Psyc Final Notes PDF

EXAM 3 Lecture 16: Sigmund Freud Who Was Sigmund Freud ○ Grew up in Austria and earned his doctor of medicine in 1881 ○ Became interested in physiology and the psychodynamic movement(Ernst Wilhelm Ritter von Brücke) in his early years of work...

EXAM 3 Lecture 16: Sigmund Freud Who Was Sigmund Freud ○ Grew up in Austria and earned his doctor of medicine in 1881 ○ Became interested in physiology and the psychodynamic movement(Ernst Wilhelm Ritter von Brücke) in his early years of work Believe that biological mechanisms are behind all thoughts and behaviors ○ Started working as a physician and began treating patients ○ With Jean Charcot, beacon treating ppl with hypnosis and other approaches to get at what he called the “unconscious” ○ Became very popular in the US and eventually developed his own psychodynamic institute in Vienna The Psychodynamic Theory ○ To explain both individual differences (which makes up personality) and the abnormal, Freud introduced a theory that he called the psychodynamic theory Psychodynamic Theory: Personality is based on the interplay of conflicting forces within the individual Conscious: The thoughts and experiences of which we are aware of that impact our behaviors Unconscious- the thoughts and experiences of which we are UNAWARE of that impact our behaviors The Source of Force ○ Id: an unconscious force that constantly seeks satisfaction of basic need Ex: survival, sex, thirst, hunger, sleep, etc.) ○ Superego: a preconscious force that’s only goal is to push us to do what is ‘right’ ○ Ego: a conscious force that we develop in the social world and operates on the reality principle– seeking to satisfy id’s and the superego’s desires in realistic ways Reality Principle: the part of personality that is based on logical decision to preserve the safety of an individual Pleasure Principle: seeks gratification without any pain How Does This Theory Relate to Field of Psychology ○ His theory suspected that our personalities came from the interaction of these forces throughout our lifetime ○ It suggested that unmet needs or traumatic experiences that were unaddressed could lead abnormal behaviors and/or thoughts-a new take on clinical psychology at the time Freud’s Clinical Work ○ Much of Freud’s work focused on accessing the unconscious tramas and/or needs that had to be addressed in order to understand a person  ○ This required bringing the unconscious “up” , to change personality or address the abnormal, some methods include: Psychoanalysis: a system of psychological theory and therapy that aims to treat mental conditions by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind Hypnosis: a state of consciousness where a person is more relaxed and focused, and can respond more readily to suggestion Free Association: a therapeutic technique in which a patient expresses their thoughts without censorship or judgment Dream interpretation: the practice of analyzing dreams to gain insight into the mind and unconscious desires Freudian Slips: an unintentional error in speech, memory, or action that may reveal a person's hidden thoughts, feelings, or desires Another Topic Frued Explored ○ Freud’s focus on sexual trauma/frustration ○ Argued that we all have sexual drive that can result in prob;ems in life Libido: psychosexual energy Stages of Libido Oral stage (0-18 months): Mouth centered stimulation, oral fixation Anal Stage (18-36 months): potty training focus, anal retentiveness Phallic Stage (3-6 yrs): genital/gender exploration, penis envy, gender intensification, castration fear Latency (6- puberty): no libido Genital stage (puberty): Maturation of sexual interest, sexual issues The Source of Freud’s Theories ○ Personal Insight ○ Case studies.. and lost of them Anna O experiment., patient Bertha Pappenheim ○ Note 1: Lack of empirical work (Him and his students never used surveys or experiments) ○ Note 2: Questions about if case studies were actually true Major Complaints About Freud ○ Most of his theories of psychosexual development and the unconscious have not panned out  ○ His attempts to link disorders like schizophrenia, depression and others to childhood trauma led to a lot of undesirable outcomes ○ Many psychologists began exploring the field in much less scientific way after Freud became popular Things To Appreciate ○ Personality and clinical psychology started to take form ○ Mental health views transitioned Medical view to psychological concerns ○ Appreciation of complexity of desires/drives ○ Consideration for childhood ○ Discussion of the impact of sexual life in our behaviors and mental health ○ Exploration of levels of consciousness Note on the differences between Freuds’s unconscious and our current version of subconscious Lecture 17: Other Theories of Personality Carl Jung (1975-1961) ○ Colleague of Freud’s for a long time ○ Accepted many of Freud’s beliefs about the formation of personality Personality is formed from conscious and unconscious forces Our past experiences have an impact on our personalities ○ Broke with Freud’s work because of his differing beliefs about personality formation Our personal unconscious did not contain the basic instinct that Freud proposed (the Id) Our look toward the future and striving for goals is equally important There is a spiritual component to personality Archetypes ○ Collective Unconscious: suggests that there are universal experiences that are inherent to the human experience. Alfred Adler’s Superiority Theory ○ Early student of Freud ○ Broke away bc/ of differing theories Too much focus on sex ○ Individual Psychology: the main force behind our thoughts and behaviors is a focus on us and an underlying attempt for superiority Striving for superiority: A desire to seek personal excellence and fulfillment Inferiority Complex: an exaggerated feeling of weakness, inadequacy, and helplessness due to assessing a lack in skill  Carl Rogers (1902-1987) ○ Formed an approach to personality AND clinical psychology ○ The Humanistic Approach: an approach to psychology that assumes positive aspects of individuals and examines our overcome hardship Actual Self: The person we are Ideal Self: The person that we want to be Self-efficacy: the belief in the ability to accomplish a goal/task Self-actualization: the achievement of one’s full potential, that results in great accomplishments, and is obtained through the alignment of selves Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ○ Psychological Need: breathing, food , water, shelter, sex, clothing, sleep, comfort ○ Safety: personal and financial security, health, order, law, protection from elements ○ Love/Belonging: Friendship, love, intimacy, family, community, belonging, relationships ○ Esteem: Self-esteem, achievement, status, confidence, prestige, recognition, mastery, independence ○ Self-Actualization: Peace knowledge, self fulfillment, personal growth, realization of personal potential Can’t reach self actualization if you lack in any of the other levels below it Social Cognitive Model of Personality ○ Personality is a byproduct of learning ○ Learning is an effect of social interaction ○ Learning is focused on: How we see our different environments What to want from situations ○ What to want from situations ○ How to obtain what we want Albert Bandura: Impactful Early Social Cognitive Theorist ○ Focused his research on how we learn to develop personality related behaviors Modeling: the process of developing behaviors based on the observation of others and the outcomes that they experience Bobo doll experiment Summary ○ All of the theorist that we’ve covered today have a number of things in common ○ They all look for the explanations to why each of us are unique and consistent in out behaviors ○ They all stress that the past and our focus on the future shape our personality ○ But only the last few researches stressed the need to research when generating their ideas Lecture 18: Trait Theories Get Some Perspective ○ Early theories often focused on the cause of individual differences, but let’s look at the basic definition of the area for some information on an unexplored area Personality: the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character Traits: A distinguishing character or quality that can be used to describe consistent behavior in an individual Gordon Allport ○ Borth in 11/11/1987 in Indiana, youngest of 4 sons, attended harvard, taught at Robert College The Transformation Moments of Allport ○ When considering graduate work in psychology, he decided to travel to Vienna and meet with Sigmund Freud at his Psychodynamic Institute ○ Presented his theories to personality, got rejected Personality Traits: Their Classification….(1921) Described as the first true personality psychologist Why was he the first true personality psychologist ○ One of the first researchers to focus his research almost entirely on healthy individuals and individuals differences ○ Believed traits to be the heart of personality ○ Explored the biological basis of traits Physiology & Genetics Inheritance ○ Examined the nuances of traits by exploring: Frequency: % of occurrence Intensity: strength of occurrences Range: situations eliciting occurrences A Unique Characteristic/Challenge to the Theory of Allport’s ○ Even though he believed that understanding traits was critical to explaining differences, and that research was crucial to personality psychology, some of his ideas made pursuing this philosophy difficult Unique trait combinations of individuals Variation in the number of traits needed to describe a person Focus on the that traits ways traits can manifest themselves differently across situations The Newest Approach: Work on the Big 5 ○ The dictionary..(allport & odbert) Looked in dictionaries to find every word that related to personality 18k words founded ○ Comparing words for synonyms and antonyms…  Search reduced the list down to 35 traits Conducting “factor analyses” to see which remaining words/traits emerged… (Costa & McCrae ○ Found the ones that overlapped with each other in response frequency ○ Reduction left us with 5 total personality traits called the “Big 5” What about comparison work–enter the Big 5 ○ Openness: Curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas ○ Conscientiousness: Organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable ○ Extraversion: Outgoing, talkative, sociable, and enjoys being in social situations ○ Agreeableness: Affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm. ○ Neuroticism: Anxious, irritable temperamental, and moody Shortcomings of Big 5 ○ Not always a good predictor of other cultures ○ Might have too few/many variables ○ Might not be a good predictor of specific behaviors Sourcing Traits ○ Though traits attempt to avoid causation, many have attempted to look at the cause of traits Genetics seem to matter a lot Unshared environment also matter ○ Learning Theory of Traits: Social Interactions and identify shape personality traits and our interpretations of them Cliques/Membership Anchoring Effect: a cognitive bias that describes the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information given when making decisions Lecture 19: Defining Clinical Psychology Defining Mental Health Issues ○ Early clinical psychology focuses its attention on mental disorders over other topics of interest ○ Mental Illness: A mental or behavioral pattern that causes distress or serious impairment of functioning. Includes conditions marked primarily by sufficient disorganization of personality, mind and emotion– also called mental disorders Note 1: There are many different types of mental disorders defined in clinical psychology, with more being defined over time Note 2: Someone with mental health issues today doesn’t necessarily have mental disorder, and many that seek therapy aren’t defined as having disorders The Causes of Mental health Issues  ○ Despite the early recognition of the symptoms of mental disorders, historical cultures had little to no idea of where they came from So… instead of examining it scientifically they came up with their own ideas Prehistoric Views ○ Focus was on extreme deviation behavior/thought ○ Viewed mental abnormalities as being the demonic, magical, or spiritual in nature ○ Spiritual leaders were typically asked for the attempts to help these individuals, many individual rituals and medicines were used in attempts to help Trepanation: cutting holes into the heads of people to alleviate symptoms Egyptian Perspective ○ First civilization to dramatically change the perception of the treatment of the mentally “ill” ○ Still regarded the cause of mental illness as being magical and religious in nature ○ Perceived mental illness as being a product of dysfunctioning self and its components that dealt with the issue of death ○ Developed the first known hospital with the first mental physicians treatments involved opium use, rituals, prayers to god, and “sleep therapies” Monotheistic/Religious Resurgence ○ The growth of many religious communities started a resurgence of more spiritual based views on mental health ○ Many techniques were developed to help those with many mental health challenges as a result of this change in thought Prayers, Exorcisms, Chasing the demons out through creating inhospitable environments Emetics, laxatives, starvation, flogging, immersion in hot or cold water The Illness Theory Revived ○ Individuals with mental disorders were later viewed as “madmen” or “sick” and taken to “hospitals” These hospitals also housed criminals, beggars, and the elderly Patients were all considered incurable, and were all considered incurable, and were placed there in order to separate them from the masses Believed it to contagious Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) ○ Put in charge of the Parisian hospitals system in 1793 ○ Held to the belief that mental illness was indeed an illness, but thought that these things could be cured Somatogenic Theory: mental health comes from the physical causes (brain, bio, etc.)  Psychogenic Theory: Mental health is the result of psychological causes The Impact of Pinel’s Work ○ His work led to new approaches to dealing with disorders Years working directly with patients Verbal interactions to try to help It eventually led to the idea that you couldn’t “catch” specific disorders, and that people could be cured A Transition in Thinking: The Bio-Psycho-Social Perspective ○ Bio-Psycho-Social Perspective: a trans-disciplinary model that examines how biological, psychological, and social factors interact to influence health, illness, and human development Biological: Evolution, individual genes, brain structure, and chemistry Psychological: Stress, Trama, learned helplessness, mood-related perception and memories Social: Roles, expectations, definition of normality and disorder Current Careers in Clinical Psychology ○ Clinical Work (Specialities, Counseling, Assessment, Psychiatry ○ Research (Experimental Psychopathologist, Biological/Medical Research, Clinical research) A Critical Tool in the Field ○ Early Attempts Individualized list of presenting problems and treatment plans Individual definitions that each therapist developed to aid his/her own clients All definitions and treatment plans were apart of the school of thought that a clinician was operating under ○ The New Approach Diagnosed and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM) 1952 Attempts to generate uniform definitions and standards for clinical terms and diagnoses It also looks at social,mental, and functionality issues that need to be considered Problems with The DSM ○ Differentiating normal from abnormal is difficult–most people often fall on a continuum of symptoms and disorders, not into a category ○ The imperfect sets issue ○ Situational factors can create challenges when diagnosing disorders ○ An extremely large percentage of those seeking help are diagnosed with mental disorder (test sensitivity)? Advantages of the DSM  ○ Used in almost every clinic and by almost every clinician today ○ Time saving ○ Always adapting and changing in order to be more accurate, effective, and reflective of our society and the mental disorders that are described within it ○ There is no sign that we will discontinue the use of this manual Lecture 20: Mental Health Approaches Reviewing Our Journey to Today’s Clinical Psychology ○ Historical perspective of Mental Health ○ Pinel’s work in 1793 at the parisian hospital system ○ Feurd’s impact in the early 1900s Bio-psycho-social model- abnormal behavior and/or thoughts is the result of biological, sociocultural, and psychological factors that combine and interact Diathesis-stress model–biological predispositions and environmental stress are both necessary components for the manifestation of abnormal behaviors or thoughts Ways to Address the Biological ○ Psychosurgery: Based the idea that abnormalities caused by physical abnormalities of the brain or nervous system ○ Historical uses; Electro-Convulsive Shock Therapy (ECT): a brain stimulation treatment that uses an electric current to induce a seizure in the brain while the patient is under general anesthesia Lombomies: a brain surgery procedure that involved severing the connections between the frontal lobe and the thalamus: Ways to Address the Biological ○ Medication Assumes that there is a cellular/neurochemical link to certain disorders and mental issues Benefits: Quick results and powerful reduction of symptoms, wide range of symptom applications Costs: Overmedication, addiction, tolerance effect, long term value concern What About The Psychological? ○ Psychotherapy: a treatment of psychological disorders and mental issues through methods that include an interactive relationship between a trained therapist and a client or clients Belief: the source of mental health issues is thought based Main Goal: Addressing the mental sources of mental health  Note: there are MANY forms of psychotherapy that exist The First Approach: Psychoanalysis ○ Developed and introduced by Freud Based on his psychodynamic theory ○ Primary attempt is to identify unconscious thoughts, memories, and emotions that are disturbing, bring them to our conscious mind and then address them ○ Explores both Present and past The Behavioral Approach ○ Focus is on adjusting actions in order to eventually change the mind ○ Begins with clear, well defined goals ○ Attempts to achieve those goals through different learning topics and the strengthening of behavioral connections Classical and operant conditioning Systematic desensitization example Not used widely across mental health issues, but it has proven to be effective as a treatment with several disorders The Cognitive-Behavioral Approach (CBT) ○ Attempts to address cognitions, emotions and actions in attempts to help an individual ○ Considered the “gold-standard” by most clinicians doing treatment efficacy research across wide range of disorders ○ Numerous approaches within this umbrella approach ○ Rational-emotive behavior therapy— a form of CBT that assume that problems are a result of one’s inappropriate/irrational emotional reactions to situations Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: a form of cbt that assumes that problems are a result of one’s inappropriate/irrational emotional reactions to a situation The Humanistic Approach (Carl Rogers ○ Assumes mental health issues are a product of disliking, misperceiving, or generating incongruence of selves ○ Assumes that “clients” are the only ones that can detect what is required to reach their full potential (self actualization) and address the reasons for why they sought therapy Incorporated total acceptance and unconditional positive regard of the “client” during sessions Also involves mirroring and “client” directed conversations Other Approaches to Psychotherapy ○ Brief therapy, group, self-help, integrative psychotherapy Lecture 21: Anxiety & Mood Disorders  Anxiety Disorders ○ Involve an intense experience of anxiety. Levels of anxiety impact life are persistent and are often undesired by those suffering ○ Several types of anxiety disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder Panic Disorder Panic Disorder Phobias Generalized Anxiety Disorder ○ Symptoms Involve a pervasive and free floating anxiety Affected people also often feel continuously tense and jittery and usually surfer from sleepless Must be present for at least 6 months for diagnosis ○ Prevalence Found in 2-3% of the population at any given time Diagnoses more in women (2-3x), people with lower income, and relationship issues ○ Treatment Antidepressant medication has been commonly used for severe cases Seval CBT approaches have shown to be effective treatments Panic Disorder ○ Symptoms Panic attacks: minutes-long episodes of intense fear without a source. Attacks feature a vary (heart palpitations, shortness of breath, choking sensations, trembling , etc.) To Diagnose, panic attacks must occur several times fo at least one month and worry about future panic attacks are part of diagnosis ○ Prevalence 3% of the population is diagnosed with this disorder at any given time This is highly heritable disorder, and often emerges before age 25 More commonly diagnosed in women than men (2.5x) ○ Treatment Antidepressants and behavior therapy are common treatments Aging and time also are associated with decrease in panic disorder occurrence rates Phobia ○ Symptoms Fears are diagnosed as phobias when the anxiety of irrational fear of a particular object or situation are extreme enough to interfere with everyday living  ○ Prevalence 7-9% diagnosed at any given time with at least 1 specific phobia Rates of phobias across topics vary dramatically Gender and stress backgrounds often linked to higher rates of diagnosis ○ Treatments Behavioral therapy has been used for several phobias CBT approaches have been shown to be effective If needed pharmacological therapy for phobias include tranquilizers and antidepressant drugs More on the Sources of Phobias ○ Biological predisposition for certain fears ○ Diathesis-stress model revisited ○ Susan Mineka’s work on observational learning ○ Albert Bandura’s work on desensitization through observation Overview ○ All different disorders discussed in this portion are classified in the DSM ○ Each has its own prevalence, defining characteristics and causes/solutions ○ However, when looking at these disorders, they are all considered very similar by most clinical psychologist Mood Disorders ○ Mood disorders all involves long term problems with basic emotions that has a noticeable and negative impact on life ○ All but one of the most prevalent mood disorders are primarily associated with a negative, unpleasant mood ○ There are a number of mood disorders that exist Depression Seasonal Affective Disorder Persistent Depressive Disorder Bipolar Disorder Depression P1 ○ Symptoms Negative mood and lethargic behavior Involves cognitions and emotions of powerlessness, guilt, and worthlessness Can be linked to suicidal ideation and attempts BUT THIS NOT ALWAYS THE CASE Often linked with sleep abnormalities Can result in other mood issues and is comorbid with many disorders ○ Prevalence  7+ of the population in the US are diagnosed at any given time with depression Rates vary dramatically from country to country Women are diagnosed with depression twice as much = ○ Causes Family linked Linked to atypical neurotransmitter levels Life events contribute to the emergence of depression ○ Treatments Regular sleep,diet changes, and exercise have proven to help a lot for mild to moderate depression Drug interventions SSRI are commonly used Psychotherapies Note 1: People eventually show remissions in depression symptoms, regardless of whether they’r e received treatment Note 2: Once someone has gone through an episode of depression, they have a higher likelihood of suffering from depressive episodes in the future Lecture 22: Mood Disorders & Schizophrenia Seasonal Affective Disorder ○ Symptoms are similar to those of depression, to a milder extent ○ Associated with changes of the seasons ○ Prevalence of disorder depends upon location 1% floridians 9-10% minnesotans ○ Light therapy is a popular treatment for this disorder Persistent Depressive Disorder ○ Symptoms are similar to those of depression, but less severe and they last much longer than depression 2 yrs before diagnosis (adults), 1 yr for children ○ 2.5% of the population ○ Not considered traumatic at any given time but can be very debilitating through its long-term effects Bipolar Disorder (Manic-Depressive Disorder ○ Moods alternate between depression, level mood, and manic symptoms Manic symptoms include being active, excited, and/or agitated (can be embraced while in the manic phase ○ Many forms of bipolar disorder Bipolar Type I (at least one manic episode)  Bipolar Type II (hypomania and severe depression) Cyclothymia (hypomania and mild depression symptoms ○ Diagnosed: 1% population ○ Drug Treatments are common (mood stabilizers) ○ Several outcome-based studies have shown the utility of specific techniques to help as well– through drugs are commonly used in conjunction ○ Treatment is often lifelong Schizophrenia ○ What it is NOT: multiple personality disorder, sociopathic disorder, or antisocial personality disorder ○ What it is: a severe disconnect with reality with many cognitive and emotional symptoms More on the Symptoms ○ Positive Symptoms: behaviors and thoughts that are present, or added to the person's repertoire that a typical person does not have ○ Negative Symptoms: typical behaviors/thoughts that are diminished or absent from the person's repertoire, that typical people have Anhedonia: Diminished Ability to experience emotions Blunted affect: lacking expression of emotion Ex: mask-face-like, flat voice, poor eye contact Social Withdrawal Poor self-care ○ Cognitive symptoms: abnormal functioning on cognitive tasks ○ Affective symptoms: a very strong mood-based reaction to the environment Positive Symptoms Examples ○ Hallucinations: perceiving things that are not there Auditory hallucinations are most common Note: diff from normal ppl hallucinations because schizophrenia is more complex ○ Delusions: very rigid false or unfounded beliefs Persecution: others are conspiring against or persecuting the individual Grandiose: Unusual importance Reference: interpreting messages as if they were meant for oneself Additional Symptoms ○ Cognitive Often linked to languages and conversations, but thoughts also believed to be impacted Severe tangentially Losse association between topics Sudden derailment of thought  Memory and though impairments ○ Affective Severe depression Anxiety issues Diagnosis of Schizophrenia ○ Schizophrenia comes in a number= of forms ○ DSM requires that the person exhibit a deterioration of daily activities along with at least two of the symptoms ○ Diagnosed: 1-2% of the population ○ Almost Identical incidence in men & women ○ Onset is usually sometime between 16-25 year old Theorized causes ○ Genetic Twin studies suggest a genetic component in susceptibility for schizophrenia, but no single gene has been linked to guarantee emergence of schizonia ○ Brain Abnormality/Malformation The hippocampus and parts of the cerebral cortex are a little smaller than normal, the cerebral cortex are a little smaller than normal, the cerebral ventricles are larger than normal Cellualr communication is delayed ○ The neurdevelpemtal hypothesis during gestation ○ The diathesis-stress model used today Treatments ○ Cognitive Behavorial Therapy (CBT): Halluciations: help patients percieve distinctions between internal/external Delusions: treat self-esteem or= other psychological issues Flat affect and anhedonia: increase social skills ○ Medications Anntipsychotic (neurolptic) drugs These all relieve symptoms for a least a little while Some block dopamine synapses in the brain, others effect glutamate concereation Most in the past produced unpleasant side effects: tardive dyskinesia, seizures Discussing Drug Treatment Success ○ Most treatments provided temporary success almost immediately ○ Over time, drug effects wane greatly ○ Success rates of drugs are highly associated with the intensity of the symptoms pre-treatment, and the time between onset and treatment of the disorder Discussion 1: Assessing Personality The Barnum Effect: The tendency to accept generalized personality descriptions as accurate descriptions as accurate descriptions of one’s unique personality ○ “You have a tendency to be critical of yourself.” & “ You have a great deal of unused capacity, which you have turned to your advantage” & “You have a great need for people to like and admire you” True (most people have it) Reliability And Validity ○ Validity: The extent to which the test accurately measures what you’re trying to measure ○ Reliability: the extent to which a variable is free from random error Objective Personality Test ○ Standardized Personality Tests How neat/tidy are you ? Some people, Most people, Some people The Big 5 (NEO PI-R) ○ Five factor Model of Personality ○ 240 Items on a Likert Scale ○ Used to measure the general population Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) ○ Assesses personality traits and psychopathology Used in clinical settings 300-600 True or False ○ Limitations Culture and MMPI: Can a single test measure personality for all kinds of people? High Intercorrelation: Overlap between scales Misleading/Outdated Terms Ex: Hysteria, Schizophrenia, Masculinity/Femininity The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) ○ Used in workplace and schools ○ Categories people into 16 types-combination of 4 traits Extrovert/Introvert Sensing/Intuitive Thinking/Feeling Judging/Perceiving ○ Limitations Categorization vs. continuum perspective Median split scoring  Doesn’t capture all Big-Five traits Projection Techniques ○ Protected: answers analyzed by trained psychologist ○ Ambiguous: stimuli promotes personal exploration ○ Open to Interpretation: results can be interpreted differently by different people The Rorschach Inkblot Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ○ Developed by Morgan and Murray, the TAT is a projective test that made up of 30 pictures that show persons in black ad white engaged in ambiguous activities Less abstract that rorschach Inkblot Discussion 2: Substance Abuse Opioid Epidemic: a growing crisis of substance abuse and addiction Substance Abuse Overview ○ Addiction: a chronic psychiatric disorder that involves the use of substances or engagement in behaviors that are difficult to control ○ Tolerance: the body getting used to a substance over time. ○ Withdrawal: the physical and mental symptoms that occur when someone stops or reduces their use of a substance they are dependent on Two Types of Dependance ○ Physical: Biological Dependance, The body growing tolerance of the drug leads to withdrawal if drug is removed ○ Psychological: Neurochemical Dependance, Presence of antecedents cue the brain to strongly anticipate and desire the substance and its reinforcing consequences