Child Psychology ECP 611 PDF - Open University of Mauritius

Open University of Mauritius ECP 611 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Course Author : Mrs S. Kistamah Course Reviewer : Mr S. Beedassy Programme Manager : Mr Belle L.J. Copyright : Open University of Mauritius, 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this course may be reproduced in any fo...

Open University of Mauritius ECP 611 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Course Author : Mrs S. Kistamah Course Reviewer : Mr S. Beedassy Programme Manager : Mr Belle L.J. Copyright : Open University of Mauritius, 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this course may be reproduced in any form by any means without prior permission in writing from: Open University of Mauritius Réduit, Republic of Mauritius Fax: (230) 464 8854 Tel: (230) 403 8200 Email : [email protected] 4 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Table of Contents UNITS TITLE PAGES Module Overview v Module Objectives 1 Theories in Child Development 1 1.0 Unit Overview 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Learning Objectives 1 1.3 Defining Child Development 2 1.4 Domains of Development 1 1.5 Theoretical Approaches to Child Development 3 1.6 Comparing the major theories of Child Development 6 1.7 Implications of theory for teachers 7 1.8 Summary 7 2 Physical Development 9 2.0 Unit Overview 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Learners Objectives 10 2.3 What is Physical Development? 10 2.4 THEORIES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 13 2.5 Factors affecting physical development 13 2.6 Potential of Play 13 2.7 Summary 14 3 Cognitive Development 15 3.0 Unit Overview 15 3.1 Introduction 15 3.2 Learning Objectives 15 3.3 What is Cognitive Development? 16 3.4 Cognitive Development Theories 16 3.5 The Nature of Intelligence 18 3.6 Contemporary Theories of Intelligence 19 3.7 Emotional Intelligence 19 3.8 Emotional Regulation 21 3.9 Emotional Security 21 3.7 Summary 23 iii 5 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Table of Contents UNITS TITLE PAGES 4 Psychosocial Development 25 4.0 Unit Overview 25 4.1 Introduction 25 4.2 Learning Objectives 25 4.3 What is Social Development? 26 4.4 Overview of the key theories of Social Development 4.4 4.5 Influence of the Society 29 4.6 Role of play in social development 30 4.7 Pro-social and antisocial Behaviours 32 4.8 Summary 34 5 Moral Development 35 5.0 Unit Overview 35 5.1 Introduction 35 5.2 Learning Objectives 35 5.3 What is Moral Development? 36 5.4 Theories of Moral Development 36 5.5 Cognitive Theories of Moral Development 37 5.6 Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theories of Moral Development 38 5.7 Supporting Children’s Moral Development within Educational Settings 38 5.8 Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theory 39 5.9 Summary 39 Conclusion 40 References 41 iv 6 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology Module Overview This module is designed to provide the learner with in-depth knowledge on the key theories of child development from conception to eight years of age and how the theoretical knowledge can be applied to enhance teaching and learning. It will help learners to understand how children go through developmental stages in the process of physical, social, cognitive and moral development and how development in any one domain may influence performance in others. The understanding of these theories will help the learner to design and implement instructional strategies that are appropriate for the developmental level of the child. The module is categorized into 5 units namely: Unit 1 : Theories in Childhood Development Unit 2 : Physical Development Unit 3 : Cognitive Development Unit 4 : Social Development Unit 5 : Moral Development Module Objectives This module is designed to help learners to: i critically analyze how the key theories of child development can help in the teaching- learning process; ii Analyze the concept of developmental milestones and development of children in the physical, cognitive, social and moral domains; iii Appreciate the uniqueness of each individual child and to plan instructional strategies according to the child’s needs, interests and strengths. iv Develop appropriate activities and learning experiences that will enhance the development of children at specific ages and functional levels. v Explore the value of observation as a learning and research tool. v 7 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology Open University of Mauritius - Child Psvchology  1 UNIT Theories in Child Development 1.1 Unit Overview In this Unit, we shall discuss the following: l What is Child Development? l Domains of Child Development l Theoretical approaches toChild Development The Behaviourist Approach The Cognitive Approach The Ecological Approach The Biological Approach – Maturation Theory l Comparing the different approaches to child development l Theory into practice 1.2 Introduction Early year’s practitioners and other professionals who work with young children should be aware of the complex processes involved in child development and the factors that may influence the ways in which children grow, think, and acquire knowledge and skills through interaction with others. This Unit seeks to chart the emergence of influential theories on policy and practice in early childhood education and care. Theories of child development will provide further information to learners on how they can influence children’s learning by providing developmentally appropriate practice and stimulating learning environments. This Unit will also analyze how child development theories influence current early childhood policies and practices. 1.3 Learning Objectives After successful completion of the Unit, learners will be able to: 1. describe what is child development and the domains of development. 1 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  2. analyze the different theoretical approaches in childhood development. 3. analyze how the different theories of child development help develop professional practice to become praxis. 4. Develop a critical understanding of the interdisciplinary nature of the different domains of development. READING Now I suggest you study : i Theories of Child Develoment – Alfred Lee Baldwin ii Comparing theories of Child Develoment – Robert Murray Thomas iii Understanding Early Years Theory in Practice : An Accessible Overview of Major Child Development Theories (Professional Development) - Maureen Daly, Wendy Taylor To guide you further in achieving the learning objectives, you should analyse the explanation which follows and attempt the activities. 1.4 Defining Child Development Child development is the study of changes in children over the period of childhood from conception to adulthood. These changes include the process of growth, which is observable and measurable. Development also includes the process of maturation or the biological development based on the genetic make-up of the individual and learning which is the process through which the child learns through interaction with his or her environment. 1.5 Domains of Development Development can also be organized into broad areas or domains which collectively ensure the holistic development of the young child. The different domains are: 1. Physical development Changes in body size and proportions, order and acquisition of gross and fine motor skills. 2 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  2. Cognitive development: The development of intellectual processes that include attention, memory, knowledge, problem-solving, language and communication. 3. Socio-emotional development: The development of social skills through interaction with others, emotional expression, attachment, development of self-esteem and self-confidence. Reflective Tasks Critically analyse the National Curriculum Frame- work (NCF) Preprimary and explain whether all the areas of development have been adequately addressed 1.6 Theoretical Approaches to Child Development 1. THE BEHAVIOURISTS PERSPECTIVE Behaviourists view development “as a continuous process of change that the environment shapes…” (Doherty, Hughes, 2009).They argued that any theory about human behavior should be based on observable actions and behaviours, rather than on cognitive processes that cannot be observed. Learning theories explore how environmental factors influence the child development. i. Classical Conditioning: A neutral stimulus elicits a response if paired with another stimulus that elicits a particular response (Pavlov experiment). ii. Operant Conditioning: Learning can be enhanced through positive reinforcement – anything that increases the likelihood of a desired behaviour (Ex. Smile, word of praise, rewards, etc) and hindered by negative reinforcement – punishment, yelling, using negative attitudes and behaviours towards the child. Both classical and operant conditioning have proved to influence learning and behaviour, and are used by teachers, parents and other childhood professionals to bring about behaviour modifications and learning. 3 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  2. The cognitive approach to child development Piaget Cognitive development theory Piaget’s theory focuses on the ways in which children adapt to their environments. According to Piaget, the child actively learns to adapt to the exigencies of the environment and that all children go through four stages in their cognitive development. The 4 stages are: i. Sensorimotor period (Birth -2 yrs) – Children experience the world through senses and movement. ii. Pre-operational Period (2-7 yrs) – The child acquires motor skills to manipulate and interact with the surrounding environment. iii. Concrete operational Period (7-11) – The child begins to think logically and have higher order thinking skills, due to enhanced cognitive development and motor development. iv. Formal operational Period (Above 11 yrs) – The child develops the ability for abstract reasoning, problem-solving, etc. 3. Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) – He believed that the child’s social and cultural environment affect cognitive development and that learning occurs through the child’s interaction with other adults and through social interaction with peers. He identified the zone of proximal development (ZPD) - the difference between the current level of cognitive development and potential development that can be attained through interacting with more knowledgeable adults. He also showed that play plays an important role in physical, emotional and cognitive development and that there is a strong inter-relationship between language and cognitive development. Erik Erikson (1902-1994) – He identified the importance of an emotionally stable family life and emphasized the emergence of the self, the search for identity, the child’s relationship with others and the role of culture throughout life. He also viewed development as a passage through a series of stages, each with its particular goals, concerns, achievements and challenges. The stages are interdependent and achievements at a higher stage depend on how conflicts are resolved in the earlier stages. 4. The ecological approach to child development Ecological theories focus on the influence of the environment on child development. In all cultures, different factors like the economic or social status of the family, single parent families, divorced parents greatly influence the children’s life experiences and hence their development. 4 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory This ecological 4 system model stresses the context in which the child develops. The 4 systems are the microsystem which constitutes of the child’s own family members and friends, the mesosystem which includes the extended family friends, neighbours and adults in the school, the exosystem which consists of the cultural system outside the family and finally the macrosystem which relates to the layer society in which the family and the school functions. 5. Biological approach to child development This theory is grounded on the principle that physical growth and other aspects of development are greatly influenced by the genetic make up of the individual through the process of maturation. The maturation theory of Arnord Gesell, focuses on the “unfolding of genetically determined sequences of development”. Papalia et al. (2003) refers to maturation as the “unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioural changes, including the readiness to master new abilities”. Papalia et al. (2006) also state that motor development should be viewed as a process of continual development of the brain through maturation and environmental influences such as the opportunities offered to the child to explore and develop further skills. Bertram and Pascal (2006) argue that the social development highly influence the social and cultural experiences of the child and not only as a matter of biological development. Reflective Tasks 1. Identify an example in your own practice where you used either reward or punishment to influence children's behaviour. l Describe how successful was the strategy. l How did the experience affect the subsequent behaviour of the children ? 2. What is active learning? l Why is Piaget's theory of cognitive development consistent with active learning? l What are some learning? 3. What is assisted learningand how does scaffolding help? 5 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology 1.7 Comparing the major theories of Child Development Theories Is development a What roles do How important Do children play What is the continuous heredity and the are individual active or passive relationship process or one of environment play? differences and roles in their own between the stages? situational factors? development? different areas of development? Cognitive Clearly stage- Combination of Not prominent High priority to Piaget theory has like in Piagetian nature and nurture. feature in Piaget. active construc- associations with theory. Innate need to Vygotsky believed tion of knowledge other areas of Information adapt to stimula- in cultural and continual development, eg. processing theory tion and challenges differences. revision through Social views if as more in the environment. experience. constructivism. continuous development. Learning Behahiourists saw Emphasis on Children's Passive role for Learning it as continuous. nurture through behaviour varies children as they permeates all Learned conditioning and from child to child. are shaped by areas of responses are modeling. Learning is highly their development. acquired prioritized. environments. gradually. Stage-like but Interaction of both. Inborn Both active and Claims permeate change in ongo- Biological facgtors characteristics passive. all areas. ing Dynamic combine with combine with Activity influences systems recog- others in the environmental the contexts that nize constant environment factors at multiple then influence the reorganization of levels. development. components. Biological Discontinous Behaviour is One course of Active Organisms Interrelationship through stages. biologically based development for possess bio- among all areas Existence of but requires all members of the logically pre-pro- of development. sensitive appropriate human species. grammed behav- environments to Individual need iours to adapt to adapt successfully. to be biologically the environment. 'ready'. 6 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology 1.8 Implications of theory for teachers Early childhood professionals and parents understanding and analysis of theories is crucial to develop professional practice into practice, that is practice being guided and informed by theory. For Piagetian and Vygotskian theories of development, teachers should understand: l Basic assumptions of each and build knowledge bases. l The key steps, mechanisms and milestones related to each theory. l The limitations of each theory. Activity 1 1. Based on your teaching experience, identify a classroom/situation which involved either a reward or punishment. 2. How did the above experience influence your behaviour. 3. Do you feel reward is more effective than punishment? Describe the reasoning behind your answer. 4. Describe the main issues underlying the behaviourist perspective of childhool development. 5. Describe three factors that can adversely affect physical development? Can these factors be prevented. 6. Briefly explain how you can both indoor and outdoor activities to promote physical de- velopment in the young child. 1.9 Summary We now summarise what you have learned in this Unit: l Child development is the study of changes in children over the time span of childhood from birth to adulthood. l Knowledge of child development theories help teachers and other professionals working with children to ensure that all is going well. 7 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  l Effective teaching occurs as a result of the child’s physical, cognitive, social and emotional development. l No one theoretical approach can provide explanations for children’s development- different theories contribute to ensure the holistic development of the child. l Understanding and appreciation of theories help to develop professional practice to become praxis. 8 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  2 UNIT Physical Development 2.1 Unit Overview In this Unit, we shall discuss: l Physical development and growth l Motor development l Theories of motor development l Factors affecting physical development l Potential of play 2.2 Introduction Physical development includes the process of growth, that is, the process by which cells divide to increase the size of the body and the process of maturation that is different parts of the body attaining complete growth. Learners will be able to describe theories of motor develop- ment and hence develop child-centered methodologies and instructional strategies to promote the development of both fine and gross motor skills through movement and physical activities. The unit further explores and analyses different factors that can affect physical development. 2.3 Learners Objectives After successful completion of the unit, learners will be able to: 1. describe the physical development of a child from birth to 6 years of age. 2. identify the milestones in physical development from 0-6 years. 3. describe the theories of motor development. 4. describe the factors that can affect physical development in the young child. 5. devise a range of activities that can foster the physical development of the young child 6. plan and implement developmentally appropriate activities and learning experiences that can foster children’s fine and gross motor skills 9 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  READING Now I suggest you study : i Physical Development – Linda Cooper, Jonathan Doherty 2.4 What is Physical Development? Physical development can be defined as the progress of a child's control over his own body. This includes control over muscles, physical coordination, ability to sit or stand. Physical development depends on development in the brain, which is stimulated by a com- bination of external experiences and maturation (Bee and Boyd, 2007). When children are born, they have reflexes that are involuntary movements. Reflexes help the new born through the first weeks of life. These reflexes disappear in the first months of life and are replaced by observable motor skills. Brain development The shift from reflex like actions to voluntary movements occurs due to brain development (David et al, 2003). Research on brain development shows that much of brain development – myelination and formation of synopsis occur during the first few years. Through brain development, the child masters various physical skills, which in turn enables the child to explore his or her environment further. 10 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Development of motor skills Motor skills are grouped into distinct areas: l Gross motor skills l Locomotor skills l Fine motor skills Gross motor skills involve the bigger muscles of the body which allow large movements (Example: walking, running, skipping, jumping, etc). Locomotor skills are closely associated with gross motor skills but focus on movement from one place to another (Hughes, 2002). Fine motor skills development is the development and use of smaller muscles that enable actions such as bead threading, drawing, handling and using scissors, undoing button, unzipping, etc. Milestones in motor development Children develop both gross and fine motor skills in asequential manner- termed as meeting developmental milestones. 11 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Case Study Jack was participating in a bead threading activity. Jack and student teacher, Kerry, were making necklaces for the bears in the role play corner. Both jack and Kerry sat together and made their own necklaces. Discussion ensued as to how to tie a knot and then was aided by Kerry. Jack and Kerry discussed the variety and shape of beads on offer; they also talked about the colours of the beads they threaded. Some beads had fairly big holes by which they could be attached; smaller beads were more difficult to thread and it took some perseverance on Jack’s part in order to succeed. Reflective Tasks Consider the case study above. Level 1 This activity develops Jack’s fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination. l What other skills were also being enhanced here? l How could the activity be further extended? l Why did Kerry sit and make her own bead necklace? Level 2 l What activities do you use with the children in your care to develop fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination? l What other skills do these activities develop? l How else can you develop fine motor skills? Level 3 As a staff, decide all the different ways you can develop fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination in your setting. l How can observation help you identify the skills the children currently have? l Is there a development in the skills through your setting? l How could you further support the development of fine motor skills? 12 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology 2.5 THEORIES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 1. BIOLOGICAL: Maturation Perspective – views development as an internal process that is driven by the individual’s body clock. No stimulation can therefore change the process of motor development. Arnold-Gesell was of the view that development occurs in an ordered invariable se- quence and controlled by genetic factors. 2. INFORMATION PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE - Information is interpreted by the brain and acted upon by new information. Fitts and Posner’s 3 Stage Model STAGE 1: Cognitive Stage – gross errors occur but the cognitive process will be learnt. STAGE 2: Associative Stage – Learning and re-learning, skill refining. Individuals detect their own errors but learn, with encourage and support, to mini- mize errors and masters the skills. STAGE 3: Autonomous Stage – the skills learnt are now automatic, the individual does not need to focus on the mechanics behind the action. 3. Ecologic Perspective (Dynamic Systems Theory–Movement skills evolve from initial attempts to become fully automated, providing consistent mastery of the move- ment. Movement emerges through self- organizing properties in the body. As new patterns emerge, older ones are no more used. 2.6 Factors affecting physical development 1. HEREDITY: The genetic make up of an individual is the result of the mixing of the genes of both parents. This genetic make up, predispose the child to certain charac- teristics and physical disposition, for example it is most likely that the child’s eye and hair is similar to those of the parents. 2. LIFESTYLE FACTORS: Nutrition, healthcare, socio-economic conditions, sanita- tion have obvious effects on the physical development of the child. Ozmun (2006) show the impact of severe malnutrition on both mental and physical development. 3. SOCIO-EMOTIONAL FACTORS: for a child to develop physically, socially and cogni- tively, there is need for emotional stability- enhanced self-esteem and self-confidence. 2.7 Potential of Play Gross motor development can be promoted through both indoor and outdoor activities and play. Most important is the availability of space where children can move freely. 13 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Roopnarine and Johnson (2005) state that indoor settings must be designed to allow for move- ment – a lack of opportunity for physical movement would result in behavioural problems. It is also important that children access to quality play in outdoor space. The outdoor envi- ronment should offer physical challenges to children and be equipped with resources that max- imise play opportunities. Activity 2 As a teacher, list 5 different activities you can plan to develop fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination in your setting. Case Study At Little Bird School, the doors open each weekday morning at 6:50 a.m., and the school day begins with homeroom at 7:10. Between 7:30 and 2:30, when school adjourns, students attend a variety of 50-minute classes and have a 30-minute lunch period. At a recent meeting of their PLC (Professional Learning Community), some of the teachers at the Little Bird School raised a concern that absenteeism was unacceptably high and in class some of the students were functioning at a substandard level. One of the faculty suggested that the group should investigate possible physical factors that might be contrib- uting to the situation and based on what they found, implement appropriate strategies to address the problem in order to improve students’ health and ability to function. l Identify 3 physical factors that you would recommend that the teachers in- vestigate and suggest a strategy related to each factor that might be helpful in addressing the problem. l Explain why you chose each strategy. 2.8 Summary So far we have learnt the following: l That there are predictable patterns of physical development from conception to adulthood. l Theories of physical development l In the early childhood years (2-6) children’s physical and cognitive development are enhanced. l Factors that influence physical development are heredity, lifestyle factors including socio-economic conditions. 14 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  3 UNIT Cognitive Development 3.1 Unit Overview In this Unit, we shall discuss the following: l What is Cognitive Development? l Main theories of Cognitive Development l Nature of teaching-learning in the light of cognitive development theories l The Nature of Intelligence l Contemporary theories of intelligence l Emotional Intelligence 3.2 Introduction Cognitive development is key to learning and learning promotes cognitive development. This unit analyses the different theoretical perspectives on thinking: Piaget’s cognitive devel- opmental theory, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory and the more recent information processing theories. It further analyses the implications of these theories for early years settings and the nature of what constitutes intelligence. 3.3 Learning Objectives After successful completion of this Unit, you should be able to: 1. describe what is cognitive development 2. analyze the different theories of child development and relate them to the teaching learning process 3. describe how intelligence affect academic performance 4. analyze contemporary theories on multiple intelligences 15 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  READING Now I suggest you study : i. Educational Psychology- Robert E. Slavin To guide you further in achieving the learning objectives, you should analyse the explanation which follows and attempt the activities. 3.4 What is Cognitive Development? “Cognitive development is the development of cognition or conceptual knowledge and un- derstanding. It involves the development of concepts or pictures in the mind, products of reason- ing which help us make sense of the world. (Johnston, Nadmad-Williams, 2009). “Cognition is the act of knowing using mental processes such as imaging, remembering, understanding, decision making and learning (Doherty & Hughes, 2009) Learning is one of the most important cognitive abilities and involves many processes-re- cording, organising, memorising, etc. 3.5 Cognitive Development Theories 1. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Piaget cognitive developmental theory is a constructivist theory which views the young child as active participants in their own learning, constructing their understanding through interaction with their environment. Cognitive development involves the building up of mental structures called “schemes” and “operations” (combinations of schemes). Development occurs in a linear way, that is, the child moves through stages in an orderly manner. Cognitive development is organized into 4 stages: Sensorimotor stage Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational 16 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  l Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): n During this stage babies and young children explore their world by using their senses and their motor skills. All children are born with an innate tendency to interact with and make sense of their environments. l Preoperational Stage ( Ages 2 to 7): n Infants can learn about and understand the world only by physically manipu- lating objects, preschoolers have greater ability to think about things and can use symbols to mentally represent objects. Children’s language and concepts develop at an incredible rate. l Concrete Operational Stage ( Ages 7 to 11): n Form concepts, see relationships and solve problems, but only as long as they involve objects and situations that are familiar. l Formal Operational Stage (Age 11 to Adulthood): n Children develop into the form that is characteristic of adults. Ability to deal with potential or hypothetical situations. Criticism of Piaget’s Theory l Developmental stages were largely fixed and that such concepts as conservation could not be taught. l Research has established some cases in which Piagetian tasks can be taught to children at earlier developmental stages. l Many researchers now doubt that there are broad stages of development affecting all types of cognitive tasks. l Children’s skills develop in different ways on different tasks and that their experience (including direct teaching in school or elsewhere) can have a strong influence on the pace of development. Educational Implications of Piaget’s Theory l A focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products: Appropriate learning experiences build on children’s current level of cognitive func- tioning and only when teachers appreciate children’s methods of arriving at particular conclusions are they in a position to provide such experiences. l Recognition of the crucial role of children’s self-initiated, active involvement in learn- ing activities: 17 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Instead of teaching didactically, teachers provide a rich variety of activities that permit children to act directly on the physical world. l A de-emphasis on practices aimed at making children adult like in their thinking: Premature teaching could be worse than no teaching at all, because it leads to superfi- cial acceptance of adult formulas rather than true cognitive understanding. l Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress: All children go through the same developmental sequence but that they do so at dif- ferent rates. Hence, teachers must make a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and small groups of children, rather than the total class group. 1. Vygotsky Cognitive Theory Vygotsky social constructivist theory is built on Piaget’s theory. Vygotsky argues that think- ing is a socially constructed process, learning takes place when the learner is in their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and the teacher plays an important role in structuring learning. He identified the role of language in cognitive development as the child’s language develops it becomes more complex, thus enabling the child to express himself/herself. Zone of Proximal Development The ZPD is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by inde- pendent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more able peers” (Vygotsky, 1978). 2. Piaget’s Cognitive Theory Implications of Piaget’s Theory for teachers Piaget’s fundamental insight was that children construct their own learning. There should be constant interaction between the teacher and the children and among the children with a view to test their thinking, receive feedback, and observe how others work. Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory for teachers Assisted Learning or guided participation in the classroom requires scaffolding – provid- ing additional information, prompts, encouragement, motivation to help the children and then gradually allowing the children to develop autonomy. 3.6 The Nature of Intelligence Intelligence is the capacity for learning and cognitive development. It involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think in an abstract manner, understand complex problems, learn from experience, problem-solving. 18 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  40% of intelligence is influenced by genetics and 60% by the environment. Factors that impact upon intelligence are family size, home environment, socio-economic background, gender differences. 3.7 Contemporary Theories of Intelligence Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Gardner defined intelligence as “the ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community” (1993). Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences included seven intelligences: linguistic, logical- mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal and interpersonal, naturalist in- telligence, existential intelligence. Intelligence – genetically determined or influenced by the environment. 3.8 Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions. A brief history of Emotional Intelligence l 1930s – Edward Thorndike describes the concept of "social intelligence" as the ability to get along with other people. l 1940s – David Wechsler suggests that affective components of intelligence may be es- sential to success in life. l 1950s – Humanistic psychologist such as Abraham Maslow described how people can build emotional strength. l 1975 - Howard Gardner published The Shattered Mind, which introduced the con- cept of multiple intelligences. l 1985 - Wayne Payne introduced the term emotional intelligence in his doctoral dis- sertation entitled "A study of emotion: developing emotional intelligence; self-inte- gration; relating to fear, pain and desire (theory, structure of reality, problem-solving, contraction/expansion, tuning in/coming out/letting go)." l 1987 –In a published article, Keith Beasley uses the term "emotional quotient" which refers to the level of a peron’s emotional intelligence. l 1990 – Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer published their landmark article, "Emotional Intelligence” which referred to the ability of managing and regulating emotions and feelings. 19 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  l 1995 - The concept of emotional intelligence is popularized after publication of psy- chologist and New York Times science writer Daniel Goleman’s book Emotional In- telligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer, (1990) defined emotional intelligence as, "the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions". The Four Branches of Emotional Intelligence Salovey and Mayer, (1990), proposed a model that identifies four different factors of emo- tional intelligence: the perception of emotion, the ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotion and the ability to manage emotions. 1. Perceiving Emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to accurately per- ceive them. In many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions. 2. Reasoning with Emotions: The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our attention. 3. Understanding Emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of their anger and what it might mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that he or she is dissatisfied with your work; or it could be because he got a speeding ticket on his way to work that morning or that he's been fighting with his wife. 4. Managing Emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a key part of emo- tional intelligence. Regulating emotions, responding appropriately and responding to the emotions of others are all important aspect of emotional management. According to Salovey and Mayer, (1990), the four branches of their model are, "arranged from more basic psychological processes to higher, more psychologically integrated processes. For example, the lowest level branch concerns the (relatively) simple abilities of perceiving and expressing emotion. In contrast, the highest level branch concerns the conscious, reflective regu- lation of emotion" (1997). Emotional Intelligence consists of 4 attributes: l Self- Awareness – You recognize your own emotions and how these can affect your thoughts and behaviour, identify your strengths and weaknesses and develop self-con- fidence. 20 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  l Self- Management – The ability to control impulsive feelings and behaviours and manage emotions in safe ways. l Social Awareness – The ability to understand emotions, needs and worries of oth- ers and to function socially and adapt in groups. l Relationship Management – The ability to develop and maintain good relation- ships to communicate confidently in diverse situations and to management conflict. 3.9 Emotional Regulation With increasing age in infancy and early childhood, regulation of emotion shifts gradually from external sources in the world (for example, parents) to self-initiated, internal resources. Caregivers soothe young children, manage young children’s emotions by choosing the contexts in which they behave, and provide children with information (facial cues, narratives, and so on) to help them interpret events. With age and advances in cognitive development, children are better equipped to manage emotion themselves. For example, older children might minimize the scalation of negative emo- tion in an interpersonal conflict by monitoring their facial expressions (for example, avoiding sneering or looks of contempt). Emotional regulation is how children recognize, label and control the expression of their emotions in ways that generally are consistent with cultural expectations. Self- Regulation Self regulation of emotions includes recognition and delineation of emotions. Children be- gin learning at a young age to control certain negative emotions when in the presence of adults, but not to control them as much around peers. By about age 4, children begin to learn how to alter how they express emotions to suit what they feel others expect them to express. By about age 7 to 11 years, children are better able to regulate their emotions and to use a variety of self-regulations skills. 3.10 Emotional Security Emotional security is the measure of the stability of an individual's emotional state. Developing young children’s emotional security is a process that starts at birth when babies are already learning about what they can expect from the world and from the experiences they have. Babies learn to feel either secure or insecure in the world based on the relationships they have with the people who care for them. Babies who know they have an adult they can rely on for comfort and care are more likely to be secure unlike those who experience inconsistent or unresponsive care. 21 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Activity 3 1. What is the constructivist theory of teaching and learning and how does it relate to cognitive development theories. 2. Plan a cognitive learning activity with a small group of children where there will be some peer and adult interactions. Evaluate the activity and identify: l How important was peer interaction in the success of the activity. l How did your interaction support children’s learning? l Did the child gain more from peer or adult interaction? 3. Case Study One of the best ways to explore the skills and knowledge related to cognitive development is to observe the actions of a particular child. For this analysis, a child by the name of Natalie (age 4 ½) was observed for a ten-minute period of time. As she engaged in such activities as trying to use a hoola hoop and seeking the attention or help of those around her, Natalie exhibited many of the skills expected for a girl her age. In addition, she was observed utilizing techniques that younger children use to understand the world around them, such as careful scrutiny of nearby people and imitation, demonstrating her ability to build on the foundation she had built from infancy. Analysis of these skills can be divided into three subcategories of cognitive development: problem solving, understanding people, and causal learning. Natalie's attempts to use a hoola hoop properly highlight key aspects of her problem solving abilities. a) Describe how Nathalie attempts to use the hoola hoop showing different aspects of cognitive development namely: i. Problem Solving ii. Understanding People iii. Causal Learning 4. Describe two concrete examples of what you might do in your classroom to create an emo- tionally safe environment for your children. Give examples of strategies that you can to mod- el building self-confidence, and helping children to be emotionally receptive to new ideas. 22 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  5. Describe emotional intelligence. Use Goleman’s five traits and/or specific examples to help you develop your answer. 6. Describe and discuss the link between emotions and learning. What can you do as a teacher to promote your students’ learning by supporting their emotional develop- ment? Include specific concepts and examples in your essay. 7. Consider a real life-experience you have witnessed where the child’s emotions is im- pacting on his/her learning. Write a description of the scene. Generate questions and actions that a teacher should consider to guide her response to this particular scenario. 3.7 Summary So far we have learnt the following: l Definition of cognitive development l Learning is one of the most important cognitive activities l Approaches to cognitive development – Piaget l Vygotsky principle stating that thinking is a socially constructed process and the im- portant role of the teacher in the learning process. l Contemporary theories of intelligence. l Concept of Emotional Intelligence and how it affects learning. 23 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology 24 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  4 UNIT Psychosocial Development 4.1 Unit Overview In this Unit, we shall discuss the following concepts: l What is Social Development? l Overview of the key theories of Social Development. l Influence of the family, school and other environmental factors on the social development of the young child. l Role of play in socialisation. l Pro-social behaviours and anti-social behaviour. 4.2 Introduction It is acknowledged that the early years are the most important years for learning and development and that social relationships developed right from the early years, help young children to relate to their peers, families and other adults. Unit 4 focuses on the social development of children from birth to eight years of age and examines the theoretical perspectives of social development. It also provides opportunities to analyse play as a significant factor in promoting pro-social behaviour and how to deal with aggressive and other anti-social behaviours. 4.3 Learning Objectives After studying this Unit, you should be able to: 1. describe what is social development. 2. demonstrate knowledge of the main theories of child development 3. analyse how child development theories relate to practice in early childhood settings. 4. Describe how environmental factors may enhance or inhibit the development of social skills in young children. 5. Describe play as an important factor in social development. 6. Develop, implement and evaluate strategies to promote the social development of young children. 25 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  READING Now I suggest you study : i. Early Childhood Studies (2009) – Jane Johnston and Lindy Nahmad-Williams. ii Educational Psychology (2004) Ninth Edition – Anita Woolfolk. To guide you further in achieving the learning objectives, you should analyse the explanation which follows and attempt the activities. 4.4 What is Social Development? Social development can be defined as “learning to live with others in a social learning environment.” (Johnston, Nahmad-Williams, 2009). As children are born, they begin to develop socially through their interaction with others. The newborn baby calls for attention by crying, and learn to recognize those within his or her immediate environment by listening to the sounds around and responding to external stimuli. As the young child moves in other social circles like the early childhood settings, they need to learn how to interact with other adults, other than the family members. Social development occurs through the process of socialisation described as “the process whereby people learn to conform to social norms.” (Abercombie et al, 1984) 4.5 Overview of the key theories of Social Development Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development Erickson psychosocial theory emphasized the emergence of the self, the search for identity, developing relationship with others and the role of culture as a determinant factor in the development of social skills. To Erikson, social development occurs through different stages, each stage being characterized by its goals, issues, accomplishments and challenges being interdependent. Developmental Crisis: At each stage, the individual faces a conflict between a positive alternative and a negative one. The way in which the individual strives to resolve this internal conflict impacts on the individual’s self-image and overall development. 26 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development 1. Basic trust versus basic mistrust: This first crisis begins in infancy and continues till 18 months of age. In these early months, babies develop a sense of how reliable the people and objects in their environment are. They need to develop the right balance between trust (which allows them to form intimate relationships) and mistrust (enables them to protect themselves). 2. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (18 months – 3 years):As children matures- physically, cognitively and emotionally, they strive for independence. They learn to make their own decisions, develop a sense of self; they begin to trust their own judgement, development of self-regulation and self-control. 27 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  3. Initiative versus guilt (3-6 years): The child continues to develop his assertiveness and to take more initiatives. 4. Industry versus Inferiority (6-12 years): The child must deal with demands to learn new skills and to acquire new knowledge or else may develop a sense of failure and incompetence. 5. Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence):The teenager strives for asserting his identity in occupation, gender, politics and religion. 6. Intimacy versus Religion (Adulthood): The young adult develops intimate relationships or may develop feelings of isolation. 7. Generativity versus Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Need for ensuring the next generation and learn the basic parenting skills. 8. Ego Integrity versus Despair (Late Adulthood): Sense of acceptance of oneself. l Behaviorism Social behaviour occurs whenever two or more organisms interact. Basic social behaviours include: l Attachment l Conditioning l Social organization l Cooperation and competition l Social Learning Theories Social learning theories explain behaviour in terms of social learning. One example of social learning is thought to occur through modeling. Role models in the lives of the young child whom the child is most likely to identify with and imitate. Albert Bundura (1977) – Theory of how children develop stereotypical gender behaviours, identification with characters in books, television and in films. Piaget theories of cognitive development argue that children actively construct their knowledge as they interact with and explore the world around. Vygotsky socio-cultural theory explains how social interaction leads children to behaviours reflected by the cultural beliefs of the society. System Theories Bronfenbrenner, Ecological system theory which views the child as developing within a complex social system with multiple interactions. 28 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  l MICROSYSTEM: CHILD – Parents, Teachers, Peers l MESOSYSTEM: Interactions between the microsystem and other external factors (influence of a breakdown in family relationships on the child). l MACROSYSTEM: child vis-à-vis the society’s rules and regulations conditions affecting the family life and influence on the child’s social development. 4.6 Influence of the Society 1. Influence of the family The family is the first influence on the social development of the child. Other aspects of the family that can affect the social development of the child are: l Family size l Ethnicity l Socio-economic status 29 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  l Family relationships – Divorcee, re-marriage l Illness l Working parents 2. Influence of the Environment “Ecological transitions” are how children begin to develop their understandings of society and how to react and behave within it (Smith et al 1998). Environmental factors that influence the social developments of the young child. 3. Social Influence of peers l Peer friendships are powerful influences on children’s development. l Peer relationship – no hierarchical relationship l 4 features of friendship: n Reciprocity n Intense social activity n Conflict Resolution n Effective table performance 4.7 Role of play in social development Vygotsky viewed play as crucial in building up mental structures. Bandura saw play as “rehearsal and preparation for skills in later life” (Doherty, Hughes, 2009) Piaget viewed play as a determining factor in the development of cognition. Through play, children develop their social skills through taking turns, sharing, working in teams and groups. l 5 types of play- Jean Piaget (1951): Functional play Physical activity play Constructive play Symbolic play Formal games 30 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Reflective Tasks The interrelationship of development Level 1: Consider where to place the following into the Venn Diagram below: l Walking; l Feeding yourself; l Making friends; l Riding a tricycle; l Language; l Crying; l Asking questions; l Self-confidence; l Cutting; l Recognizing shapes Level 2: List all the activities a child in your setting will do in one day. Try to place each one into the Venn diagram below. Consider whether there is a balance of activities in the different areas. Should the different areas be balanced? Make sure you identify why you have answered in a particular way. Level 3: With your colleagues, list different types of activities your children engage in over a period of a term. Try to place each one into the Venn diagram. Identify all those which have a social element to them and consider whether they represent the full range of social activities needed for effective social development. If there are any social activities not undertaken in your setting, identify how you can incorporate them. 31 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology 4.8 Pro-social and antisocial Behaviours Pro-social behaviour is defined as “intentional voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another (Eisenberg, 1992). l Promoting pro-social behaviour is an important task of educators. l Two elements of pro-social behaviour are empathy – the attribute of being able to understand different emotions and to take another individual’s perspective and to respond similarly and altruism (acting with a selfless concern for others). Antisocial /aggressive behaviours l Antisocial behaviours include name-celling, physical violence, bullying. Causes of anti-social behaviours l The answer is both nature and nurture. The genetic makeup of children and the genetic makeup of males as compared to females. l Nurture: Influence of aggressive parents Lack of emotional warmth, care and love. Ineffective parenting skills. Parents resorting to punishment The influence of televisions, games and other technological devices 32 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Activity 4 1. Define Social Development 2. Briefly describe 3 different ways in which the family can influence social development. 3. Briefly describe how culture can influence the social development of the young child in Mauritius. 4. Name some of the behaviour problems children may experience? Case Study Explain how and why children’s play changes over the first six years of life. Include exam- ples to support your explanation. a. Give a definition of play. b. Consider the features and functions of play. c. Explain how children’s play is dependent upon their developing physical, intellectual, linguistic, emotional, and social maturity during the first six years of life. d. Briefly demonstrate how all areas of development are inter-related through play experiences. e. Link this maturational development to the child’s ability to engage in more complex, and more social play. f. Use theoretical studies and give examples from nursery and/or your own children to support your argument 33 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  Case Study Level 1: Discuss with your peers and decided between you what the social and biological aspects of child development are. Now consider how society affects child development. Make a list of your differences. Level 2: Discuss with your colleagues which aspects of the development of the children in your care are determined by social and which by biological factors. l How does the social context within your setting affect the children’s development? l How can you support the children’s social behaviour? Level 3: Discuss nature versus nurture debate. Decide whether you agree with the statement “ Most of a child’s early development is the result of nurture”. 4.9 Summary So far we have learnt the following: l Theories of social development - Behaviourist Perspective, social learning theories, system theories, constructionist theories. l The influence of the family and the environment on the social development of children. l Play as an important factor in social development. 34 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  5 UNIT Moral Development 5.1 Unit Overview In this Unit, we shall discuss the following concepts: l What is moral development? l Behaviourist theories of moral development. l Cognitive theories of moral development. l Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of moral development. l Supporting children’s moral development within educational settings. 5.2 Introduction Every society has rule sand behaviour patterns that are acceptable for the people. Although different cultures have different rules and behaviour patterns, yet there are universal rules and behaviour patterns that are communicated to children so that they learn and internalise what is wrong and right. Parents, early years professionals and teachers are powerful influences on children’s moral behaviour and development, and analyse the different theories underlying moral development and learn how to support the moral development of young children within educational settings. 5.3 Learning Objectives After studying this Unit, you should be able to: 1. describe what is moral development 2. describe the main theories of moral development 3. compare and analyze the theoretical perspectives underlying the behaviourist and cognitive theories of moral development 4. identify ways in which teachers can support children’s moral development within educational settings. 35 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  READING Now I suggest you study : i. Early Childhood Studies (2009) – Jane Johnston and Nahmad-Williams. ii Theories of Development – Prentice Hall, W.C Grain (1985). To guide you further in achieving the learning objectives, you should analyse the explanation which follows and attempt the activities. 5.4 What is Moral Development? Moral development is “the process by which children adopt and internalise the rules and expectations of society and develop a sense of right or wrong”. (Dwyer and Scampion, 1995) Child psychologist J. Lindon (1995) views children’s understanding of right and wrong as a combination of three aspects of their development: 1. Social relationships: The understanding of right and wrong and the moral development of children, from birth, is grounded in the development of relationships with other people. 2. Moral behaviour: Young children have no concept of adult moral judgements but recognise adult disapproval. 3. Moral reasoning and judgement: As children grow older, there is enhanced cognitive ability and this helps them to discern between what is good and acceptable and right and understand that good behaviour “is a related series of making the right decisions”. (Doherty & Hughes, 2009) 5.5 Theories of Moral Development Behaviourist theories of moral development Behaviourist believes that the process of moral development in children goes through processes of: SOCIAL LEARNING – Imitating the behaviours of others operant conditioning (Skinner) – children learn social responses as a result of being rewarded for using them or punished for not using them. 36 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  In operant conditioning, there is the element of extrinsic motivation used to bring about desired behaviours. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – Learned stimulus response resulting in automatic behaviour, example: children learning to use social responses automatically. 5.6 Cognitive Theories of Moral Development Piaget’s cognitive theory of moral development Piaget applied his theory of cognitive development to develop his theory of moral development. STAGE 1: Children in the sensorimotor stage of development, from birth to the end of the preschool years have little understanding of rules. Those in the pre-operations; stage of development (4-7 yrs) will start to obey rules by imitating their role models, but with no real understanding. They are egocentric in the sense that they are unable to simultaneously take into account their own views with the perspective of others. STAGE 2: At the concrete operational stage, children will accept and obey rules, but still without really understanding them. Real understanding comes as children move to formal operational stage. From stage 1 to stage 2, children develop towards an autonomous stage of moral reasoning and develop the ability to consider rules critically, and apply these rules when required. Thus, Piaget viewed moral development as the result of interpersonal interactions through which individuals negotiate. Piaget cognitive theory of moral development Stage Age Use of Rules Sensorimotor 0-3 None Pre-operational 4-7 Imitation and egocentrism Concrete operational 7-11 Accept and obey rules Piaget concluded that schools should focus on cooperative decision making and problem solving. He suggested that teachers should provide children with opportunities for personal discovery through problem solving rather than imposing rules and norms on them. 37 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology 5.7 Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theories of Moral Development LEVEL 1: Pre-conventional Moral Reasoning STAGE 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation – Rules are obeyed to avoid punishment. STAGE 2: Personal Reward Orientation – Personal needs determine right or wrong. LEVEL 2: Conventional Moral Reasoning Judgement as based on other’s approval, family expectations, traditional values, societal laws. STAGE 3: Determined by what others want. STAGE 4: Law & Order Orientation – Laws are absolute, authority must be respected, social order maintained. LEVEL 3: Post Conventional Moral Reasoning STAGE 5: Social contract orientation – socially agreed standards. STAGE 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation – Good and right are matters of individual conscience, based on concept of justice, equality, etc. Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three levels. Each level represents a fundamental shift in the social-moral developmental of the individual. At the first level, the individual’s moral judgement is characterised by an individual perspective. Then there is the emergence of moral reciprocity in the form of “you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours”. At the next level, stage 3, people are aware of shared feelings, agreements and expectations of others- mostly within the family environment. Stage 4 marks the shift from defining what is right in terms of family norms and expectations to defining what is right in terms of societal rules, norms and laws. The first level of moral judgement entails reasoning grounded in the ethical fairness principles. 5.8 Supporting Children’s Moral Development within Educational Settings The philosophy behind Kohlberg’s theory is that there are no single, correct answers to ethical dilemmas. l The teacher’s role is one of a moderator accepting divergent views, accepting that people hold different values. 38 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  l The goal of moral education is to encourage individuals to develop to a higher stage of moral reasoning. Development is not merely gaining more knowledge but rather escalating through a series of qualitative changes in the way an individual think. l When children reach the post conventional level of moral reasoning, they no longer accept their society as it is but think reflecting and autonomously about the characteristics of a good society. 5.9 Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theory l Culturally biased – the model was based on a western philosophical principle and applied to non-western cultures. l Sex biased – the model was worked out exclusively from interviews with males and reflect a male orientation (Gilligan, 1982). Activity 5 1. Name some factors that can influence the development of self- esteem and self-confidence in a young child. 2. Briefly describe how emotional development impact on other areas of development. 3. Briefly describe 3 strategies that teachers can devise to support moral development within early childhood settings. 5.10 Summary So far we have learnt the following: l Close association between moral and emotional development. l The cognitive developmental perspective of Piaget l Kohlberg 6 stages of moral reasoning l Pro-social and antisocial behaviours l Theory in action relating the theories to practice in early childhood settings. 39 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology Conclusion Development comprises of both changes and continuity overtime. The field of child development involves the scientific study of the ways in which children change from birth through adolescence. By learning about the normal course of development over several domains, we look at different factors and attempt to understand current and predict future behaviours and how all these influence learning. Children are subjected to countless influences, from the genes they inherit to environmental and societal influences that may have major impacts on the child’s development. By being aware of these different theoretical perspectives of development and learning, teachers are better prepared to assume their responsibilities. 40 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology  References Bee & Boyd: The Developing Child, Eleventh Edition Berk, L &Winsler, A (1995) Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, D.C: National Association for the Education of Young Children. B.F Skinner (1971): Social Learning Theory Bronfenbrenner, U (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bronfenbrenner, U (1986). Ecology of the Family as a Context for Human Development: Research Perspectives. Developmental Psychology 22 (6): 723-742. Bronfenbrenner, U (1979). 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(2004).Human development 9th edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental functions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wellman, H. (2002). Understanding the psychological world: Developing a theory of mind. In Goswami, U. (Ed.), Blackwell Handbook of childhood cognitive development, 167-187. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. 41 Open University of Mauritius - Child Psychology