PSYc 101 Chapter 8 Development Across the Lifespan PDF

Chapter 8: Development Across the Lifespan Research Designs Longitudinal Cross-sectional Cross-sequential Research Designs Longitudinal Cross-sectional Cross-sequential Research Designs Longitudinal Cross-sectional Cross-sequential Research Designs Longitudinal Cross-sec...

Chapter 8: Development Across the Lifespan Research Designs Longitudinal Cross-sectional Cross-sequential Research Designs Longitudinal Cross-sectional Cross-sequential Research Designs Longitudinal Cross-sectional Cross-sequential Research Designs Longitudinal Cross-sectional Cross-sequential The Nature vs. Nurture “debate” Influence of Influence of inherited environment characteristics Prenatal development Starts with fertilization Sperm + ovum = zygote Prenatal development: 3 stages Embryo Germinal Fetal nic Germinal Period: first 2 weeks Zygote begins dividing  moves down to the uterus Cells form a hollow ball and attach to the wall of the uterus Placenta & umbilical cord form Cells begin to differentiate Prenatal development: 3 stages Embryo Germinal Fetal nic Embryonic Period: from 2 weeks after conception to 8 weeks Cells continue to specialize, becomes an embryo Various critical periods: times where certain environmental influences can impact the development of the embryo; harm from teratogens Prenatal development: 3 stages Embryo Germinal Fetal nic Fetal Period: from 8 weeks after conception until birth (~38 weeks) Embryo becomes a fetus Infancy – Innate reflexes Infancy – Brain and sensory development Born with > 100 million neurons; brain triples in weight in first 3y Loss of some neurons via synaptic pruning Highly developed at birth: touch, taste, smell Still developing: hearing, sight Childhood cognitive development: Piaget Children develop schemas for new information, and assimilate information into schemas they already have Accommodation: altering/adjusting old schemas to fit new information Four stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational Piaget: Sensorimotor stage Birth – 2 years Infants use their senses/motor abilities to learn about their environments Involuntary reflexes  voluntary movements (reaching, grasping, tasting, etc.) Development of object permanence Piaget: Preoperational stage 2 – 7 years Development of language and concepts Mentally represent objects, make-believe play Still not capable of logical thought Egocentrism and centration Piaget: Concrete operational 7 – 12 years More logical thought, loss of centration Inability to deal with abstract concepts Piaget: Formal operational 12 years – adulthood Abstract thinking, realizing multiple points of view Not all adults reach this stage (according to Piaget) Piaget’s stages of cognitive development Criticism for Piaget’s theory Development is more continuous/gradual than discrete stages Preschoolers often less egocentric than Piaget proposed Focus on Western children only Childhood cognitive development: Vygotsky Focused on [interactions with] people, rather than objects Children develop through scaffolding Zone of Proximal Development: the difference between what a child can accomplish alone and with scaffolding Psychosocial Development Incl. personality, relationships, self-concept, and gender Attachment styles (studied using the Strange Situation) Secure Avoidant Ambivalent Disorganized/disoriented Develop as a relationship between the parent’s behavior and the child’s temperament Psychosocial Development Self-concept: the image one has of themselves, based on interactions with significant people in one’s life Develops around 15-18 months, then continues with gender development, awareness of appearance, personality traits, and group memberships Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial development 8 stages Gender development Sex: physical characteristics of being male or female Gender: psychological characteristics of being male, female, nonbinary Gender roles: culture’s expectations for gendered behavior Gender identity: one’s internal sense of being (or not being) a particular gender Two theories of gender-role development Social Learning Theory Children observe their parents and others acting in accordance with gendered expectations, and are reinforced for acting “appropriately” Gender Schema Theory Combines social learning theory and cognitive development Children develop a Piagetian schema (mental concept) for a particular gender, and organize their behavior around that schema Involves some social learning, but also evidence of gender discrimination/preference from an early age Adolescence Period of life from about age 13 to the early 20s, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult (p. 327) Adolescence – Physical development Puberty: physical changes in the body as sexual development reaches its peak Development of both primary and secondary sex characteristics Approx. 2 years after the initial growth spurt (around age 10 for girls and 12 for boys) Brain development continues into the early 20s (specifically the PFC) Adolescence – Cognitive, moral, & psychosocial development Piaget’s formal operational period Abstract thinking and hypothetical situations Still some egocentrism—introspection and preoccupation with their own thoughts Personal fable: thought common to adolescents in which they believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Imaginary audience: thought common to adolescents in which they believe that others are as concerned with the adolescent’s thoughts/characteristics as they are Adolescence – Cognitive, moral, & psychosocial development Kohlberg’s levels of moral development Adolescence – Cognitive, moral, & psychosocial development Erikson’s stages: Identity vs. role confusion Success in previous stages equip adolescents to develop a sense of self and resist peer pressure Adulthood and aging Emerging adulthood  young adulthood  middle adulthood  late adulthood Physical aging begins after peak in 20s Wrinkles in skin Sight and hearing diminish Hair thins, grays Height decreases Women go through menopause w/decline in estrogen Men experience andropause w/decline in testosterone Adulthood and aging Some decline in reaction time and memory (retrieval) “use it or lose it” principle; exercise (physical and mental) very important Erikson’s psychosocial stages Early adulthood: Intimacy vs. isolation Middle adulthood: Generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood: ego integrity vs. despair Generativity through parenting Three parenting styles (Baumrind, 1967) Authoritarian: overly concerned with rules, stern and rigid, lack of warmth; children may be insecure, timid, and resentful; teenagers may be rebellious against authority Permissive: few demands on children Permissive neglectful: parents are uninvolved with children Permissive indulgent: too involved with children, allowing children to behave any way they wish Children of both types may be selfish, immature, lacking in social skills Authoritative: combines firm limits with love and warmth; willing to listen to the child’s POV; children tend to be self- reliant and able to regulate their emotions Theories of aging Cellular-clock theory: cells are limited in the number of times they can reproduce to repair damage; damage accumulates over time Wear-and-tear theory: outside influences such as stress, physical exertion, and bodily damage wear out cells and tissues Free-radical theory: updated wear-and-tear theory; free radicals (O2 molecules with an unstable electron) bounce around cells and damage cellular structures; aging comes with more free-radicals that do more damage Activity theory: aging comes with reduction of Death and dying Kubler-Ross’ (1997) stages of reaction to death: 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance Attitudes around death are very culturally-specific; see 8.17