PSYC112 PIC Tutorials PDF

**DISCLAIMER:** notes are taken from lectures, readings and other sources. **MODULE 1: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY** **Introduction to social Psychology** **What does social psychology mean?** Dialogues and Debates in Social Psychology [Rousseau vs Hobbes] - [Rousseau\ ] "man is by nature good and o...

**DISCLAIMER:** notes are taken from lectures, readings and other sources. **MODULE 1: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY** **Introduction to social Psychology** **What does social psychology mean?** Dialogues and Debates in Social Psychology [Rousseau vs Hobbes] - [Rousseau\ ] "man is by nature good and only institutions make him bad." Government should express the will of the people. [Hobbes\ ] "man is by nature solitary, poore, nasty and brutish." Therefore, government should have more control over people\'s lives - to curb instincts [Strength] - If not for the civilising constraints of society, there would be "a war of all against all." - The good thing about dialogues and debates is that they allow for new ideas and allows for change - - **Approaches to Social Theorizing** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **Levels of Explanation in Social Psychology** 1. 2. 3. 4. - **Freud & Psychoanalysis** [Freud:] - - - **Core Concepts in Psychoanalysis** [ID] - - is the innermost core of the personality, the only structure present at birth and the source of all psychic energy. The id entails the instinctual drives and is totally unconscious Operating according to the pleasure principle , it seeks immediate gratification or release, regardless of rational considerations and environmental realities. Basically "if you want something then take it. However, the id cannot directly satisfy itself because it has no contact with the outer world, in other words, it works unconsciously. In order to satisfy urges or ID, the ego is formed. [Ego] - - tests the reality to decide when and under what conditions the id can safely discharge its impulses and satisfy its needs. For example, the ego would seek sexual gratification within a consenting relationship rather than allow the pleasure principle to dictate an impulsive sexual assault on the first person who happened by. Freud wrote, 'In popular language, we may say that the ego stands for reason and sanity, in contrast to the id which contains untamed passions'. It drives ID in a proper way. example: if you are craving chocolate, the ego will make you wait until you can get your own chocolate bar instead of snatching the one your friend is about to enjoy. [Superego] - - The superego contains the traditional values and ideals of family and society. These ideals are internalised by the child through identification with his or her parents, who also use reinforcement and punishment to teach the child what is 'right', what is 'wrong' and how the child 'should' be. Like the ego, the superego strives to control the instincts of the id, particularly the sexual and aggressive impulses that are condemned by society. In a sense, the id says 'I want!' and the superego replies 'Don't you dare! That would be evil!' Whereas the ego simply tries to postpone instinctual gratification until conditions are safe and appropriate, the superego tries to block gratification permanently. Thus, the superego might cause a person to experience intense guilt over sexual activity even within marriage because it has internalised the idea that 'sex is dirty'. Defence Mechanisms - In many instances, the anxiety can be reduced through realistic coping behaviours, as when a person who is extremely angry at someone works out the problem through rational discussion instead of murderous assault. However, when realistic strategies are ineffective in reducing anxiety, the ego may resort to defence mechanisms , unconscious mental operations that deny or distort reality. [Displacement] - Example: A man who is harassed by his boss experiences no anger at work but then goes home and abuses his wife and children. [Reaction formation] - A mother who harbours feelings of resentment toward her child represses them and becomes overprotective of the child. [Projection] - An unacceptable impulse is repressed and directed to others A woman with strong repressed desires to have an affair continually accuses her husband of being unfaithful to her. [Isolation ] - blocks out painful feelings by recalling a traumatic event without experiencing the emotion associated with it Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud proposes that children pass through a series of psychosexual changes (believes that adult personalities are influenced by early experiences in life) [Oral stage] - - Infants gain primary satisfaction from taking in food and from sucking on a breast, a thumb or some other object. Freud proposed that either excessive gratification or frustration of oral needs can result in fixation on oral themes of self-indulgence or dependency as an adult. [Anal stage] - - pleasure becomes focused on the process of elimination. Example: peeing, undergoing toilet training to deal with society\'s first attempt to control a biological urge. According to Freud, harsh toilet training can produce compulsions, overemphasis on cleanliness, obsessive concerns with orderliness and insistence on rigid rules and rituals. In contrast, Freud speculated that extremely lax toilet training results in a messy, negative and dominant adult personality. [Phallic stage] - - - - - This is the time when children begin to derive pleasure from their sexual organs. Freud believed that during this stage of early sexual awakening, the male child experiences erotic feelings toward his mother, desires to possess her sexually and views his father as a rival. At the same time, however, these feelings arouse strong guilt and a fear that the father might find out and castrate him, hence the term castration anxiety. This conflictual situation involving love for the mother and hostility toward the father is the Oedipus complex , named after the Greek character Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Girls, meanwhile, discover that they lack a penis, blame the mother for their lack of what Freud considered the more desirable sex organ and wish to bear their father's child as a substitute for the penis they lack. The female counterpart of the Oedipus complex was termed the Electra complex. Freud believed that the phallic stage is a major milestone in the development of gender identity, for children normally resolve these conflicts by repressing their sexual impulses and moving from a sexual attachment to the opposite-sex parent to identification with the same-sex parent. Boys take on the traits of their fathers and girls those of their mothers. [Latency stage] - - [Genital stage] - - remerges and finding direct expression in sexual relations **Experimental Evidence** [However:] - - - [Freud's Ideas] - - - Freud: claimed that children whose parents treat them harshly would redirect aggressive instincts on to others who have less power. - - Presented threatening and non-threatening words Threatening words took longer to report. **Attitude & Attitude Change** What is an attitude? is a positive or negative reaction towards a stimulus, such as a person, action, object or concept [3 components of attitude] 1. 2. 3. **Techniques of Attitude Measurement** [Likert Scales ] - - - - [Bogus pipeline] - Participants are hooked to an apparatus and are told to measure minute changes in muscles, so makes it harder for participants to lie [Electromyography] - - - Therefore, when they are watching a video and make a facial expression, which then is recorded by the EMG emotions are associated with the muscles that are moving **Attitude-behaviour relations** Do attitudes predict behaviour? - [Source of Controversy:] - - Investigated relations between racist attitudes and behaviour travelled with Chinese couple stopped over at hotels and restaurants, only one hotel refused service wrote to each establishment if they could accommodate chinese couple (92% said NO) [Theory of Planned Behaviour] - - - - - Our intention to engage in a behaviour is strongest when we have a positive attitude toward that behaviour, when subjective norms (our perceptions of what other people think we should do) support our attitudes and when we believe that the behaviour is under our control. According to this model many studies fail to find relations between attitudes and behaviour because they do not take these factors into account. Attitude change & stability - - did a 15 year study found that attitudes towards capital punishment (death penalty) did not change. [Attitudes can change for several reasons] - - When two or more cognitions contradict one another (such as 'I am a truthful person; the task is boring' and 'I just lied to another student; I told them that those boring tasks were interesting'), the person experiences an uncomfortable state of tension and becomes motivated to reduce this dissonance. The theory predicts that to reduce the dissonance and restore a state of cognitive consistency, people will change one of their cognitions or add new cognitions. - - - [Emotional Appeals] - The message evokes moderate to strong fear The message provides a feasible (low cost) way to reduce the threat - In a study with 361 participants, a message about the dangers of influenza and the benefits of free vaccination was read. Higher activation of the behavioural-inhibition system (BIS) was linked to increased fear, while the behavioural-activation system (BAS) showed no such link. Increased and peak fear levels predicted persuasion, but the decrease in fear did not affect persuasion. Attitude Resilience - - - McAlister et al. (1982) sought to prevent teenagers from smoking, taught arguments such as "I'd be real chicken if I smoked just to impress you"\ - teenagers trained in this way were less likely to smoke. **Attribution** **What is attribution?** Judgements about the causes of our own and other people's behaviour and outcomes Measurement of Causal Attributions 1. [Internal] - [External ] - Consequences of Attributions [Frey & Rogner (1987)] - - found that those who blamed themselves stayed longer compared to those that did not blame themselves [Pessimistic vs optimistic] - - People with a pessimistic explanatory style tend to view setbacks as personal, permanent, and pervasive. People with an optimistic explanatory style tend to blame setbacks on outside forces and view them as temporary, isolated events. **Motivational Basis of Attributions** [Self-esteem] - - Attributions linked to self-esteem in 2 ways. 1.If we behave positively or successfully and then attribute this to our own internal qualities we can achieve and maintain self-esteem. 2\. If we behave negatively or fail in some way and then we attribute this to the same internal qualities, then we can suffer a decrease in self-esteem. [Control] - If we attribute our successes to our internal characteristics we may believe that we are in control. **Levels at which Attributions can be made** [Intrapersonal] Focus on the criteria by which individuals analyse information and come to make an attribution *Major theories:* - to explain why people make internal or external attribution - Model, developed by Harold Kelley in 1967, is a logical model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some characteristic (disposition) of the person (internal attribution) or the environment (external attribution). According to Kelley, people consider three types of information when making causal attributions: 1. 2. 3. For example, if a student gets a good grade on a test: - - - [Interpersonal] Face to face attributions *Major biases* - people tend to attribute the cause of their own actions to EXTERNAL factors they tend to attribute the cause of others actions to INTERNAL causes. - The tendency to make personal attributions for successes and situational attributions for failures However, this is not always true [Intergroup] Group members of different groups explain behaviour - - - [Societal] Differences with culture *Theories* - The fundamental attribution error (FAE) is a concept in social psychology that refers to the tendency for people to overemphasise personal characteristics (dispositional factors) and underemphasize situational factors when explaining other people\'s behaviour. For example If a colleague fails to complete a project on time, you might assume they are lazy or incompetent (dispositional attribution) rather than considering that they might have been dealing with unforeseen challenges or a high workload (situational attribution). - shows that while individuals from Western cultures favour dispositional explanations (focuses on individualism) individuals from Non-Western cultures tend to favour environmental\ explanations **Interpersonal Relationships** **Proximity & Propinquity** The idea of being physically close to one another tends to establish social relationships. We tend to interact more with people who are physically closer. propinquity basically means the same as proximity. Regardless of the stimuli, exposure generally enhances liking and this occurs when we are not consciously aware of those repeated exposure [Importance] - repeated exposure to a stimulus typically increases our liking for it. e.g., the more you see a certain flower, the more you will start liking it. [Past studies]: - Found that 83% of people met their 'special partner' in a familiar social setting, 6% in a casual social setting. - found that people tended to make friends with those whom they were seated beside alphabetically. - claimed that if it was merely repeated exposure that enhances our liking then we should prefer photos of our facial images as we see them in a mirror (ie. a reversed photo image) and friends should prefer a normal photo of our faces since this is what they normally see. In his study: 70% prefer the mirror image of their faces and 70% prefer the normal image of their friends. - Stated that proximity does not always work. Particularly due to differences between people, whether it may be personalities, values and so on. These differences can lead to hostility. Basically, if the initial interaction is negative and it continues to be negative then dislike towards that person will occur. **Emotional Arousal** The idea that emotional arousal will lead to rating others as more attractive. Basically if you aroused, you are more likely to rate someone as more attractive [Past studies] - found that men who ran on the spot rated women as being more attractive. - people expecting electric shocks rated members of the opposite sex as being more attractive Physical Attractiveness The idea that physical attractiveness is important. [Past studies] - Found that out of 32 desirable traits for a partner men ranked physical appearance 12th, women ranked it 22nd - They analysed computer dating services where photo matching was used. They found that for both sexes physical attractiveness was the major determining factor of date choice. - assessed student's reactions to their partners on a blind date during a school dance. They found that the more attractive you were rated by the observers the more you were liked by your date. - 90% of men when approached by an attractive woman would agree to sex, only 10% of women when approached by an attractive man would agree to sex [Gender differences:] - Men - both heterosexual and gay focused on the physical attractiveness of potential partners. Women - both heterosexual and lesbian tended to focus on the psychological characteristics. [Benefits of attraction:] - - - Similarity The idea of being attracted to others who are similar. [Studies] - best friends at high school resemble each other in terms of age, race and academic grades - married couples who shared the same egalitarian (believing in or based on the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities) or religious beliefs were a lot happier. - studied decision - making process in casualty wards when people were brought in D.O.A. The idea that if you are attractive, you are more likely to be tried to be brought back to life. [Men vs Women Preferences] - - - Facial Features: Men prefer: childlike profile, big eyes, small nose and chin. Women prefer: expression of dominance, small eyes, square jaw, thrusting chin Torso:\ Men prefer: medium bust, hips waist and bottom Women prefer: V shaped man, broad shoulders which tapers into small bottom Age and height: Men prefer: younger, smaller women Women prefer: older, taller men **Failed Relationships** [Divorce] - Women may feel more distressed in conflicted relationships Women better through: Divorce, Separation and Widowhood [Loneliness] - - - [Rejection] causes pain - low self-esteem - aggression **Social Influence** Social Facilitation Improving one's task in the presence of others compared to when they are alone. [Past studies] - When others present -\ Simple task ability improved. Complex (harder) task ability decreased. - [Drive theory] - The dominant response is what you are good at. [Diffusion of Responsibility] The diffusion of responsibility refers to the decreased responsibility of action each member of a group feels when they are part of a group. The idea that someone else will do it, but also people do not know what to do. Responsibility decreases within a group - *Kitty Genovese* struggle with her killer for 30 mins The struggle was reportedly watched by 38 of her neighbours. None helped or phoned the police. This was because there were so many witnesses, that they assumed that someone else had called the police already. - **Deindividuation** A loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited behaviour in crowds. a process where people lose their sense of socialised individual identity and resort to unsocialized and antisocial behaviour - That is because When people are surrounded by others they lose self-awareness and begin to feel anonymous and this can lead to an increase in antisocial behaviour. [Past Studies] - Analysed newspaper reports of incidents in which crowds were present when a person threatened to jump off a building, in 10 of 21 cases the crowd had encouraged the person to jump. - Where anonymity leads to aggression For example, when you are dressed up, you tend to lose awareness. In order to reduce antisocial behaviour, you would need to make people aware of themselves. - Halloween study 34% took extra sweets only 12% of those presented with mirror took extra sweets (that is because they are aware of themselves) **Conformity** The tendency for an align behaviour with surrounding people. [Past studies] - Their study was done with a group of four only one was a participant, and the rest were confederates. They were told to guess which of the lines presented matched, however, all the confederates gave the wrong answer. They found that the participants ended up conforming and choosing their answers. Influence can also change beliefs - ​​looked at social and political attitudes at a small liberal college in the U.S. College recruited students from conservative backgrounds. Initially the students themselves were very conservative but by the time they left university they had adapted to the liberal ethos of the college. - Stanford Prison experiment, which showed that people can conform to social roles They got students to take on the roles of guards and prisoners in a 2-week experiment. Guards became assertive, dominant and supportive of one another regardless of brutality. Prisoners became obedient, cowed, judged guards to be larger. Study had to be stopped after 6 days because it became too much. There were also parts that related to deindividuation, as they did not use any names and prisoners addressed the guards as Mr correctional officers. The guards wore the same uniform and wore sunglasses and prevented prisoners from making direct eye contact. Guards were unaware that they were being monitored and they eventually developed the tough prison guard. [Obedience] Form of social influence that involves acting on the orders of an authoritative figure. [Milgram] Participant (teacher) vs confederate (student). Pupil taken to another room and strapped into a chair. Each time the student made a mistake the teacher gave him an electrical shock. The shock level was to increase by 15 volts each time the learner made a mistake. The teacher sat in front of a large shock generator that contained dials ranging from SLIGHT SHOCK to DANGER XXX. As the study progressed the pupil grunted and screamed, then complained of a heart condition. Eventually the pupil became silent.\ 66% of participants went to the DANGER XXX level. Although alarming, these results indicate that people will hurt others if ordered to do so. **Stanford Prison Experiment** A study conducted by Philip ZImbardo in the early 70s **Aim[:]** examine how social roles affected individual behaviour **Method** Participants: 75 male college students Pre-screening -\> 24 was chosen Random assignment -\> guards & prisoners **Results** [3 phases] 1. 2. 3. [Guards] 1. 2. 3. What was meant to be 2 weeks study, turned into 6 days. [Suggests:] The study suggests that ordinary people can be transformed by their immediate context to perform brutal acts. Critique [Demand characteristic ] a subtle cue that makes participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave The fact that Zimbardo didn't intervene suggested to the guards that what they were doing was right - the guards may have responded to a range of cues and demands embedded in the SPE's design? [Student behaviour abnormal?] Those who agreed to take part were more\ Authoritarian, Machiavellian, Narcissistic and Socially Dominant. they were also less Empathetic and Altruistic [Lovibond et al. (1979)] - democratic (equality), participatory, authoritarian (enforcing obedience) Democratic & participatory -\> guards instructed to treat with respect and include in decision making authoritarian -\> toxic environment [BBC prison study] - overseen by ethics committee Guards were unable to make a decision and became disillusioned ([[discovered]](https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&sca_esv=c702d95b856d35c7&rls=en&sxsrf=ADLYWIJcTfvFhh2wTFZ7iU2a2sHBKu4xNg:1722903244874&q=discovers&si=ACC90nytWkp8tIhRuqKAL6XWXX-NtxSuQFrhL8ToNpJbjBNl_CSiju5XPWIVDOj3D_o2KRUm2bfFszVdYqnyfEJGU1TCmL0H-NrDYXYyTudI3VvqLcX1sQ4%3D&expnd=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiWnZLfit-HAxVtyDgGHYWUL1wQyecJegQIMBAO) to be less good than one had believed). prisoners shared sense of identity and resisted guards which made them feel a sense of efficacy (ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task) **Conclusion** Guards don't necessarily become nasty \-\-- Prisoners don't necessarily become disillusioned People don't automatically take on roles -- they need to identify with them. People will only accept roles when they are incorporated into their sense of self. [Us vs them language] This sense of 'us' and 'them combined with exhortations to control and create fear in the prisoners encourages toxic behaviour in the guards. Basically the whole separating themselves from the prisoners Certain kinds of people may be attracted to certain kinds of contexts Once in those contexts they may be drawn to certain kinds of activities. There is an interaction between person and context that leads to tyranny and resistance This interaction is dynamic in that - context's transform individuals and individuals transform context through their capacity to represent, lead and mobilise people. People have the capacity to support tyranny or resist it. In simple words, if someone is lowkey a tyrant, they will tend to support it, while those who are not are more likely to resist it. **Milgram's Obedience Experiment (MOE)** His study was influenced by world war II and what led the nazi to masccaring a bunch of innocent people. Done by Stanley Milgram in the 60s Aim: To identify factors that either increased or decreased people's obedience. - **Method** [Participants] - - [Procedure] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. **Results** Dilemma Participants underwent a dilemma: Whether to continue with the experiment or not. Most participants became distressed. Some trembled, sweated, laughed nervously or, in a few cases, experienced convulsions. 65% went all the way to the end. [Why?] Transferred because they viewed the experimenter as an authoritative figure. social identity theory: where you identify yourself in society (e.g., identifying yourself with people who value the same things as you). In this case, identifying with the experimenter led to more obedience, while identifying with the learner led to less. - - **Factors that influence obedience** [Remoteness of the victim ] - - When the learner is out of sight, Obedience is greatest. However, When the teacher and learner were in the same room obedience dropped to 40% When the teacher had to make contact with the learner by pressing his hand onto a shock plate conformity dropped to 30% [Closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure] - Obedience was highest when the authority figure was close by and perceived as legitimate When the experimenter left the room, gave orders by phone or when an ordinary participant gave instructions obedience dropped to 20% [Diffusion of responsibility] - when another 'participant' (actually a confederate) flipped the shock switch and the real participants only had to perform another aspect of the task, 93 per cent obeyed. In short, obedience increases when someone else does the dirty work. However, when they were given full responsibility, obedience dropped to 0%. [Characteristics of the teacher?] - - Women are just as likely to obey like men. Authoritarians more likely to obey If people identify with the victim they are less likely to obey. **Summary** In summary most people can be induced to follow orders from an authority figure they perceive as legitimate, even when doing so contributes to harming an innocent person. Milgram's research provides a powerful example of how social context can induce people to behave in ways that they would have never imagined. However, some people will not obey if they do not identify with the authoritative person. **Prejudice** **Examples** Authoritarian Personality [Adorno et al. (1950)] Realistic Group Conflict Theory [Sherif's field experiment] The Minimal Group Paradigm Group and prejudice **MODULE 2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT** **Introduction** What is development? The physical and psychological changes with growth What is Development Psychology? the scientific study of age-related changes in behaviour, thinking, emotion, and personality **Continuity & Change** To what extent is development characterised by continuous change, and to what extent does it involve discontinuities that result in the emergence of new forms and processes of change? - Is development continuous with other species development or is there a difference. - This is within humans, nothing changes but it gets bigger (continuous), vs changes through different stages, like a frog or a caterpillar that changes into a butterfly (discontinuous). Some human examples: Continuous -\> being able to increase the number they can count Discontinuous -\> changes in movement, from crawling to walking - Critical period is a period of time where something has to happen for development to proceed in a certain way. is an age range during which certain experiences must occur for development to proceed normally or along a certain path E.g., Genie -\> locked away, not able to speak properly and missed the critical period of language (exposed to language at a certain time for it to proceed appropriately) Is development continuous and gradual, as when a sapling slowly grows into a tree, or is it discontinuous, progressing through qualitatively distinct stages, as when a creeping caterpillar emerges from its cocoon as a soaring butterfly? Can it be both continuous and discontinuous? **Sources of Development** Where nature is about your biological being and nurture was how you were raised. Twin studies - - - Important to note that nothing is 100% nature or nurture there is a lot of mix between them d **Individual Differences** No two human beings are exactly alike. How do people come to have stable characteristics that differentiate them from all other people? - Many things, culture, education and so on, and they lead to how we develop. - Less research Characteristics such as being shy or certain behaviours that occur during childhood. **Data Collection** - Such as questionnaires Reporting themselves - Observing what people will do - Make changes to certain group and compare them to a control - Like self report more discussion based **Research Design** - Over time study - At one point of time Take a group of people from different ages at the same time Or very different individuals. **Cognitive Development** **Cognition?** **Jean Piaget** Observed children\ Proposed a sequence of development that all normal children follow Four 'stages' of cognitive development 1. 2. 3. 4. Piaget noticed that children of the same age often made similar errors on test questions. So in order to understand how children think, Piaget observed them and listened to them as they tried to solve problems. He proposed that children think in a different way from adults. He viewed children as natural-born scientists who seek to understand their world. So they do this through schemas And he stated that Cognitive development occurs as infants acquire new schemas and elaborate existing schemas and proposed that it involved two key processes, assimilation and accommodation Schema Formation *--* a cognitive framework or concept that helps organise and interpret information. It helps us to understand current and future experiences. Assimilation -- the process by which new information is modified to fit in with an existing schema. For example, if a child has seen a dog and they have that as a schema, whenever they see a four-legged animal they would think that it is also a dog, so they are fitting it into their schema. Accommodation -- the process by which an existing schema is modified or changed by new experience **Cognitive developmental stages** 1. Birth to 2 years Stated that infants understand their world primarily through sensory experiences and physical (motor) interactions with objects. Reflexes are their earliest schemas and, as they mature, they begin to explore their surroundings. These activities provide the sensory-motor experiences that allow rapid brain development to begin to form symbols. For young infants, said Piaget, 'out of sight' literally means 'out of mind'. If you hide a 3-month old\'s favourite toy from view, he or she will not search for it, as if the toy no longer exists. But at around 8 months of age the child will search for and retrieve the hidden toy because he or she now grasps the concept of object permanence. So object permanence is the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it can no longer be seen. Over time, they eventually are able to have a Representational Thought - ability to form mental representations of others' behaviour.\ Towards the end of the sensorimotor period, mental representation is instrumental in. Imitation Deferred imitation - a child's ability to imitate the actions he or she has observed others perform in the past and Symbolic play The use of words to represent objects 2. 2 to 7 years They represent the world symbolically through words and mental images but do not yet understand basic mental operations or rules. Rapid language development helps children label objects and represent simple concepts, such as that two objects can be the 'same' or 'different'. However, at this age, they are unable to understand conservation - For, example two different cups (1 tall and one short, but they both have the same volume) but they would think that the tall cup has more volume than the other But they do reflect Egocentrism -- a child's belief that others see the world in precisely the same way that he or she does (so they do not understand that there are different views). 3. 7 to 12 years They can perform basic mental operations concerning problems if they involve tangible (i.e. 'concrete') objects and situations.\ Ability to perform logical analysis\ Ability to empathise with the thoughts/feelings of others Understanding of complex cause-effect relations However, they have difficulty with problems that are theoretical or require abstract reasoning. For example, if you were to ask a child if they had a 3rd eye, and where they would place it. They would mostly put on the face because that is where it belongs. 4. 12 years upward\ Abstract Reasoning Metacognition\ Dependent on exposure to principles of scientific thinking, in which individuals can think logically about concrete and abstract problems, form hypotheses and systematically test them. Back to the 3rd eye, this time they will place it anywhere, like on the palm or somewhere else. **Criticism on Piaget's Theory** [Criticism 1 - Babies do not start with nothing] 1\. Space and Objects o The Visual Cliff\ Children appear to be able to perceive depth around the time they can crawl Even pre-crawling infants may be able to discriminate between the two sides of the "cliff" o The Effect of Occlusion Habituation procedure - - Object Permanence\ The error simply may be due to a motor habit. If they repeatedly do the same thing, it becomes a habit. 2\. Number and Mathematical Reasoning Piaget stated that infants cannot understand the concept of numbers until they are 6 years old. However, there are some 6-month olds that seem to understand numbers. 3\. Social Cognition\ Piaget said that babies will know nothing, but they would rather look at a face. They even tend to imitate facial expressions. Stated that imitation was to occur at 18 months but there are some babies that can do it before 18 month old Intentions Infants of this age appear to understand actions in terms of intended goals [Criticism 2 -- Cognitive development isn't an all-or-nothing phenomenon] 1\. Numerical skills in preschoolers Toddlers do seem to understand that there are numbers even if they do not really have it in the right order. It is the idea that they know numbers exist but they do not understand the right order. Numerical reasoning Children younger than 6 can generally conserve numbers if the task is relevant. Change of response due to repeatedness. The way asking questions can affect how they give answers Could Piaget's assertion that children can't conserve numbers be due to repeated questioning? 2\. Social cognition in preschoolers Egocentrism Piaget thought that children were egocentric until they were around 7 years old However, children can understand that people do see things differently. Like when a child looks at what the mother is looking at. They also show Theory of mind\ refers to a person's beliefs about the 'mind' and the ability to understand other people's mental states. Others' likes and dislikes Understanding dislikes vs likes, can see these early, and these are part of theory of mind. True and false beliefs\ One aspect of theory of mind\ False belief task - crackers and a hamster in the cracker packet. **Social & Moral Development** **What is it?** This is the development of relationships with others and being able to understand their relationships with others and others behaviours. It is about forming those relationships and learning how to behave in a socially appropriate way. How? Social learning theory - Cognitive development theory - **Parenting Styles** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 4. - - **Peer relationships** Parenting style is a two way street, meaning that depending on how the child behaves, is how parents will respond to them. Peer relations **Emotional Development** The ability to express emotions is present since birth, however, it does vary for others. This also involves being able to understand others feelings. Children also undergoes emotional development - - - **Moral development** Basically the idea of knowing what is right from wrong. Enables the ability to do what is right and avoid what is wrong.. You know what not to do wrong by either learning through consequences, or rules that have been given **Kohlberg's** **Theory of moral reasoning** 1. - 1. [Identified three levels ] Preconventional - - - conventional - - - postconventional - - - **Gender Development** Sex vs gender sex - biological gender - identify Development of gender Most but not all children develop a basic gender identity between the ages of 2 and 3 and tend to label themselves as either a girl or boy (they do this for others as well). Around the age of 6 or 7 is when their gender is fixed, this is gender constancy. biological explanations The whole gender differences may be explained biologically, and this is due to their hormones. And how these hormones affect the brain. For example, the amount of testosterone levels. Apparently exposure to testosterone prenatally results in male like behaviour, whereas, if they were not exposed, they would behave more like females. There are also evolutionary theories that propose that women and men have evolved to behave differently depending on their roles in society. environmental explanations Children's gender socialisation begins with their parents. Some studies: Montemayor: That children finds things more enjoyable if it was gender appropriate Morrongiello: Parents communicate with children depending on their gender, with males they promote risk taking whereas with girls injury vulnerability. Smith: Parents treated children according to their gender label Weisner: Parents who are not into the whole gender difference have children where their attitudes and behaviour does not fit with the gender stereotype. **Children's Drawing** Children have different stages of being able to draw **They have 5 stages** 1. - - 2. - - - 3. - - - 4. - - 6. - **Clinical Values** 1. - - - 2. Researchers questioned whether drawing can help with getting children to talk about their past. [Butler, Gross, & Hayne (1995)] - - - - Drawing has its benefits, such as that it increases length of interview and reduces social barriers and allows children to provide their own retrieval cues. **Children as Witnesses** The Child Sexual Abuse Dilemma (difficult choice between two or more alternatives) - - - - - Prosecutor: Did she touch you with a spoon? Child: No\ Prosecutor: No? Okay. Did you like it when she touched you with the spoon?\ Child: No - Interviewer: Can you remember the naked pictures? Child: (shakes head no) Interviewer: Can't remember that part?\ Child: (shakes head no) Interviewer: Why don't you think about that for a while, okay? Your memory might come back to you. "We know about that game because we have just had twenty kids tell us about that game. Do you think if I asked you a question you could put your thinking cap on and you might remember?" "We know about that game because we have just had twenty kids tell us about that game. Do you think if I asked you a question you could put your thinking cap on and you might remember?" "Are you going to be stupid, or are you going to be smart and help us here?" The McMartin Preschool Case "Well, what good are you? You must be dumb." "Can I pat you on the head? Look at what a good help you can be. You're going to help all these children because you're so smart." Case of Peter Ellis - The New Zealand Legal System for Child Witnesses - Direct Examination Cross-Examination - examined by the other lawyers Re-Examination) - - **Imaginary Friends** [Why Do Children Develop ICs? ] Most of the evidence supports a *compensatory theory* (a defence mechanism when a person tries to make up for a perceived area of weakness in their life) of IC development. For the majority of children, ICs provide fun and companionship. [Imaginary companions] "An invisible character named and referred to in conversation with other persons or played with directly for a period of time, at least several months, having an air of reality for the child, but no apparent objective basis. [Demographic data] - - - - - ICs did not emerge until the 1800s and in the 1930s parents were informed that ICs are not encouraged. [Dr Spock ] o Urged parents to supply more "hugging and piggy-back rides"\ o If ICs persisted after age 4, parents were told to consult a mental health professional to "find out what is lacking." [Marjorie Taylor] Examined ICs of 3- to 12-year-old children - - - - - The Problem of Parental Report - - - - Why Do People Worry about ICs? - - - - However, - - - Why do Children Develop Attachments to Objects? Proposals include: - - - There is some evidence for all of these claims. Advantages of Attachment Objects - - [Conclusion] Overall, there is **no evidence to support the claim that children with imaginary companions or object attachments mature or develop differently to children without them.** While these things may constitute a part of healthy development, there is **no evidence to suggest that they are a necessary part of healthy development.** **TV & Video games** It is recommended by the American Academy paediatrics that children 2 and under should spend 0 hours on tv a day, 3-8 1 hour and 8\> aout 1-2 hours a day. problems with research on video games - - **MODULE 3: HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY** What do we mean by health? Health is a state of well-being that encompasses many factors. It does not simply mean the absence of illness. **Marlow's hierarchy of needs:** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **What is health Psychology?** Health psychology addresses factors that influence well-being and illness, as well as measures to promote health and prevent illness. [Approaches within health psychology] - - - - - Frameworks: - - - - - - - - **What is stress?** Stress can be either something that is either: - - - [How do people deal with stress?] - \> Focusing primarily on the stressor and finding ways to change the impacts or how to better respond to it (i.e., change the way you think - as in think positively) - \> Straightforward, but there are different ways people avoid, such as distancing from the stressor, mentally avoiding the stressor, denial, or even using humour, also turning towards other things to help such as drug use or alcohol. - \> This is basically about how one controls their emotion around stress, some people tend to either blame themselves or others, they really get into their thinking. - \> Seeking help from other people really There are some therapeutic approaches: these approaches are usually done by clinical psychologists. - - - - [What impact does stress have on our health?] Stress has been found to affect people's health, it can affect the body's physiology (SAM & HPA systems - releases certain hormones in the body). Some studies have found that it can cause coronary artery disease or respiratory infection episodes. This usually occurs because the fight or flight response enters the immune system. Activation of the immune system can cause inflammation or certain reactions that can make a person sick. **Lecture 3 (stigma & health)** [1. What is stigma?] - - - Stigma is a social construction, not a fact [2. How does stigma lead to prejudice?] DISTINGUISHING & LABELLING DIFFERENCES -\> ASSOCIATING DIFFERENCES WITH NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTES -\> SEPARATING "US" FROM "THEM" -\> DISCRIMINATION [3. How do we combat stigma?] Contact - - - Education - - - Protest - - - **Lecture 4 (Neurodiversity)** [Social Model of Disability] The social model is a model that describes how society places limits on a person and not their disability. These includes social barriers: - - - there is also a medical model of disability: Which describes how illness and disability is a result of a physical condition Where: - - - [Neurodiversity Paradigm] - - - [Common Goals] - - - - [Case Study: Autism] A: Social and Language -- (all 3) - - - B: Restricted/repetitive behaviours (at least 2) C: Symptoms must be present in early childhood (but may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities) D: Clinically significant impairment - **Social Camouflaging** - - - **Lecture 5 (Māori Health)** [Colonisation] Leading up to Te Tiriti - - - - - - - - Breaches after Te Tiriti - - - - - - - - - - - - [Determinants of Health] - - - - [Strategies to improve Māori health] - - - - [Māori health models] - - - **Lecture 6 (Pacific Peoples Health)** [Pacific Peoples] Recognise that Pacific peoples encompasses various cultures The Pacific population that is NZ primarily consists of Samoan, Tongan, Cook Islands Maori, Niuean, Fijian, Tokelauan, Tuvualuan, i-Kiribati, and etc. [NZ Health Survey] - - - [Pacific Health Strategy] - - - - - - - - [Seitapu framework] - - - - - - - - **Lecture 7 (Alcohol & Health)** [Alcohol Use in Aotearoa] - - - [Quantifying the Harm] - [Adolescent Alcohol Use] - - [Addressing Adol. Alcohol Use] - - - 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. - - - - - - - - - - - **Lecture 8 (Social Media & health)** [History and Prevalence] Over the years, social media has advanced and has become popular over the population. Facebook being the leading app [Adolescent Perspectives] From your personal experience, to what extent does \[platform\] make the following health-related factors better or worse? Rate them from -2 (a lot worse) to +2 (a lot better). 1\. Awareness and understanding of other people's health experiences 2\. Access to expert health information you know you can trust 3\. Emotional support (from family and friends) 4\. Anxiety (feelings of worry) 5\. Depression (feeling extremely low) 6\. Loneliness (feelings of being all on your own) 7\. Sleep (quality and amount of sleep) 8\. Self-expression (your feelings, thoughts or ideas) 9\. Self-identity (ability to define who you are) 10\. Body image (how you feel about how you look) 11\. Real-world relationships (maintaining them) 12\. Community building 13\. Bullying (threatening or abusive behaviours towards you) 14\. FoMO (worrying things are happening without you) Understand that Social media has both negative and positive effects [Case Study: Body Image] The way you see your body is your perceptual body image. The way you feel about your body is your affective body image. The way you think about your body is your cognitive body image Tripartite influence model - Influence of social media - Selfie practices - - - Body Positivity - - - - Body Functionality - **MODULE 4: PSYCHOPATHOLOGY** **Define Psychopathology** Study of psychological disorders Many different workers in this field, psychology related would be those who undergoes clinical psychology [What is a disorder?] Need to understand that what is normal and abnormal is different amongst cultures. I.e., what may be normal in one culture may be abnormal in another culture. I.e., homosexuality used to be considered a mental illness. In psychology a disorder is a *behaviour* *that is personally distressing (individual), personally dysfunctional (interferes with life) and/or so culturally deviant that other people judge it to be inappropriate or maladaptive (outside social norms)*. [Consider both current and historical influences on Psychology in Aotearoa New Zealand] Cultural aspects that influences how people understand what psychopathology Understanding is changing over time Sometimes the therapies are not targeted to certain groups [Can you define the main aims, methods, and findings for Te Rau Hinengaro: The New Zealand Mental Health Survey?] [Aims:] 1. 2. 3. 4. [Methods] - - - [Findings ] - - - **What are the three key principles of Te Tiriti o Waitangi?** - - - Explain the four sides of Te Whare Tapa Whā [Encompasses four sides:] 1. 2. - - - 3. - 4. - - [Benefits] - Anxiety Anxiety ✓ Future focused ✓ An anticipated threat Fear or Panic ✓ Present focused ✓ An immediate threat ✓ Automatic [Effects] Cognitive ✓ Thoughts ✓ Worries Physiological ✓ Heart, stomach, sweating Behavioural ✓ Avoidance Be able to differentiate between the major anxiety disorders In order to classify disorders, the DSM 5 is used Supports evidence-based practice Categorical vs dimensional approach Classifications change as our understanding grows Consider how culture may influence our experience of anxiety [Phobic Disorders (specific, social, and agoraphobia)] Specific - Social - Agoraphobia - [Panic Disorder] Occurs suddenly and quickly and they are much more intense [Generalised anxiety disorder] They are worried all the time, no matter what situation it is. [OCD] Obsessions are repetitive and unwelcome thoughts, images or impulses that invade consciousness, are often abhorrent to the person and are very difficult to dismiss or control. This mother was tyrannised by thoughts and images of contamination. Compulsions are repetitive behavioural responses--- like the woman's cleaning rituals--- that can be resisted only with great difficulty. [PTSD] Used to be part of anxiety but has now been moved to another group. List the 5 key areas that may indicate a disorder. Infrequency Deviance Distress Disability Danger **Think about disorders that you have learned about in this course. Do all disorders cover all 5 areas?** Not all disorders covers all three areas Anxiety only covers DIstress, disability and danger **To be able to differentiate between different approaches to mental health treatment** [The two approaches mentioned in this lecture were: biomedical and psychological ] Disease vs Thought and behaviours Changing physical functioning vs Changing how we interact with our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours Medications and surgery vs Therapy [Psychodynamic] Aim: Clients achieve insight (how psychodynamic processes affect their functioning) Focus on dreams and free association. Strong focus on the past [Behavioural] Aim: Clients identify that behaviours are the cause of disorder Focus on reinforcement rather than punishment Exposure therapy ✓ Virtual reality [Cognitive] Aim: Clients identify and address maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, and assumptions Beck's cognitive therapy and negative beliefs of: ✓ The Self ✓ The World ✓ Others Third wave cognitive therapy ✓ Mindfulness Which treatment is best? Combined treatment common e.g., CBT ✓ Anxiety ✓ Depression Therapeutic relationship matters Growing evidence base, but... To be able to categorise the personality disorders A personality type that are not flexible and cannot change and can cause difficulties in one setting to another. [Cluster A] Odd or eccentric - - - [Cluster B] Dramatic / impulsive - - - - [Cluster C] Anxious - - - To recognise some of the issues with categorical approaches to personality disorders Thresholds may not be useful ✓ ASPD experienced by 50-80% of people in prison Comorbidities ✓ 50% chance of meeting criteria for a second disorder Heterogeneity (diverse in character or form) within disorders ✓ Borderline personality disorder Stereotypical presentations ✓ Histrionic personality disorder [Causes] - - - **To be able to describe the different treatment types** Borderline Personality Disorder ✓ DBT -- some evidence (Linehan) Most other personality disorders have no evidence-based protocols ✓ Focus on treating the symptoms ✓ Schema therapy ✓ Adaptations to treatment pathways [Difficulties with treatment] Takes longer Therapy is difficult Poor research base High levels of stigma **Schizophrenia & Psychosis** ✓ Psychosis - - - - [Define the core features of psychosis] - - - - - ✓ Schizophrenia - - [What are the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia?] - - - - - - [Causes] - - - [Treatments] - - [You should be able to describe Different cultural conceptualisations for voice hearing] - - - - **Depression** [Major Depressive disorder] an intense state of sadness (dysphoria) and/or lack of ability to feel positive emotion (anhedonia) that leaves them unable to function effectively in their lives. Low mood, loss of interest, loss of pleasure Weight loss or gain Sleep and energy difficulties Changes in motor movements Feelings of worthlessness Difficulties with concentration Thoughts of self-harm - Combination of factors ✓ Genetic ✓ Environment \- Social \- Psychological *Beck's theory* ✓ Negative thoughts and beliefs ✓ Often about: \- The self \- The world \- The future Cognitive processes According to Aaron Beck (1976), depressed people hold strong beliefs that they are defective, worthless and inadequate. They also believe that whatever happens to them is bad and that negative things will continue happening because of their personal defects (Clark et al., 1989). This depressive cognitive triad involves negative thoughts concerning (1) the world, (2) oneself and (3) the future that seem to pop into consciousness automatically, *CBT and Culture* Bennett's CBT for depression ✓ A flexible approach ✓ Focus on world view e.g., Whānau, collectivist ✓ Fostering therapeutic relationship ✓ Self-disclosure ✓ Whakataukī e.g., metaphors [Bipolar disorders] Bipolar I - Bipolar II - [Cognitive therapy] Focus on addressing thoughts ✓ Automatic thoughts ✓ Addressing attitudes, thinking styles ✓ Changing Schema Good evidence [Medication] Antidepressants ✓ Works on several pathways ✓ Some evidence ✓ Side effects [How values inform work with diverse groups] Engaging with behaviour that is not aligned with beliefs / values Connecting with values at different times and in different situations Doing things that are consistent with values and sometimes needs to be done. Other times, they do not have to but can do smaller things that are close to certain values. For example, going out or to study. WHen it is peak study time tends to stay in and study but want to go out so feel low but if you do something like eating out for a short time and going back to study, it tends to help feel a little bit better. Taha Whānau: Early Development and Psychopathology [Be aware of neurodevelopmental disorders] Are present during childhood - - Key features 1. 2. 3. ***Disorders:*** [Intellectual disability] An Intellectual disability (ID) is a developmental condition characterised by limitations in both intellectual functioning (such as reasoning, problem-solving, and learning) and adaptive behaviours (daily life skills like communication, social interactions, and self-care). These difficulties typically appear before the age of 18 and affect a person's ability to live independently. [Key Features:] \- Cognitive Limitations: Challenges with learning, memory, decision-making, and problem-solving. \- Adaptive Behavior Deficits: Difficulty with practical skills like self-care, communication, and social interactions. \- Levels of Severity: Intellectual disability can range from mild to profound, depending on the individual\'s ability to function in daily life. Individuals with ID may require support in educational, vocational, and social settings. Early intervention, special education, and life skills training can help improve independence and quality of life for those affected. Learning Disorders Autism Spectrum Disorders A neurodevelopmental condition that leads to cognitive, social and sensory processing differences that influence a person's understanding of, and interaction with, the world. Main domains for ASD - - - [ADHD] In attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) , problems may take the form of inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity or a combination of the two. Inattention: Difficulty sustaining attention, being easily distracted, or forgetting tasks. Hyperactivity: Fidgeting, restlessness, or an inability to stay still. Impulsivity: Acting without thinking, interrupting others, or making hasty decisions. [Be aware of behavioural disorders] Oppositional Defiant Disorder Pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative, defiant behaviour or vindictiveness for at least 6 months, with at least 4, exhibited with at least one individual (not sibling), for example: Loses temper Angry and resentful Argues with authority figures or adults Actively defies, refuses to comply with requests from authority figures/rules Blames others for mistakes, misbehavior Spiteful, vindictive, at least twice in past 6 months Conduct Disorder Repetitive, persistent pattern; rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms, rules violated, 3 (or more) within past 12 mths, at least 1 in past 6 mths: Aggression to people and animals bullies, threatens, intimidates others initiates physical fights used weapon that can cause serious harm been physically cruel to people, animals stolen while confronting victim forced someone into sexual activity Destruction of property e.g., Fire setting Deceitfulness or theft Broken into homes, cars Lies to obtain goods, avoid obligations Stolen without confronting victim Serious violation of rules Stays out at night (before age 13) Run away (at least twice, lengthy) Truant from school (before age 13) Tend to be externalising disorders Environmental factors are important [Maladaptive (worse) Coping Strategies] Risk of comorbidities A range of challenges can result in difficulties with substance use: ✓ Alcohol ✓ Drugs Danger -- to physical health Disability -- Impact on relationships, functional impairment [Treatment] Psychoeducation Developing skills with the whole whānau ✓ With the person ✓ With the whānau -- Catching the positive ✓ With school Support services Medications Readings: Passer and Smith 612-618 Briefly describe the key features of depression and bipolar? [Depression] Understand that everyone can have depression, however, what differentiates that with major depressive disorder (MDD) is that people with MDD have their life affected. Where there is disruption with their normal life. Major depression is defined as an intense state of sadness (dysphoria) and/or lack of ability to feel positive emotion (anhedonia) that leaves them unable to function effectively in their lives. [Bipolar] Bipolar generally means alternating between emotions. (depression is considered unipolar) There are two types of bipolar disorder. Type I bipolar disorder - - Type II bipolar - - **Overview of substance abuse** [Understand Key definitions] Substance use criteria - - - - - [Patterns of substance abuse in young people] Young people tend to use substances because of: - - - Adolescent context - - - - - Considering a developmental approach 1. 2. - - 3. - - - 4. Revision activities 1\. Can you define mania, hypomania, and an episode of depression? - - - 2\. What are the key criteria for depression (focus on core features)? - - - - 3\. What are different types of cognitive distortions? - 4\. What are the key features of Beck's theory of depression (focus on negative beliefs)? Cognitive processes According to Aaron Beck (1976), depressed people hold strong beliefs that they are defective, worthless and inadequate. They also believe that whatever happens to them is bad and that negative things will continue happening because of their personal defects (Clark et al., 1989). This depressive cognitive triad involves negative thoughts concerning (1) the world, (2) oneself and (3) the future that seem to pop into consciousness automatically, and many depressed people report that they cannot control or suppress the negative thoughts (Wenzlaff et al., 1988). Depressed people also tend to recall most of their failures and few of their successes, and they tend to focus much of their attention on their perceived inadequacies (Clark et al., 1999; Haaga et al., 1991). Depressed people also detect pictures of sad faces at lower exposure times and remember them better than non-depressed people do (Gotlib et al., 2004b), indicating a perceptual and memory sensitivity to negative elements, and they are more likely to recall memories of negative events. **Lecture 7: Stress and sleep** You should be able to define ✓ Sleep ✓ Stress You should be able to consider culturally specific barriers and facilitators to health care [Sleep] Insomnia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - [Stress] The body's response to a demand or threat Symptoms: - - - - - - - long term stress tends to: - - - - - - - treatment - - - - - - [culturally specific barriers and facilitators to health care] Systemic factors affect access to treatment - - - Haitana et al., (2020) benefits of kaupapa Māori research methods Fa'alogo-Lilo (2021) explored barriers and supports to Pacific Communities accessing help **Revision activities** 1\. What is insomnia? - 2\. What are the physical and psychological consequences of poor sleep and stress? - - 3\. What are the key treatments for insomnia? - - - 4\. How can kaupapa Māori research methods support our understanding of how best to help those with psychological distress? - - - - 5\. How does a talanoa approach to research provide useful insights into how best to work with Pacific Communities? - - - - **Lecture 8: Eating Disorders** Readings: Passer and Smith 416-417 1\. Briefly describe the key features of anorexia nervosa? - - - - [Be aware of how we measure BMI] Calculated as the ratio of weight to height squared: - - - - [Be able to define and distinguish binge-eating disorder, bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa] Binge-eating: Five criteria: A. Recurrent episodes of binge eating (amount + loss of control) B. Binge eating = three or more of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. Marked distress regarding binge eating = functional impairment D. Average binge frequency must be: - - E. No regular use of inappropriate compensatory behaviours Bulimia Nervosa Four criteria: A. Recurrent episodes of binge eating (amount + loss of control) B. Recurrent inappropriate 'compensatory' behaviour: - - C. Frequency = A + B at least once a week (for 3 months or more) D. Self-concept unduly influenced by body shape and weight Anorexia Three criteria: A. Restriction of energy intake = insistence on remaining underweight for height (i.e., low BMI) by starvation or purging or exercising B. Intense fear of gaining weight, even though underweight C. Any of the following: - - - [Consider how we can apply all taha in our work with different] [clients] - - - - Revision activities 1. - - - - - - 2. - - 3. -