PSYC 349 - CH 1 Introduction to Adolescence PDF

PSYC 349 - CH 1 Introduction to Adolescence  CH 1 - Overview Historical & Cultural Perspectives on “Adolescence” The Nature of Development - Processes, Periods, Transitions Influential Theories on Psychological Development The Elements of Psychological Research Historic...

PSYC 349 - CH 1 Introduction to Adolescence  CH 1 - Overview Historical & Cultural Perspectives on “Adolescence” The Nature of Development - Processes, Periods, Transitions Influential Theories on Psychological Development The Elements of Psychological Research Historical & Cultural Perspectives on Adolescence  Historical Perspectives on “Adolescence” Greeks (Plato & Aristotle): Key features of Adolescence - ★ Reasoning, Self-Determination, Egocentrism Middle Ages: ★ No DISTINCTION - adolescents seen as “mini-adults” Rousseau (18th Century) ★ Believed Reasoning, Emotional Maturity & Interest in Others develop during adolescence  20th & 21st Centuries G. Stanley Hall’s “Storm & Stress” View Pioneered the scientific study of adolescence Adolescence influenced by biological factors Turbulent time - conflict, mood swings, fluctuate between extremes Mead’s “Sociocultural” View Nature of adolescence is sociocultural, not biological The way the culture views & treats adolescents will dictate how they make it through this time period Inventist View (1890-1920s) - Age of Adolescence Adolescence is a sociohistorical creation Historic changes in society created a special classification of "adolescence" - socially & legally different than adulthood ○ Compulsory education, labor laws, etc  Cross-Cultural Comparisons: Individualism and Collectivism Individualism Collectivism Focus on personal goals Sacrifice personal goals to serve rather than group goals the group Promote values that: Promote values that: Serve the self- Preserve group integrity - ★ personal choice ★ group orientation & harmony ★ independence ★ interdependence ★ intrinsic motivation ★ respect & obedience 6  Cross-Cultural Comparisons: Differences in How Adolescents Spend Their Time Reed Larson and Suman Verma examined how adolescents spend their time and found that US adolescents: Spend about less time on schoolwork, but more time in paid labor than in Europe and East Asia Have more discretionary time than adolescents in other industrialized countries Spend the largest amounts of their free time ▪ using media ▪ in unstructured leisure activities  Nonindustrial, Populations in Unschooled the United States Populations in Populations in Activity Populations Europe East Asia Household labor 5–9 hours 20–40 minutes 20–40 minutes 10–20 minutes Paid labor 0.5–8 hours 40–60 minutes 10–20 minutes 0–10 minutes Schoolwork — 3.0–4.5 hours 4.0–5.5 hours 5.5–7.5 hours Total work time 6–9 hours 4–6 hours 4.5–6.5 hours 6–8 hours TV viewing insufficient data 1.5–2.5 hours 1.5–2.5 hours 1.5–2.5 hours Talking insufficient data 2–3 hours insufficient data 45–60 minutes Sports insufficient data 30–60 minutes 20–80 minutes 0–20 minutes Structured insufficient data 10–20 minutes 10–20 minutes 0–10 minutes voluntary activities Total free time 4–7 hours 6.5–8.0 hours 5.5–7.5 hours 4.0–5.5 hours  Cultural Rites of Passage Rites of Passage: Ceremonies or rituals that mark an individual’s transition from one status to another Some cultures have elaborate rites of passage that signal the adolescent’s transition to adulthood; others do not Girls' Rite of Passage - Apache Tribe Boys' Rite of Passage - Bullet Ant Ritual What similarities do you notice between these rite of passage ceremonies?  Cultural Rites of Passage Western countries are notable for their lack of formal, universally agreed upon "Rite of Passage" that marks the official transition to adulthood How do YOU define this final transition? Once you reach a certain age? What age? ○ 18, 21, 25, etc? Full-time job with benefits? Marriage? Kids? Others The Nature of Adolescent Development  Developmental Processes Biological processes: ★ PHYSICAL changes Cognitive processes: ★ Changes in THINKING & INTELLIGENCE Socioemotional processes: ★ Changes in PERSONALITY, EMOTIONS & RELATIONSHIPS within different social contexts.  Periods of Development Adolescence: transition from childhood to adulthood ★ Focus: preparation for adulthood ○ Early Adolescence: middle school years (ages 11-13) Start of pubertal changes ○ Late Adolescence: high school years (ages 15-18) Career interests, dating, and identity exploration occur Early Adulthood: post high school/college (ages 18-25) ★ Focus: establishing personal & economic independence & career development  Key Transitions: Childhood to Adolescence Biological Changes: ★ PUBERTY! ★ Hormonal changes, growth spurts, sexual maturation Cognitive Changes: ★ More abstract, idealistic & logical thinking Socioemotional Changes: ★ More time spent with peers ★ More conflict with parents ★ More mood swings  Key Transitions: Adolescence to Adulthood Adolescence - “Begins with Biology & Ends with Culture” Emerging Adulthood - Key Features Identity exploration - key changes in work/relationships Instability - in housing, education, work, relationships Feeling “in-between” - Not an adolescent, not yet an adult Self-focused - less responsibilities/obligations to others Age of Possibilities & Transformation  The Changing Landscape of Emerging & Early Adulthood 1/3rd are LIVING W/PARENTS (2015) ○ 1 in 4 are not working or going to school (25-34 year olds) Better educated w/more college degrees ★ View educational & economic achievements as key milestones of adulthood (vs. marriage & parenthood) More likely to delay marriage ★ (1970) - 8 in 10 adults marry by age 30 ★ Today - 8 in 10 adults marry by age 45 Less women at homemakers ★ (1970) = 43% ★ Today = 14% Source: U.S. Census Bureau  INFLUENTIAL THEORIES on PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT  Psychoanalytic Theories Describe development as primarily unconscious & heavily influenced by early life experiences ○ Focus on symbolic meanings of behavior & deeper inner workings of the mind  Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) ○ First to introduce the idea of the “Unconscious Mind” ○ Believed most of the motivation/reason behind our behavior is unknown to our conscious mind  Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 3 Principles of Personality Id: Instincts - seek pleasure Superego: Morality - do what’s “right” according to society Ego: Reality - Balance between Id & Superego  Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development: KEY IDEA: Early life experiences influence healthy psychological development MAIN IDEAS of the STAGES: ★ Focus: attaining pleasure via part of the body ★ Goal: successfully mastering a specific task at each stage ★ Problems? “Fixations” can develop at a specific stage  Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Believed that psychological development is mainly influenced by the social experiences we have (not sexual desires like Freud said) Psychological & Social development is a lifelong process that occurs across 8 stages. At each stage: There is crisis to resolve! Success = move into next stage of life stronger/healthier Failure = problems/difficulties in development can arise Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development  Cognitive Theories Focus on how cognitive processes & abilities develop ★ Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development ★ Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory ★ Information-Processing Theory  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development MAIN IDEA - Children actively construct their own understanding of the world & themselves as they go through 4 distinct stages of cognitive development At each stage, we possess different cognitive abilities ★ Sensorimotor - Sensory learning & understanding of things ★ Preoperational - can think Symbolically, but not logically ★ Concrete Operational - Logical thinking of concrete things ★ Formal Operational - Hypothetical & Abstract thinking Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development  Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Emphasized the impact of social interaction & culture on development ○ The tools a society/culture uses - (such as language, science & math techniques) have on major impact on what individuals learn ○ Interactions with others is key to cognitive & social development Zone of Proximal Development  Information-Processing Theory Computers are Information Processers! They input, encode, represent, store, and retrieve information Human brains are like Computers! Thinking = Information Processing! Do the same things! This theory claims there are no developmental stages in the processing of information - As we get older, we gradually acquire greater capacity & skill for processing information  Behavioral Theories - Behaviorism ★ Focus on observable & measurable behaviors & study what influences individual behavior  BF Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning All behavior is learned! The consequences we receive for our actions influence if we will repeat them or not ○ Reinforced or “rewarded” - MORE likely to repeat ○ Punished - LESS likely to repeat Individual behavior is “shaped” via by the reinforcement or punishment one receives in their social environment Example of "Shaping" & Operant Conditioning  Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Main Idea: Environmental, Behavioral & Personal factors interact and influence development Observational Learning: ★ Learning by watching & modeling behavior of others Reciprocal Determinism: ★ The belief that all 3 factors (environment, behaviors, individual thoughts/perceptions/beliefs) mutually influence one another An example of Reciprocal Determinism - Each Factor Influences & is Influenced By the Others ★ You observe your older sibling ★ Your action of joining the being involved in lots of club activities and being invited to (Behavior) events, and your parents praise him for it all the time (Environmental Factor) ★ Introduces you to new people & events ★ You conclude that being (Environmental Factor) outgoing and social are positive qualities to have (Personal Factor) ★ Which influences how you think about others and ★ Your observation & beliefs yourself influence you to join a new club (Personal Factor) at school (Behavior)  Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Psychological development reflects the influence of five environmental systems: Microsystem: the social settings the adolescent is directly part of ★ Family, Neighborhood, School, Peer group Mesosystem: interactions between microsystems ★ Parents & Teachers; Teachers & Peers Exosystem: settings an adolescent is not directly part of, but that impact their experiences ★ Parents’ experiences at work; Teachers experiences with Administrators Macrosystem: the culture in which adolescents live ★ Geographic location, ethnicity, gender Chronosystem: major events or transitions that occur in society ★ Covid epidemic, War, etc  Eclectic Theoretical Orientation Theories can be helpful guides, but are not a one-stop shop! The Eclectic Approach does not follow any one theory alone - but instead apply ideas of the theories that best fit the situation! The Elements of Psychological Research  Steps in the Scientific Method 1) Identify a problem to study 2) Collect research data 3) Analyze the data 4) Draw conclusions In Step #1 - researchers often rely on a THEORY & develop an HYPOTHESIS ★ THEORY - interrelated, coherent set of ideas to help explain events and make predictions ★ HYPOTHESIS - Specific prediction one expects to find between the variables studied Types of Research ★ Descriptive ★ Correlational ★ Experimental  Descriptive Research Goal: Identify & report on behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, or experiences of a target population Example: Survey a group of high school students asking how much sleep they get per night and how they feel their sleep impacts their academic performance at school  Correlational Research Goal: See if a naturally occurring relationship exists between two or more variables Example: Compare the amount of sleep that a group of students get per night to their GPA at school to see if a relationship exists  Correlation Coefficient Correlation Coefficient: a number based on a statistical analysis: used to describe the degree of association between two variables Magnitude ○ Size of the number between (-1) and (1) ○ (0) = no relationship Direction ○ Positive (+): direct relationship between variables ○ Negative (-): inverse relationship between variables Statistical Significance: A relationship between variables exists due to something more than chance alone. Remember: Correlation does NOT imply Causation!  Experimental Research Goal: See if a direct cause & effect relationship exists between two or more variables by creating a specific condition to test it Example: Assign 50 students to Group A (Get 8 hours of sleep per night) Assign 50 students to Group B (Get less than 5 hours of sleep per night) Assess each student’s academic performance (via an IQ test) before the experiment and after to see if the scores in Group B change more than the scores in Group A.  Experimental Research Independent Variable: the factor that is manipulated/changed to see if it has an effect Dependent Variable: the factor that is measured to see if there is an effect on it  Experimental Research Experimental group: Exposed to manipulated independent variable Control group: NOT exposed to manipulated independent variable Random assignment: Assigning participants to experimental & control groups by chance - helps to minimize bias  Time Span of Research Cross-Sectional Study Longitudinal Study Studying people from Studying the same different age groups at one individuals over a period of time and compare differences time to track differences Advantages: Advantage: ★ No waiting for participants to ★ More accurate findings age ★ Identify importance of ★ Quicker & easier comparisons early experience for later development Drawbacks: ★ No information about how Drawback: individuals change ★ Expensive & time- ★ Due to individual differences consuming between subjects - may be ★ High dropout rates comparing apples to oranges Data Collection Methods Data Collection Method Strengths Weaknesses Systematic Observation: Laboratory: Laboratory: Control over many Participants know they are * Laboratory: outside variables, setting being studied; unnatural; Controlled setting & & participants not representative remove real-world factors samples * Naturalistic: Naturalistic: Naturalistic: Takes place in natural More authentic No interaction with setting & no manipulation subjects of variables Survey & Interviews: Get first-hand and more May not be honest Ask questions about in-depth information Lack of participation beliefs, behaviors, experiences Standardized Tests - Scientific and good for Assume behaviors are Objective measures of a comparisons consistent & stable behavior/ability Data Collection Method Strengths Weaknesses Physiological Measures: Scientific results Limited explanation Blood tests for hormone with limited bias provided for the levels, brain imaging outcomes of these techs; genetic tests tests Experience-Sampling: Gather “real-time” High demands placed Researchers “beep” information that on participants - pagers at random times gives more realistic repeated reporting and participants report picture of subjects’ may influence one’s on immediate situation experiences mood/responses Case Study: Extensive Generalizability may In-depth look at one information about be lacking individual the case Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research  Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research Protection - ➔ Participants must be protected from mental, emotional or physical harm Informed Consent - Legal permission to participate in a research study ➔ Must be obtained by individual or parent/guardian prior to participation ➔ Includes knowing all information regarding the research ◆ (Nature, Risks, Benefits, Rights, etc) Assent - Permission from a child to participate ➔ Is not legal permission - still must obtain Informed Consent from parent ➔ Is recommended & beneficial for well-being of child  Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research Confidentiality ➔ Insure anonymity and protect personal information Debriefing ➔ Explain the purpose & nature of the study Deception ➔ If required to maintain integrity of study, must not do harm & must fully disclose real intentions at the end