon adjacent to the neuron/gaps) cell body becomes more permeable to the positive sodium ions. Action Potential / Neural Transmission a. Sodium ions rush in, - Charged potassium ions (inside) producing a depolarization in + Charged sodium ions (outside) that part of the axon. b. The membrane quickly ACTION POTENTIAL / NEURAL regains its semipermeability TRANSMISSION and “pumps” the positive 1. Neurons are sacs filled with one type sodium ions back out. of fluid on the inside and bathed in a c. There is a disturbance in the different type of fluid on the outside: adjacent section of the More of the ions inside membrane of the axon, so neurons are negatively rather that it depolarizes, which in than positively charged turn disturbs the next section The outside of the cell of the membrane, and so on. membrane is concerned with 6. Neural transmission always operate positive sodium ions and the according to the “all-or-none inside of the cell is principle. concentrated with negative potassium ions regain semi permeability until it reaches the end, electric energy (yung travel) 2. In its normal resting state, the membrane is semipermeable. a. A balance exists between the mostly negative ions on the inside and the mostly positive ions on the outside. b. The neuron is said to be electrically polarized 3. When the membrane is stimulated by an adjacent neuron, the semipermeability of the cell SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION membrane is lost for an instant. Neurons work together in complex a. Depolarization happens chains, but they are connected to when positively charged ions one another. rush into the neuron. ○ One neuron influences the next neuron through the 4. Depolarization creates a dramatic synapse. chain of events known as the action ○ The small space between potential two neurons is known as the synaptic gap.  ○ The neural message is GLIAL CELLS carried across the gap by Where new neurons grow chemical substances called Glial cells support neurons and neurotransmitters. transport nutrients from blood ○ Neurotransmitters can be vessels to neurons. excitatory or inhibitory Some glial cells produce the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates axons. Glial cells also influence the transmission of messages from one neuron to another across the synaptic gaps. Neuro-transmitters - attach itself to the ○ This is done by absorbing the next neuron through its dendrites neurotransmitter from the - Some neuro-transmitters do not synaptic gap, releasing more attach the dendrites and will undergo of the neurotransmitter into reuptake the synaptic gap, or by - Synaptic transmission chemically preparing the synapse for transmission NEUROTRANSMITTERS 1. Adrenaline - it is produced in high stress or exciting situations Sept. 10, 2024 - Division of the Nervous 2. Noradrenaline - affects attention System and responding actions in the brain 3. Dopamine - it is associated with REASONS WHY IT IS CALLED THE feelings of pleasure and satisfaction CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 4. Seratonin - it is thought to be a 1) Location contributor to feelings of well-being 2) Executive control and happiness. It regulates the sleep cycle with melatonin CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 5. GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid) - The CNS consists of the brain and major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the spinal cord. the brain, whose role is to calm firing The brain controls the functions of nerves in the CNS the nervous system. 6. Acetylcholine - principal The spinal cord’s primary function neurotransmitter involved in thought, is to relay messages between the learning, and memory brain and the body, but it also does 7. Glutamate - most common some rudimentary processing of neurotransmitter in the brain and is information on its own. involved in cognitive functions ○ A simple reflex is a good 8. Endorphins - range of compounds example. released in the brain during Reflexes send neural messages to exercise, excitement, and produce a interneurons in the spinal cord. The feeling of well-being or euphoria  interneuron transmits a signal to ○ Two functions: body another neuron functions and emotional responses (emotions) Central - located at center of the body, ○ Parasympathetic - for executive control peaceful situation Brain Occurs in a selective Spinal Cord manner (goal: bring the body in balance) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ○ Sympathetic - fight or flight The PNS is composed of the nerves situation that branch from the brain and the S - Stands for stress spinal cord to the body. Occurs in a diffuse 1. Afferent neurons are neurons that manner transmit messages coming from the body to the central nervous system. DIVISIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC 2. Efferent neurons are neurons that NERVOUS SYSTEM transmit messages going out from 1. Sympathetic nervous system - the central nervous system to the prepares the body to respond to different parts of the body. psychological or physical stress. ○ In many cases, it activates DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL organs to improve our ability NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) to respond to stress, but in Peripheral - composed of nerves, no big other cases, it inhibits organs organs that are not needed during Somatic nervous system - skeletal the time of stress movements 2. Parasympathetic nervous system ○ carries messages from the - acts in tandem with the CNS to the skeletal sympathetic nervous system to muscles that control maintain balanced regulation of the movements of the body. internal organs and the large body ○ These include voluntary and muscles involuntary movements. ○ It also receives incoming messages from sensory receptors and transmits them to the CNS. Autonomic nervous system - Sympathetic and Parasympathetic (co-exists together), breathing, heartbeat - is composed of nerves that DIVISIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC carry messages to the glands NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) and the visceral organs.  All organs that are served by the Different functions are performed by sympathetic division is also served the different parts of the brain. by the parasympathetic division. All mental functions require the The clusters of cell bodies of integrated functioning of multiple neurons (i.e., ganglia) are organized parts of the brain in different ways in the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. 2 components of emotions ○ The ganglia of the Physiological arousal sympathetic division are all Cognitive Interpretation connected in a chain near the spinal column. This THREE MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN results in the “diffuse” AND ITS FUNCTION operation of the sympathetic division. Hindbrain ○ The ganglia of the It is the lowest part of the brain, parasympathetic division are located at the rear base of the skull. separate and are located The primary responsibility of the near the individual organs. hindbrain is to perform routine This results in the “selective” “housekeeping” functions that keep operation of the the body working properly. parasympathetic division PARTS OF THE HINDBRAIN The medulla oblongata ○ transmits signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain. It controls autonomic functions such as heartbeat and respiration. ○ Cross-over point - point by which the nerves criss cross The pons (bridge) ○ essentially forms a bridge between the brainstem to the cerebral cortex. It is associated with many autonomic functions such as The sympathetic nervous system works breathing, taste, sleeping, in a diffuse manner. and circuits that generate The parasympathetic nervous system respiratory rhythms. works in a selective manner. ○ One that detects information to rouse your body to wake STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE up BRAIN  ○ Important for pain signals Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal Axis (HPA AXIS) - operates hormones The cerebellum (little brain) ○ monitors and regulates motor PARTS OF THE FOREBRAIN behavior, particularly 1. The thalamus routes incoming automatic movements and stimuli from the sense organs to the balance. It has also been appropriate parts of the brain and found to be involved in motor links the upper and lower centers of learning, sequence learning, the brain. reflex memory, mental 2. The hypothalamus is a small, but function, and emotional vitally important, parts of the brain. It processing is intimately involved in our motives and emotions. It is the brain center All of the three above is important in the most directly linked to the functions reticular formations. of the autonomic nervous system. 3. The limbic system is composed of The reticular formation three important parts: ○ is a set of neurons that spans a. The amygdala plays a key the medulla and the pons. role in emotion and These networks influence aggression. It also plays a wakefulness, arousal key role in the formation of (alertness of the body), and memories about attention. emotionally-charged events. ○ Dominate medulla and the i. Can govern emotions pons and memories ii. Fear - important workings of amygdala Midbrain (MESENCEPHALON) (to distinguish what’s The midbrain functions help to dangerous to you, control important postural systems, thus you need to particularly those associated with the remember) senses. iii. Individuals to negative (hardwired) b. The hippocampus plays a Forebrain (CEREBRAL CORTEX) major role in the formation of (PROSENCEPHALON) new memories (thru memory It is the brain’s largest and most consolidation ⇒ better obvious part. decision making). It consists of two distinct parts: i. Tired - more honest ○ thalamus, hypothalamus, and (i.e late night most of the limbic system conversations, no ○ cerebral cortex sugar-coating) ii. It “ties together” the sights, sounds, and  meanings of extending back to the middle of your memories stored in head. various parts of the It plays a key role in thinking, cerebral cortex and is remembering, making decisions, particularly involved speaking, predicting the future in spatial memory. consequences of actions, controlling c. The cingulate cortex works movement, and regulating emotions. with the hippocampus to Cognitive functions process cognitive information It contains the Broca’s area, which related to emotion is involved in the ability to generate i. Biggest and most language. advanced part of the The motor areas (deliberate actions brain such as running, taking notes) ii. Gray - cell bodies of running across the back portion of the brain (gray the frontal lobes guide the control of matter) voluntary movements. iii. White - white matter It also plays a role in the regulation (axons of cortisol of emotion and socially inappropriate neurons) behavior 4. The cerebral cortex is the largest 2. parietal lobe are just behind the structure in the forebrain and is frontal lobes at the top of the skull. involved in conscious experience, The somatosensory area is voluntary actions, language, and important to the sense of touch and intelligence. other body senses that tell the a. The cortex has a gray individual where the hands and feet appearance owing to the cell are and what they are doing. bodies and is often called the The amount of area of the cortex gray matter of the brain. devoted to a particular part of the b. The cortex has a white body is not proportional to the size of appearance due to the axons that body part of the cortical neurons and is often called white matter of 3. Temporal lobe extend backward the brain. from the area of the temples, occupying the middle area at the LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX base of the brain beneath the frontal and parietal lobes. Both temporal lobes contain the auditory areas. It also contains the Wernicke’s area, which plays a role in the understanding of spoken language 1. frontal lobe occupy the part of the skull behind your forehead,  4. occipital lobes are at the base of It is the ability of the parts of the the back of the head. brain, particularly the cerebral It contains the visual area, which is cortex, to acquire new functions that essential in the processing of partly or completely replace the sensory information from the eyes functions of a damaged part of the brain. FUNCTIONS OF THE HEMISPHERES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX THE BRAIN AS A DEVELOPING SYSTEM Looking down at the cerebral cortex 1. White matter increases due to the from the top reveals that it is made continued growth of the myelin up of two halves called the cerebral sheath through adolescence and hemispheres. early childhood. Gray matter These two cerebral hemispheres are decreases due to selective neural linked by the corpus callosum, pruning, which is thought to improve allowing communication between the the efficiency of neural systems by two halves of the cortex. eliminating unnecessary neural cells. ○ The left hemisphere 2. New neurons grow in many key governs the right side of the areas of the brain into adulthood in a body and is involved in process called neurogenesis analyzing the verbal information. THE BRAIN AS AN INTERACTING ○ The right hemisphere SYSTEM governs the left side of the Several parts of the brain process body and is involved in different kinds of related information analyzing visual and spatial at the same time. information The brain uses parallel processing rather than serial processing HEMISPHERES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX AND EMOTION The right side of the cerebral September 17, 2024 - Interplay of Nature hemisphere plays a greater role in and Nurture the expression and perception of negative emotions. Biological and Social Creature ○ Visual and spatial information - Humans have certain limitations. —in between them is corpus callosum— DNA The left side of the cerebral Humans are amazingly diverse, but they hemisphere plays a greater role in are also similar to each other. the expression and perception of - One individual is different from the positive emotions. other ○ Analyze verbal information - “Diversity” - Culture – psychogenetic, PLASTICITY OF THE CORTEX sociogenic reason - Ethnicity  breeding, each successive - “Similarity” generation became less aggressive - Culture – family ○ Problem: no interact, control resemblances (genetics) the environment NATURE: GENETIC INFLUENCES ON In a study conducted by Dutch BEHAVIOR psychologists, they transplanted the Inheritance is also important to embryos of aggressive female mice psychology because many aspects into the wombs of nonaggressive of behavior are influenced by genes females, and vice versa, and Humans do not inherit specific allowed them to rear the “adopted” patterns of behavior. Inheritance mice pups seems to influence broad The results of the Dutch study were dimensions of one’s behavior the same, which provides strong evidence that genes influence GENETIC STUDIES OF NONHUMAN aggression in female mice ANIMAL BEHAVIOR In a classic study by Patricia Ebert Genes can define behavior and Janet Hyde, they captured wild - Pedeng mamana house mice and began a program of selective breeding GENETIC STUDIES OF HUMAN In the first generation, females were BEHAVIOR tested for aggressiveness, divided The two most common types of into two lines based on their “natural experiments” involve the aggressiveness, and bred with study of twins and study of adopted randomly selected unrelated males children ○ Aggression: aggressive (bred aggressive mice) and 2 KINDS OF TWINS non-agressive (bred 1. Identical/Monozygotic - they share non-aggressive mice) 100 percent genetic similarities breeding 2. Fraternal/Dizygotic - do not share 100 percent genetic George Mendel - experiment on selective breeding Twin Studies Monozygotic (identical) twins come When the most aggressive female from a single fertilized egg until the house mice in each generation were growing clusters of cells selected for breeding, each successive generation became Studies of Adopted Children increasingly more aggressive Studies of adopted children have When the least aggressive female revealed that certain characteristics house mice in each generation (e.g.m IQ scores) of adopted raised under the same conditions children are similar to the were separately selected for characteristics of their biological  parents (with whom they share half - Changed in environment and then of their genes) than to the reached senses characteristic of their adoptive Perception - experiences associated with parents (who raised them since simple stimuli infancy but are genetically unrelated - Meaning and/or interpretation that to them). we give to our sensation MOLECULAR GENETIC MECHANISMS There is no strict break between the two OF INHERITANCE because most of the time they happen All cells of the body contain microscopic together. structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes are long strands of CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSORY deoxyribonucleic acid MODALITIES DNA usually 1. Sensitivity - our sensory modalities (e.g. vision, hearing, sense of touch) Mutation → Polymorphic genes are extremely sensitive in detecting - Dominant - polygenic genes (e.g. changes in environment. black eyes) a. Absolute threshold - the - Recessive - need 2 information (e.g. sensitivity of a sensory blue eyes) modality and is related when the change happens in a Autosomes - characteristics zero background (e.g. Sex chromosomes - biological sex maglalagay ka sugar kapag may onting pagbabago sa PASSIVE EFFECT lasa mo) Environments → Genes → i. The background in - genotype (traits and characteristics which it is stimulated mo) is not competing - Phenotype (gene + environment) b. Difference threshold - just noticeable difference (jnd) ACTIVE EFFECT i. You notice there is a Genotype → environment → phenotype difference between the two stimuli, then EVOCATIVE EFFECT reach jnd Genotype → that elicits a particular ii. They use environment and therefore creating your psychophysical phenotype method to test absolute and Genotype ( → environment) → phenotype difference threshold Once we receive a sensation, there is a September 19, 2024 process called transduction in which the Sensation - sensory modalities physical energy coming from the stimulus is transformed/translated into electromagnetic energy that is accepted by the brain. (at the 3 DIMENSIONS by which we organize our level of senses) ability to see colors 1. Hue - quality of color, usually By means of sensory coding depending on described by the name of the object, the sensory modality the names of the color 2. Brightness - something to to do Sense of Vision - first modality with the lighting, how much light Light appears to be reflected from the Rods and cones object ○ Rods: operate at night, they 3. Saturation - purity of color, the will only see gray and very amount of pure color (e.g. crimson - light colors, they do not pure) operate in the evening ○ Cones: operate during day Color deficiency/color blindness - can time, they allow us to see come in the form of being a monochromat color (only see whites and grays) or dichromat Fovea - are blind pact with cones? Trichromat - normal vision in viewing colors ○ Retina - made up of layer of cells, the axons come Audition together to form octic nerve? Pitch - characteristic of sound, - then move to occipital lobe psychological quality of a sound - Sensation which is based on the Blind spot - the neurons activate in order to frequency of a sound see certain things PITCH PERCEPTION (2 basic theories) Visual acuity - snellen’s chart Temporal theory - time, the pitch that we hear depends on how the Seeing color - where the cones are sound varies with time, this has responsible something to do with the stimulus - Wavelengths that reach our eyes that reaches the bacellar membrane - Wavelengths turn into color (part of our ear) - 450 - 500 nanometers blue ○ soundwave that causes - 500 - 570 naometers green bacellar membrane to vibrate - 650 - 780 nanometers red ○ The rate of vibration determines the rate of impulses of the nerve fibers September 24, 2024 SENSATION AND in the auditory nerve PERCEPTION ○ The pitch that we hear depends on how fast the Seeing color - subjective experience vibration of the membrane is objective - may depend on our color in our auditory nerve receptors ○ Nerve impulse - that is communicated to the  auditory nerve – connected Temperature - easily adapts to our to the part of a brain which environment makes us hear a certain kind of pitch GATE CONTROL THEORY Place theory A mind over matter theory ○ the base of the bacellar Endorphins - body’s natural membrane that vibrates painkillers (high) ○ the tip of the bacellar PERCEPTION membrane that vibrates (low) OLFACTION sense of smell CONSCIOUSNESS I Oct 1 Pheromones (search mo nalang) Awareness of external events and internal ○ Used to communicate sensations, including awareness of the self ○ E.g. pheromone-like and thoughts about experiences substances (menstruation) - Santrock, 2003 2 reasons why there are limited literature regarding olfaction Contents of awareness change from ○ As humans, upright posture - moment to moment and molecules they descend Stream of consciousness - continuous flow to the ground of changing sensations, images, thoughts, ○ Cataral conditions? feelings ○ Sense of smell easily adapts/habituate Levels of awareness It allows us to sense danger 1. Higher level of consciousness ○ Allows us to survive Controlled processes Sense of smell is facilitated by the ○ Individual can focus on receptor cells located in our nose specific goals ○ Selective attention (e.g. cry Olfactory bulb - there is an olfactory nerve, of the baby than the noise of it synapses by the olfactory bulb washing machine) ○ E.g. writing a paper, cooking, Olfactory cortex - connected to reviewing for an exam hippocampus involve in memory 2. Lower level of consciousness GUSTATION Automatic processes - because sense of taste you’re so used to it Stimulus for sense of taste - ○ Require minimal attention chemicals and does not interfere with ongoing activities Sense of pressure (skin) and temperature ○ E.g. pag nagtatali ng sapatos Pressure - pain Daydreaming  Lie between active consciousness Freud: unconscious thought - and dreaming reservoir of unacceptable wishes, Mind wandering feelings, thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness 3. Altered states of consciousness ○ Freud theory: he compares Mental states that bare noticeably the human mind into an different from normal awareness iceberg Can be caused by drugs, trauma, Most is submerged in fatigue, hypnosis, and water sensory deprivation Parts that are ○ A state in which you do not submerged in water = receive any information from unconscious thought the world Unacceptable wishes ○ Can happen in laboratory - not allowed by the settings/prison cells society It will always go out in 4. Subconscious awareness the forms of dreams, Waking subconscious awareness - mannerisms, slip of incubation of ideas the tongue ○ E.g. during class discussions, you know that SLEEP there’s brewing in your mind, altered state of unconsciousness an answer to a problem that Why do we sleep? was posed to you, but it a. Evolutionary perspective: to simply cannot like move out conserve energy at night ○ E.g tip of the tongue b. Sleep restores energy and phenomenon, but in replenishes our brain and incubation nasa mind sya body before sa tip of the tongue Onset of REM stops Sleeps and dreams the release of ○ Sleeps - Some parts of what neurotransmitters is happening outside, is (monoamines) actually still being monitored REM - rapid eye by the brain movement stage, ○ Lucid dreaming - this is when happens right after you’re dreaming and you your deep sleep know that you’re dreaming Once we enter the You are actually kind REM stagge, the of aware that this is neurotransmitters are just a dream not released = since You can control the no information, brain content of your dream rests c. Assists physical growth and 5. No awareness brain development in children  Release of growth SLEEP DEPRIVATION hormone related with Affects alertness and cognitive deep sleep performance Kids have more REM Decline in the complexity of brain Growth hormone, activity related with deep Affects decision making sleep SLEEP STAGES BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS Stage 1: Theta waves (slower in Periodic physiological fluctuations in frequency than alpha waves) the body ○ when we are about to sleep ○ E.g. rise and fall of hormones Stage 2: Theta waves and sleep in the bloodstream; sindles (sudden increase in wave accelerated and decelerated frequency) cycles of brain activity Stage 3 and 4: Delta waves; deep Controlled by biological clocks sleep ○ Annual or seasonal cycles ○ Big and regular brain waves (migration of birds, Stage 5: REM sleep (rapid eye hibernation of bears, movement) fluctuation of eating habits) ○ Dreaming occurs ○ 28-day cycles ○ Fast brain waves ○ 24-hour cycles ○ All the memories are ○ Circadian rhythms gathered together and come Daily behavioral or up with a full story phhysiological cycle E.g. sleep/wake SLEEP DISORDERS cycle, body 1. Insomnia - difficulty to fall asleep, temperature, blood has something to do with the quality pressure of your sleep Suprachiasmatic 2. Somnambulism - occurs in deep nucleus (SCN) - sleep (sleep walking), caused by monitors the change stress, things that one wants to do from day to night; when they are not allowed to during synchronizes its own the day rhythm with the daily 3. Sleep talking - caused by stress cycle of light and dark 4. Nightmare - frightening dream that based on inputs from awakens a person from REM sleep the retina a. Night terror Located in our i. sudden arousal from brain sleep; intense fear Monitors the ii. Accompanied by changes from physiological day to night reactions  iii. Less common than nightmares 5. Narcolepsy - overpowering urge to CONSCIOUSNESS II Oct 3 - Notes sleep; people with this disorder enter REM sleep right away instead of Hypnosis progressing from stage 1 Trancelike stage of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of 90-minute cycle - sleep others ○ Susceptible - easily 6. Sleep apnea - individuals stop influenced breathing while asleep Follows a series of steps: 1. Person made comfortable in a quiet DREAMS environment Wish fulfilment theory 2. The hypnotist explains what is going ○ Manifest content - dream’s to happen e.g. that person will be in surface content a relaxed state ○ Latent content - hidden 3. Hypnotist tells the person to content, interpretation concentrate on a specific image or Cognitive theory object ○ Same cognitive concepts that 4. 4. Once the person is in a relaxed are used in studying the state, the hypnotist gives waking mind suggestions that the person ○ A mental realm for solving interprets as being in a state of our problems and think hypnosis creatively Activation-synthesis theory People do not lose all will of their ○ Dreaming occurs when the own cerebral cortex synthesizes Will not perform anti-social behavior neural signals generated WIll not carry out self-destructive from activity in the lower part acts of the brain Differences in people’s susceptibility ○ Brain’s effort to make sense to hypnosis of the neural activity that ○ 5% of the population cannot happens in sleep be hypnotized at all ○ Synthesizes ideas ○ 15% are very easily Dream-for-sruvival theory hypnotized ○ Has an evolutionary root People who are easily hypnotized are those who easily gets absorbed while reading books or listening to music, becoming unaware of what is happening around them, spends a lot of time daydreaming Views about hypnosis:  1. Divided consciousness Improve concentration High suggestibility, increased ability to recall and construct images, Meditation acceptance of suggestions A learned technique for refocusing Hypnosis brings about a attention that brings about an altered dissociation, a divided state of state of consciousness consciousness into two Repetition of a mantra- a sound, simultaneous components (Hilgard) word, or syllable - over and over ○ One part, following the Focus on a picture, flame, or a commands of the hypnotist, specific part of the body the other part, as “hidden Key technique is to become observer”, aware of what is unaware of any outside stimulation happening around them. to reach a different state of awareness 2. Hypnosis is not a signficantly different state of consciousness Benefits Altered brain waves not a sufficient 1. Gain new insights into themselves evidence; no other physiological and problems changes occur 2. Long term practice may improve Little support that adults can health because of the biological remember childhood experiences changes it produces - Oxygen usage delcines, Hypnosis state lies in a continuum - not heart rate and blood totally a different state of consciousness, pressure decline, brain wave not totally similar to a normal waking state. patterns change (Barnes, et al) Value of hypnosis 1. Controlling pain Drug use can lead to: Childbirth and dental procedures 1. Physical dependence - physiological need for a drug that causes 2. Reducing smoking withdrawal symptoms when it is Suggest that the smell and tatse of discontinued cigarettes are unpleasant 2. Tolerance - need to take increasing amounts of a drug to ge the same 3. Treating psychological disorders effect Heighten relaxation, reduce anxiety, 3. Psychological dependence - strong increase expectations of success, desire to repeat the use of drugs for modify self-defeating thoughts emotional reasons 4. Assist in law enforcement Victims and witnesses better able to recall details of a crime 5. Improving athletic performance  E.g. food LEARNING Oct. 8 - A relatively permanent change in C. Unconitioned Response (UCR) behavior that is brought about by A natural innate response tat experience. occurs automatically and Maturation - biological process usually in needs no traning human development/biological unfolding of E.g. salivation certain processes in human development - E.g. birth may timeline yan D. Conditioned Response (CR) A response that, after There are changes brought up by conditioning, follows a maturation previously neutral stimulus - Due to practice and experience E.g. salivation at the ringing of the bell Habituation Decrease in response to a stimulus The sequence and timing of the that occurs after repeated presentation of the unconditioned presentations of the same stimulus stimulus and the conditioned Permits us to ignore thinngs that stimulus is particularly important have stopped providing new Conditioning is most effective if the information neutral stimulus (which will become Most learning is more complex than a conditioned stimulus) precede the habituation UCS by between a half second and E.g. rattle several seconds, depending on what kind of response is being Classical Conditioning (learning) conditioned. Ivan Pavlov - dog experiment Type of learning in which a neutral Applications stimulus comes to bring about a Emotional responses: fear of mice, response after it is paired with a spiders; phobias (Little expt.) stimulus that naturally brings about Food with colors of McDo or jollibee that response. Avoidance of dentists because of associations of dentists with pain Basic Concepts in CC Post traumatic stress disorder A. Neutral Stimulus (NS) Pleasant experiences: smell of a A stimulus that, before certain perfume: brings about happy conditioning, does not thoughts naturally bring about the response we are interested Desensitization/Counter Conditioning - is in. a process by which we reverse the B. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) associations done by classical conditioning A stimulus that naturally brings about a response Extinction without having learned  Occurs when a previously 1. Acquisition and shaping conditioned response decreases in Acquisition frequency and eventually disappears Formation of a new response Occurs when the association tendency between a conditioned stimulus and Operant responses are typically unconditioned stimuli established through a gradual Spontaneous recovery: process called SHAPING reemergence of an extinguished Shaping is necessary when the conditioned response after a period organism does not, on its own, emit of time and with no further the desired response conditioning 2. Extinction Stimulus Generalization Gradual weakening and A process in which, after a stimulus disappearance of a response has been conditioned to produce a tendency because the response is particular response, stimuli that are no longer followed by reinforcement. similar to the original stimulus produce the same response. Reinforcement - is anything that increases The greater the similarity between the desired response two stimuli, the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization Negative Reinforcement - removal of an aversive stimulus so that a desired Stimulus Discrimination response is going to happen Occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from each other one evokes Positive Reinforcement - presentation of a a conditioned response but the other positive stimulus to increase the likelihood does not. Provides the ability to differentiate between stimuli Operant Conditioning Form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences Skinner: organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences (reinforcement) ○ White rats and sometimes pigeons ○ Skinner box Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning