PED 221 Developmental Psychology PDF

Course Code PED221 Course Title Developmental Psychology Course Team Dr. M.U Ajoku (Developer/Writer) -ABIASU Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan (Editor) - NOUN Dr. Aina, M.A. (Programme Leader) - NOUN Dr. Osuji, U. S. A. (Coordinator) - NOUN NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Office No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nou.edu.ng Published By: National Open University of Nigeria First Printed 2006 Reprinted 2010 ISBN: 978-058-842-6 All Rights Reserved Printed by: Goldsworth 2 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY CONTENTS PAGE Module 1 Basic Concepts and Nature of Developmental Psychology…………………….…………………… 1 Unit 1 Development Psychology as a Branch of Psychology... 1 Unit 2 Basic Principles of Growth and Development in Human Behaviour ………………….…………………. 7 Unit 3 Biological Basis of Human Development …………… 12 Unit 4 Scientific Methods in Developmental Psychology….. 17 Module 2 Major Theories of Human Development ……….… 22 Unit 1 Sigmund Freudian Theory of Psycho-Sexual Development ………………………………………… 22 Unit 2 Behaviouristic Learning Theories of Development… 28 Unit 3 Psychosocial Theory of Erick Erickson ……………… 33 Unit 4 Cognitive Theory of Human Development, The Cognitive Development View …………………... 39 Module 3 Stages of Human Growth and Development ………. 47 Unit 1 Prenatal Development ……………………………….. 47 Unit 2 Neonatal Development/Infancy …………………….. 52 Unit 3 The Concept and Nature of Childhood Development I. 56 Unit 4 Adolescence Stage ……………………………............ 63 Unit 5 Adulthood Development ………………………………71 3 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND NATURE OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Unit 1 Development Psychology as a Branch of Psychology Unit 2 Basic Principles of Growth and Development in Human Behaveiour Unit 3 Biological Basis of Human Development Unit 4 Scientific Methods in Developmental Psychology UNIT 1 DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY AS A BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Definition of Developmental Psychology 3.2 Human Developmental Changes 3.3 Development Tasks 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology which deals with studying developmental changes of human and animal behaviour. The unit examines the basic concepts and nature of developmental psychology. In addition the unit x-rays scientific methods in the study of developmental psychology. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:  define the concept of developmental psychology  identify the nature of development  distinguish between “growth and development”  describe the roles of maturation and learning in development  describe at least two scientific methods in developmental psychology. 4 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Definition and Description of Developmental Psychology Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It is a science that seeks to understand and predict human and animal behaviour. The application of the knowledge to practical problems is an art. Thus psychology is both a science and an art. The field of human development is regarded as developmental psychology. The branches of developmental psychology are child development or child psychology, adolescent psychology and adulthood psychology. Child psychology focused on the developmental changes of children from conception to early adolescent. Child psychology is the centre of developmental psychology since behaviour develops rapidly in the childhood state. Adolescent psychology and adulthood psychology deal with developmental changes, characteristics and problems that occur especially in adolescence and adulthood periods. Developmental psychology therefore is a branch of psychology that studies developmental changes covering the life span from conception to death. All the segments of life span or developmental pattern of childhood, adolescent hood and adulthood or old age cover different periods or stages that occur during the entire life span. Scholars and authorities like Hurlock (1978) defined developmental psychology as the ontogenetic study of the development of organism from conception through childhood, adolescent, adult and senescence till death. Apart from studying chronological and mental ages of human beings, it regulates the structural, functional and behavioural changes that occur in humans before maturity. Recently developmental psychologists identified six major objectives according to Hurlock. These objectives are to find out: i) What the common and characteristic age changes in appearance, behaviour, interests, and goals from one development period to another. ii) When these changes occur. iii) What causes the changes iv) How they behaviour; v) Whether they can or cannot be predicted; and vi) Whether they are individual or universal” The goal of developmental psychology is to identify how the individual develops cognitively and affectively in addition to motor development from pre-natal stage to adult stage or old age. Developmental 5 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY psychology emphasizes the factors affecting developmental changes and influencing changes, and the orderliness and sequential nature of human development. Thus developmental psychology is a special branch of psychology and mental processes which involves growth and developmental changes in terms of differentiation, the maturation, and learning, integration of biological, cognitive and affective processes (Akinboye et al 1982). It is also includes the study of processes that contribute to foundations of life in terms of fertilisation, zygote formation, embryonic development leading to the development of the neonate, the child, adolescent, adult and senescence (old age). In developmental psychology, two concepts are used namely: “growth and development”. Some developmental psychologists use growth and development inter changeably but, are they the same? In this respect they are different although go hand in hand or inseparably. Both refer to changes and the processes are interrelated and inter-dependent on each other. In addition, other basic concepts in developmental psychology are maturation and learning. Basically, growth refers to quantitative changes that are increase in bodily dimensions such as height, weight and size. For instance, as a result of growth, the size and structure of internal organs and the brain increase. The child grows mentally as well as physically. This also implies that the child has the tendency of learning, remembering and reasoning as a result of growth of the brain. By contrast, development refers to those qualitative changes which along with growth i.e. from maturation and learning. Hurlock (1972), Zanden (1978) and Baller and Charles (1968) defined development as a progressive sequence of orderly, coherent changes. Progressive according to Hurlock signifies that the changes are directional leading forward rather backward. Orderly and coherent suggest that there is a definite relationship between a given stage and the stages which precede or follow it. The progressive series of changes occur as a result of maturation and experience. The developmental changes also occur at each stage of human growth and development. Development leads toward the goal of maturity. Maturity therefore marks the end of growth and development. The nature of development generally implies a dynamic interaction between the organism and its environmental forces. It involves increase in size, differentiation and complex form of organization such as personality formation. Development is therefore the quantitative and qualitative changes of an individual child. 3.2 Human Developmental Changes The developmental changes in human beings are categorized into changes in size, proportion and disappearance of old features. The human being is never static rather he is undergoing constant changes. 6 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY At every chronological age some changes manifest at the beginning while others are at their peak and some are declining. These changes occur physically, emotionally, mentally and disappearance of old features to be replaced by new ones (i.e. baby teeth, baby feet etc). The process of development has been explained from different perspectives and some of them are development as maturation and learning or development as the synthesis of maturation and learning. In this perceptive, Piaget identified four basic elements in development which are as follows: maturation; experience, social transmitted development such as learning through language, schooling or training by parents; and equilibration. (i.e. when an individual adapts easily to environmental demands). Development as maturation is governed by genetical and environmental factors. Basically development comes from maturation. Maturation provides the raw material for learning and orderly behaviour: Development as learning signifies that development is a collection of learning experiences which the individual acquires in the process of interaction with his environment. Learning is a key in human behvaviour. In this regard, learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behviour which occurs as a result of practice or experience. (Morgan, et.al., 1979). The changes due to growth or maturation are not learning. Additionally, development as synthesis indicates that development is the essential process and each element of learning occurs as a function of wholist development rather than being an element which explain development. The interrelationship which exists between maturation and learning generates development which leads to individual differences and variation in personality, attitudes, interest and behaviour patterns. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 1. Briefly explain the role of maturation and learning in development 2. Identify and describe tutor marked assignment research methods in developmental psychology. Why is the study of human growth and development of importance for the teacher? 3.3 Developmental Tasks Other aspects of development changes are the social expectations for each stage of development which Havighurst labeled developmental task. Development is critical and plays a significant role in maturation and learning. It follows a definite and predicted pattern, as a result of change in behaviour which leads to individual differences. Each stage 7 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY of development has its hazards and is affected by cultural belief and changes. According to Havighurst, a developmental task is a “task which arises as or about a certain period in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks” The above definition indicates that the individuals are meant to know the societal expectations at given ages. Parents and teachers are expected to guide the young children through teaching to acquire different skills by the knowledge of what the society expects, the children to master the skills in order to adjust successfully in life. The developmental tasks predict the failure for an individual to master the tasks as a result of aids and handicaps to mastery. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 i) Define developmental psychology ii) State two objectives of developmental psychology iii) Explain what is meant by development? iv) Distinguish between “growth and development” in organism. You may include the following answers i) Developmental Psychology is a branch of science of behaviour which studies the development of organism from conception through childhood, adolescent, adult and senescence (old age). ii) The two objectives of are to identify the characteristic chronological age changes from one development period to another; and to find out when these development changes occur and what causes them. iii) Development simply means the orderly and sequential changes in an organism from conception to death iv) Growth refers to quantitative changes (i.e height, weight, size) while development refers to those qualitative changes which go along with growth (i.e. from maturation and learning). 4.0 CONCLUSION In this unit you have learnt the concept and objectives of developmental psychology. You also have learned development changes in human beings emphasizing on the roles of maturation and learning; and developmental tasks. You have learnt how the field of developmental psychology benefits from scientific methods. 8 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY You have seen how psychologists’ especially developmental psychologists see the concept of growth and development in terms of quantitative and qualitative changes in human and animal organisms. 5.0 SUMMARY You have learnt in this unit that:- i) Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that studied the developmental stages of an individual behaviour from conception till death. ii) The concept of growth and development indicates that growth refers to quantitative changes (height, weight, size) while development refers to these qualitative changes which occur as a result of maturation and learning. iii) Social expectations are expressed in terms of developmental tasks which is essential for the mastery of persons and social adjustment. iv) The research methods employed in the study of human development are observation, survey, case study and experimental methods. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1.a. Distinguish between growth and development with appropriate examples. 2 Describe the roles of maturation and learning to human development. 3 Why is the study of the human growth and development of important to teacher-interns or teacher trainees. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Akinboye J.O.; Dupe, Fagbami; Majekodunmi, So; Okafor, C. N and Esezobor, S. O. (1982). Psychological Foundations of Education. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nig) Ltd. Baller, W. R and Charles Don. C. (1968). The Psychology of Human Growth and Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, INC. Chauham, S. S. (1978). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PUT Ltd. Hurlock, E.B. (1980). Child Development. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill, Kogakusha Ltd. Hurlock, E. B. (1980). Developmental Psychology: All Span Approach. New York: McGraw Hill Book. 9 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN HUMAN BEHAVIOUR CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Basic Principles of Development 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In unit 1, we have defined both growth and development, and some aspects of developmental changes. In this unit therefore the emphasize will be on the principles of growth and development, factors influencing growth and development and sex determination. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:  describe two principles of development  identify and explain two factors influencing growth and development  describe sex determinants in growth and development. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Basic Principles of Development Human life is a process of continual development. It finds expression in physical change, intellectual change, personality change, and social change across the life span and to live is to change (Reddy, 1978). Early development of a child involves differentiation, increase in size and complex forms of organization. There are structural, physiological and behaviour patterns in all the stages of development. The human has a pattern of development. These patterns form the basic principles of development. The patterns are cephalocaudal (cephalo = head; caudal = tail) and proximodistal (proximo = central or middle; distal = periphery terminator). 10 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY i) The process of development follows an orderly sequence or pattern in all individuals, for example the orderly patterns of physical, and mental development of the child follow the law of directional sequence of development. Psychologists maintained that the law of developmental direction and predictable pattern are the “cephalocaudal law” and the proximodistal law”. The cephalocaudal law means that development proceeds from head to foot (tail) while the proximodistal law implies that development follow from trunk to extremities” the outer parts of the body ii) Development proceeds from general to specific responses as differentiation and integration. For instance language development of the child begins from the birth and cry as a means of response. The differentiation response starts as the child acquires vocabulary of many words and latter develops communication skills. iii) Development is predicable with changes namely growth, maturation and learning. Development is the sum total of all changes that occur in an organism. It continues the effect of growth and learning. Development therefore is influenced by genetic or heredity and environmental forces. Growth is quantitative and development is wider in scope. It is quantitative and quantitative. Maturation is the stronger motivation on the part of the learner and sets the limit of developmental changes no matter the type of learning methods employed. The learner cannot learn unless he is ready. Learning in this regard is the relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of reinforced practice or experience. For an individual to grow and develop fully, there must be four basic changes namely, growth, maturation, learning and development. iv) There are individual differences and variations in development. These imply that children develop at different rates. Every child is biologically, physiologically and maturation ally different from every other. The differences occur as child proceeds to adolescence and eventually to adulthood. v) Growth and development are continuous. The child is continuously developing. Sometimes the growth and development are slow, and sometimes they are rapid i.e. “growth Spurt’s during infancy and adolescence. But they are always occurring. 11 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY vi) Development behaviour is controlled by needs. The developing child needs nutritional materials in order to enhance his cognitive, physiological, emotional and social needs. For instance the child requires love and affection, belongingness and acceptance especially from his peer group in order to satisfy his emotional and social needs. If the developing child is deficient, the development requirements may not be fulfilled. vii) Development proceeds by different developmental stages. Human life proceeds by stages. Each stage is distinguished by a dominant feature. It is characterized by a specific kind of development which is more prominent than the other. For example the five major developmental stages in childhood begin with prenatal stage down to infancy, babyhood, childhood and puberty when the child becomes sexually mature. viii) Developmental changes are inter-related and proceed at different rates. The mental, physical, and social aspects of development are inter- related as such the child develops as a wholistic individual. Although these aspects of traits develop at different rates ix) Critical period in development – There are critical periods in development of certain organs and functions of the body. The development of the organs of the body could be perfected through nutrient materials and other accident in order to enable the organ function properly. Any further interference may lead to mal-function or normal deficiency. Examples of such organs are eyes, brain, heart, and kidney. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1. Explain the meaning of cephalocaudal law of human development. 2. Explain what is meant by proximodistal law of human development. OR Explain the laws which govern human development as orderly and sequentially 3. list and explain two principles of development - The expected answers among other are: i) The “Cephalo caudal law” of developmental direction states that development proceeds from head to tail (foot). 12 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ii) The “proximodistal law” of developmental direction holds that development proceeds from trunk to extremities (or outer part of the body). OR The laws of developmental direction (cephalocaudal and proximodistal laws) hold that development proceeds from head to foot and from trunk (inside) to extremities (outside). iii) Growth and development are continuous but uneven. They always occur at different rates. Growth Spurts do appear especially during infancy and adolescence in the process of human growth. b) Individual differences and variation occur during development. These occur in children at different rates. The differences happen as the child proceeds to adolescence and eventually old age. But every child is biologically, physiologically and maturation ally different from each other. 4.0 CONCLUSION You have noted that human life is a process of continual development which finds expression in physical, intellectual, personality and social changes across life span. This means that to live is to change. You have also noted that stages of development can involve differentiation, increase in size and complex forms of organization. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit, you have studied the basic principles of development. In this regard you learnt that: i) The process of development follows an orderly sequence or pattern. ii) Development proceeds from general to specific. iii) Development is predicable with changes. iv) There are individual differences and variations of development. v) Growth and development are continuous. vi) Development behaviour is controlled by needs vii) Development proceeds by different stages. viii) Developmental changes are inter-related. ix) These are critical periods in development. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT What are the basic principles of development? 13 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Chauham, S.S. (1978). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PUT Ltd. Hurlock, E. B (1980). Developmental Psychology: All Span Approach. New York: McGraw Hill Book. 14 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Heredity and Environment 3.2 The Nature – Nurture Controversy 3.3 Conception 3.4 Chromosomal Disorders 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In unit 2, we discussed the basic principles of growth and development. This unit highlights the biological determinants or basis of human development. Human beings are biological creatures. Also in this unit we shall discuss the concepts of heredity and environment and see that biological heredity and environmental factors contribute to our physical, psychological, social and intellectual development. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:  define the concepts of heredity and environment  identify terms associated with heredity factors such as genes, chromosomes, sex cells etc.  describe biological determinants of human development  describe the nature – nurture basis of human development  explain chromosomal abnormalities. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Heredity and Environment Heredity refers to the biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genes. It also refers to the biological factors which contribute to the development of the individual through the process of cell division. The two cell divisions associated with human 15 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY development are mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is simply “the process in which a cell duplicates its chromosomes and then divides into two genetically identical daughter cells”. While meiosis is “the process in which a germ cell divides, producing gametes (sperm or ova) that each contain half of the parent cell’s original complement of chromosomes, In humans; the products of meiosis contain 23 chromosomes”. The environmental factors connote all external conditions and influences that affect the life and development of individual from conception to death. Heredity per se establishes certain limitations and directions of growth and environment furnishes the condition which may accelerate or decelerate the process. The hereditarian believes that hereditary traits play a dominant role in human development than the environmental conditions such as provision of nutrition, health, sanitation etc. The environmentalists also assert that an adequate environment contribute to development of an individual’s potentialities. In this regard, hereditarians stressed that no matter the amount of environmental conditions provided for an idiot, he cannot attain to the level of university professor. Along this line, the combination of heredity and environment (e.g. social, mental, emotional, physical) contribute handsomely to human development. 3.2 The Nature-Nurture Controversy The nature – nurture controversy started in the classical Greek era among, philosophers like Plato and Aristotle (Plato’s student) John Locke and others. The areas debated were heredity versus environment, nature versus nurture, maturation versus learning, innate versus acquired etc. In the history of psychology, the great debates centered on the controversy over nature and nurture. This controversy was based on the two schools of thought – the hereditarians ad the environmentalists. The hereditarians favoured nature and claimed that all hereditary traits were transmitted directly through the chromosomes via genes from generation to generation where environment was of little consequence. In this case, if your father was a criminal, you will be a criminal; and if your mother’s 1Q is only 89, then you shouldn’t choose a career like medicine. On the other hand, the environmentalists claimed that the most important thing was how an individual was raised or nurtured”, not based on genetic endowment. The environmentalists insisted that all people were burn genetically equal and that they differ as a result of environmental opportunities. 16 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The modern stand on nature – nurture dimensions emphasized that behaviour has multiple causes. It is the result of heredity interacting with environment that can influence human development. Our hereditary potentialities can be nourished based on the type, amount and quality of our environmental conditions. 3.3 Conception Heredity involves a number of genetic mechanisms. These genetic mechanisms are as follows: i) Development begins at conception from a parent sex cell which is formed by the union of a male sperm cell and a female ovum forming a zygote which contains 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent). Each sperm and each ovum contain minute structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes house smaller hereditary traits known as genes. Each gene (or group of genes) represents a hereditary factor such as color of eyes, or shape of nose etc which is transmitted as a unit. Physical traits developed as the result of the influence of a combination of genes. Gender is determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes (ie the sex chromosomes) the normal females inherited one sex chromosome (an x chromosomes); from each parent whereas males inherited an x chromosomes and a smaller Y chromosome. The father determines the sex of a child not the mother. The father (XY) can transmit either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome to his offspring. Identical heredity is present only in twins developed from the same fertilised ovum. 3.4 Chromosomal Disorders These are chromosomal disorder brought about as a result of inheritance. These disorders are associated with the presence of too few or too many chromosomes. The Down’s syndrome, klinefelter’s syndrome, turner’s syndrome and the XYY syndrome (super male syndrome) are chromosomal disorders. Some of these abnormalities can also result from the uneven meosis of male gametes. The Down syndrome occurred where a Child inherits extra 21st chromosomes. Children with the syndrome received their “extra” chromosome from their father rather than their mothers (Magenis and his associated 1977). The child will be mentally retarded with a number of distinctive physical features. The Klinefelter’s syndrome happened as a result of imbalance in the distribution of X chromosomes. This implies if a Y chromosome from sperm cell reaches the ovum first, the Zygote will become a kinefelter 17 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY male (XXY). Here the males fail to develop secondary sex characteristics and show deficiencies on tests of verbal ability. The Turner’s syndrome occurred when the ovum containing no X chromosome is fertilized by an X-bearing sperm; the result will be an XO female (who has Turner’s syndrome). The female remains small in stature, and fail to develop secondary sex characteristics. She exhibits mental deficiency. The “Super male” syndrome (the XYY) resulted when the child received the extra Y chromosome from the father. The child is taller than average and tends to score below average on intelligence tests. The poly – x syndrome occurred when a sex chromosome abnormality involving females who inherit three X chromosomes. These females are normal in appearance, remain fertile and tend to score below average on intelligence tests. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Briefly explain the nature – nurture controversy. You may expect the following answers among others. The origin of the nature – nurture controversy was traceable to the classical Greek philosophers like Plato, Aristotle (Plato’s student), John Locke among others. The great debates that focused on the controversy over nature and nurture made the people to fall into different schools of thought namely, the hereditarians and the environmentalists of old. The hereditarians favoured nature and claimed that all hereditary traits were transmitted through genes from generation to generation where environment was of little consequence. On the other hand, the environmentalists insisted that the most important thing was how an individual was raised or “nurtured” and genetic endowment was of little consequence. They also acknowledge the fact that all people were born genetically equal and people differ as a result of environmental conditions. The modern stand on nature – nurture controversy emphasized that human behaviour has multiple causes. In this respect, the interplay between heredity and environment contribute greatly to human development. 4.0 CONCLUSION The human development is a product of heredity and environmental opportunities. The interaction of genetical or hereditary and environmental factors under normal circumstances plays a dominant role in the development of personality and intelligence of an individual. 18 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we have learnt that: i) Heredity and environment contribute to human development ii) Heredity refers to the biological transmission of psychological traits from parents to progeny or offspring iii) Environment from psychological view point refers to the sum total of the stimuli or external conditions which the individual can respond from conception to death. iv) The modern solution to nature – nurture controversy highlighted that it is the result of heredity interacting with the environment conditions that favoured human development. v) Human development begins at conception when a sperm cell from the male unions with the female ovum to form a zygote. This process is known as fertilisation as indicated in module 3, unit I. vi) The fertilised egg contain 46 chromosomes, 23 from the male and 23 from the female i.e. the normal zygote contains 46 chromosomes (23 from each sex). vii) The normal females inherited sex chromosome called an X chromosome from each parent. The adult female has XX chromosomes only. The males inherited an X chromosome and Y chromosome. The adult male has XY chromosomes. The father not the mother determines the sex of a child. viii) The chromosomal abnormalities or disorders occasionally inherited by children are the Down’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, and the XXY syndrome 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1. Explain each of the following terms: a. heredity b. psychological environment c. identical heredity 2. List and describe four chromosomal disorders in human development. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING David, R. Shaffer (1985). A Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. James W. Vander Zanden (1978). Human Development. New York: Alfred A. Knopt Inc. Philip L. Harriman (1968). Hand book of Psychological Terms. 19 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 4 SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Developmental Psychology 3.2 The Observation Method 3.3 The Survey Method 3.4 The Case Study Method 3.5 The Experimental Method 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION Psychology is a science as well as an art. In this regard, it requires scientific methods of investigation using certain research tools. In this unit, you will be exposed to various methods of studying developmental psychology. You all know that developmental psychology is a branch of psychology which is the scientific study of human development and its changes and behavioural patterns 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:  identify and discuss four major scientific methods of studying developmental psychology with appropriate examples  discuss some practical applications of these methods in developmental psychology. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology is an inter-disciplinary and multi- disciplinary field, made of sociology, anthropology and biology. Human life is a process of continual development. The developmental changes in human life find expression in physical, intellectual, personality and social changes. The field of developmental psychology 20 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY can benefit from developmental research as a result of prevention of problematic behaviour among the various stages of human development. In this section, seven prominent research methods employed in the study of human development are: i) The observation method ii) The survey method iii) The case study method – The chemical care study development care study – longitudinal progression iv) The experimental method v) The observation method 3.2 The Observation Method The observation method carries out observational studies which yields significant result on developmental characteristics of children. The observation method is classified into two namely, maturation observation method and participant observation method. In maturation observation the researcher observes the specific behavioural characteristics of children or adolescents or adults in natural setting. It enables the researcher to study individuals independently of their ability to report on themselves while it does not disturb or affect the events under investigation. The participant observation as a research enables the researcher to become part and parcel of the group which he wants to observe. In this case, he establishes rapport with the group of children or adolescents (even adults) in order that they may not become conscious of his presence so that they may not hide their actual behaviour or overt behaviour. The observation method may have a number of limitations such as the subjectivity of interpretation and collection of data from overt behaviour which does not provide reliable information regarding internal mental process. 3.3 The Survey method The survey method especially the social survey method employs interviews (structured / unstructured) and questionnaire for the determination of incidence and prevalence of given attitudes and behaviour with identifiable population. For instance, the researcher may be interested in studying the abnormality and prevalence of drug abuse among adolescents or to find out the prevalence of certain child-rearing or maltreatment of widowhood practices and so on. 21 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 3.4 The Case Study Method This method focuses upon a single individual rather than a group of subjects of different ages within behavioural problems. The case study method is used in baby biographies and in clinical approaches involving maladaptive children and adults. The case study method is categorized into the clinical case study or case history and developmental case study. The clinical case study is designed to gather information and present condition of the subjects. In clinical case study information is specifically collected from the following sources: biodata, past history such as the state of mother during pregnancy, relation between children and parents of the family and so on; and present condition may derive information from physical, mental, and social -emotional of child’s development after birth. The developmental case study or genetic method uses two approaches to collect the data viz:- longitudinal approach and cross-sectional approach. The longitudinal approach is employed by the researcher for studying human development in order to compare the same individuals at different intervals between birth and maturity or at any specific age bracket. The researcher observes their developmental characteristics regularly from year to year. This approach is used to study physical, mental, language, emotional and social developmental characteristics of children, It also allows researchers to plot individual growth curves in such areas as language, motor and cognitive development. The cross-sectional approach compares different groups of individual of varying age cohort to specific aspect of developmental stages. 3.5 The Experimental Method The method offers cause and effect relationships. It is a study in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables known as independent variables and measures other variables termed dependent variables (Mills, 1969). The independent variable is assigned to be the causal factor in the variables being studied while the dependent variable is usually some measure after subjects’ behaviour (Zanden, 1978). The experimental method uses a systematic procedure called experimental design. It provides guidelines to the researcher to carry out his research sequentially. The experimental design is made up of the experimental group and control group for the purpose of testing hypotheses. The control group is associated with the experimental group except that the researcher did not introduce change into it. The control group provides a mental standard against which the changes in the experimental group can be measured. For instance undergraduate class students talk noisily when the lecturer is out of the room but become quiet when the lecturer 22 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY enters; the change in the level of lecture room noise is the dependent variable and its cause by the lecturer’s presence is the independent variables. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Distinguish between longitudinal method and cross-sectional method. 4.0 CONCLUSION The methods of studying developmental psychology research involve the applications of the observation, survey, case study, and the experimental methods. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we have learnt that: i. The research methods employed in the study of Developmental Psychology include the observation, the survey, the case study, and the experimental methods. ii. The observation method yields important result on developmental characteristic of the child. This method is classified into two namely observation method (which concentrates on the specific behavioural characteristics of Childhood, Adolescent hood and Adulthood stages) and participant observation (where the researcher becomes part and parcel of the group which he wants to observe). iii. The survey method focuses or the study of incidence and prevalence of given attitudinal behaviour within identifiable period. iv. The case study focuses after single individual behavioural problems. The case study is categorized into the clinical case study or case history and developmental case study which are subdivided into longitudinal approach and cross sectional approach. v. The experimental method offers course and effect relationship through researcher’s manipulation of dependent and independent variables. It uses the experimental design and control group. ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE The longitudinal method undertakes continuous testing or measurement of subjects in individuals while the cross – sectional method compares varying groups of individuals of different age cohort. 23 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Identify and explain two research methods of studying developmental psychology as a discipline with appropriate examples. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Chauham, S.S (2000). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PUT. Ltd. Shaffer, David R. (1985). Developmental Psychology. Theory, Research and Applications. California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Zandan, James W. Vander (1978). Human Development. 24 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2 MAJOR THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Unit 1 Sigmund Freudian Theory of Psycho-sexual Development Unit 2 Behaviouristic Learning Theories of Development Unit 3 Psychosocial Theory of Erick Erikson Unit 4 Cognitive Theory of Human Development. The Cognitive Development View UNIT 1 SIGMUND FREUDIAN THEORY OF PSYCHO- SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Psycho Sexual Stages of Development 3.2 The Oral Stage 3.3 The Anal Stage 3.4 The Phallic Stage 3.5 The Latency Stage 3.6 Genital Stage 3.7 Ego Defense Mechanism 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION The stage concept of human development implies that human development is divided into step like levels with clear-cut changes in behaviour occurring from one stage to the next. The stage concept of human development should be compared to the process of inset metamorphosis. In this Unit, we will learn the theory of psychosexual development named after Sigmund Freud. The Unit also serves to introduce to us other major stage theories in Human Development (Psychosocial theory of Erik Erickson and cognitive development theory of Jean Piaget). These theories as guide to action will help us to observe and describe, explain, predict and influence the major stages of human development. The contents of psychosexual development theory of Sigmund Freud in this unit should specify the objectives below: 25 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:  identify and describe briefly the stages of psychosexual development  outline and explain Freudian theory of personality structures  list and explain at least two ego defense mechanisms. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Psychosexual Stages of Development Sigmund Freud postulated that a child passes through five major progressive stages of psychosexual development namely: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage is characterized by certain developmental and behaviour changes. Further, each stage possesses for children a unique conflict that they must resolve before they pass on to the next stage. According to Robert, Poulos and Marnur (1977) individuals may become so addicted to the pleasure of a given stage that they are unwilling to move on to later stage. This also may be as the process of stagnation which individuals experience including fixation as a result of frustration or overindulgence. Fixation in the view of Zanden (1978) is the tendency to stay at a particular stage to be troubled by the conflict of the stage and to reduce tension by means of the behaviour characteristic of that stage. 3.2 The Oral Stage of Psychosexual Development (Birth to 18 months) For Freud, the oral stage of infancy is a critical period in personality formation. The centers of pleasurable body movements are the mouth, lips and tongue. The child regards sucking his mothers breast as the most pleasurable activity. But conflict ensures when the source of love or pleasure is terminated i.e. the breast feeding. The child at this stage is self-centered and pre-occupied with his own needs. He also experiences common problems associated with fixation as dependent personality with unnecessary demand for mothering, oral aggressive, and excessive oral behaviours such as the compulsive eating, nail biting etc. 3.3 Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years) This stage refers to the stage when the focus of pleasurable body zone shifts from mouth to anus, rectum and bladder. The child takes most pleasurable activities in urinating and defecating. The source of conflict 26 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY results in toilet training by the mother. The child develops ambivalent attitudes as a result of parent’s interference with his activities. The child also resolves conflict between his need for parental love and his need for instinctual gratification through the development of life long attitudes toward cleanliness, submissiveness, orderliness, punctuality etc. The problems alongside with fixation are hostile and challenging personality accompanied with adherence to rules, regulations, neatness and orderliness. 3.4 The Phillic Stage This stage refers to approximately the age of three to six. The focus of pleasurable body zone shifts from anus to the genitals (the sexual organs). The child’s pleasurable body activity results to masturbation. Another important development at this stage are the Oedipus complex and Elektra complex. The Oedipus complex implies that the male child feels sexual love for the mother and perceives his father as hostile rivalry which leads him to fear punishment through “castration by the father and eventually called castration anxiety”. This conflict is resolved by identifying with his father and repressing his desire for his mother. In female child, Elektra complex occurs where she feels sexual love for the father and hates her mother. This leads her to conclude that she has been castrated and otherwise feels inferior that finds expression in female, “penis envy”. In this regard, the problems expressed in this stage for both male and female children are sexual problems in adulthood (impotence or frigidity) homosexuality and failure to handle competitive relationships. 3.5 The Latency Stage (Age of 6 to 12 years) While anal and phallic stages correspond to pre-primary school years, the latency stage corresponds to the primary school years in which children suppress most of their infantile sexual feelings or sexuality and become interested in games and sports. Further, the boys associate with their fellow boys and girls and engage themselves in learning skills and values etc. 3.6 Genital Stage (12 to 18years) This stage corresponds to part of senior primary school and junior secondary schools. In this stage, the focus of pleasurable activity shifts to the members of the opposite sex. Both boys and girls experience romantic and emotional feelings. At this stage, Sigmund Freud postulated that human behaviour is determined by id, ego and superego personality functions. He identified the nature of anxiety as conflicts among ‘id’ – impulses; 27 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY superego, demands and ego defenses. Id is that part of mind controlled by the pleasure principle and will. Id impulses clash with person’s need to adapt to society. As a child grows he develops the ego and superego. The ego as the conscious part of the mind acts as a mediator between an individual’s instinctive id, impulse and external reality. As his ego develops, the child learns to make compromises between his internal urges and parental and societal controls. The superego is regarded as conscience part of the mind that helps children, adolescents and adults to develop a moral code and ideal behaviour. The ego and superego develop as parts of the personality as the child goes through psychosexual growth stages. In the course of a child’s development, the id, the ego and the superego do not appear simultaneously. The id is already present at birth. The ego develops as the infants satisfy his needs with the interaction with the environment. Later years the superego develops as the custody of the rules and values of environment. Freud identifies several defense mechanisms which children, adolescents and adults use to excuse their difficulties or shortcoming and failure. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 1. Explain the stage concept of development 2. List five stage of Freudian theory of Psychosexual Development and describe any one of them with appropriate examples. You may wish to add more to the brief answer i). The stage concept of development means that development is divided into step like levels with clear-cut changes in behaviour occurring from one stage to the next. ii). The five Freudian Psychosexual stages of development are the oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency and gential stage. The Latency stage corresponds to the primary school years. At this stage, children suppress most of their infantile sexuality. They also become interested in games and sports. This stage encourages the formation of peer group. Both sexes engage themselves in learning skills and development of values. 3.7 Ego Defense Mechanisms Ego operates on reality principle. According to Freudian theory, ego defense mechanisms are activated when an individual confront serious anxiety and emotional conflict. They are mental devices used by individuals to protect themselves from distortion of reality. The most common defense mechanisms are projection, reaction formation, 28 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY rationalization, displacement, repression, denial, sublimation and regression. These defense mechanisms are used to protect the ego children develop as part of personality development. Projection defense mechanism occurs as an individual ascribes his unacceptable behaviour to others, to justify self defense. Reaction formation implies that an individual protects himself against recognizing aspect of his personality that he would find unacceptable by developing the opposite behaviour. For rationalization, an individual exhibits a convincing reason for doing something unacceptable. Displacement implies that the aggression tendency is redirected to a person. In repression an individual exhibits unacceptable impulse driven from conscious feelings of anxiety and guilt. Denial or regression occurs when an individual protects himself from unpleasant reality by not perceiving its existence; while sublimation, denotes where unacceptable drives are channeled into socially acceptable or creative activities. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 1. Identify and briefly explain three Freudian personality structures 2. List five ego defense mechanisms and describe any of them. You may include the following answers in addition The three Freudian personality structures are ‘id’, ego and superego. The id operates on pleasure principle and while the ego works on the reality principle. The superego operates on moral principle. The infant for instance has no knowledge of good or bad. Ego is the moderator of id and superego demand. For example, the behaviour of older children and adolescents is a result of the conflict of the id which insists on immediate satisfaction of wishes and the superego which insists the youth respect a set of moral values and standard. The five ego defense mechanisms are Projection, Reaction Formation, rationalization, displacement and sublimation.etc. In sublimation, the unacceptable drives are channeled into socially acceptable or creative activities. This implies that sublimation, unacceptable behaviour is repressed and becomes a socially acceptable manner. For instance if parent-child relationship are cooperative, children express their impulses in acceptable and satisfying ways. 4.0 CONCLUSION The Freudian stage theory of psychosexual development emphasize on progressive stages of child’s development as he experienced 29 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY psychosexual conflicts’ which are resolved through ego defense mechanism. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we have learnt that: i. the major progressive stages of psychosexual development of human beings ii. the psychosexual conflicts of children are protected by ego defense mechanisms 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT List and describe five major stages of psychosexual development. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Baller W. Rand Charles Don.C (1968). The Psychology of Human Growth and Development. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Thomas R. M. (1992). Comparing Theories of Child Development. California: Wadswoth Publishing Company. 30 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 2 BEHAVIOURISTIC LEARNING THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Learning Theories of Development 3.2 Define Learning Operant Conditioning 3.3 Classical Conditioning 3.4 Social Learning Theory 3.5 Contributions and Criticism of Stage Theory 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment. 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION You have learnt the stage theories of human development. Now we are going to describe the learning theories of the study of Human Development. There are many views of learning theories in the development of human beings. This will help you to understand that learning is a continuous process in which we modify our behaviour as we encounter success or failure in our environment. Theory is a molar approach to human development and behaviour. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:  identify the three major learning theories of human development  describe each one of them  outline their similarities and differences. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Learning Theories of Development Learning theories of Human Development otherwise known as Behaviouristic theories of human development. The learning psychologists see learning as communicative which build upon itself the main purpose of learning theories is to explain learning operations. Learning theories are rooted in a mechanistic orientation in which the model for all occurrences is the machine. Whereas Stage theories are 31 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY derived from one organistic orientation in which the underlying model is the biological organism and its activities; In this unit only three major learning theories will be discussed viz: operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner; classical conditioning by Iven P. Pavlov and social learning theory by Bandura. 3.2 Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning Theory of Human Development This theory will be discussed briefly. The operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner then will be emphasized Skinner was an American psychologist who represents a school of thought known as radical behaviourism. He believed that it is relevant and profitable to observe and identify factors that influence individuals’ behaviour. Skinner sees learning as a series of experiences which influences behavioural change in the same way that conditioning does. Here conditioning denotes the process by which conditioned responses are learned or acquired. For Skinner, each learning experience is a stimulus that produces a behavioural response. In operant or instrumental conditioning, the response must be made before a record is given or before an aversive stimulus is removed. in this regard, when an individual’s response is followed by a protein rein forcer or rehad, then there is a tendency for the individual to repeat the response. For example food serves as a positive rein forcer for a hungry child. Skinner conducted an experiment (with a hungry rat). He constructed a box and fitted the box with a lever. Skinner placed a hungry rat in the box with a or bar projected out with the food dish beneath it and higher bulb above the bar. In the box, the rat moves up ward and down restlessly and occasionally presses its paws upon the bar. The container with pellets of food is attached in such a way that as soon as the rat presses the bar a pellet of food falls into the dish. The rat eats and immediately presses the bar again. In the experiment, Skinner observed that the food reinforces bar-pressing, while the pressing response is instrumental in producing a rein forcer (food) which acts as a stimulus for response (Salivation). Thus, Skinner demonstrated the role of reinforcement in the Learning process. He concluded that the behaviour we develop as we grow up depend on the consequences that followed these behavours in future. 3.3 Classical Conditioning Theory of Ivan. P. Pavlov Whereas in instrumental conditioning the behaviour is emitted by the organism, and the association between emitted behaviour and the reinforcement is contingent upon behaviour. But in classical 32 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY conditioning, behaviour is elicited by stimulus and the association is between a stimulus elicited responses. The influential work of Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Psychologist is based upon the idea of classical conditioning. Briefly, Ivan Pavlov studies the salivation reflex in dogs in the presentation of a piece of meat. He discovered that by pairing the sound of a bell with the piece of meat, he established a new relationship between a stimulus (the sound of a bell) and a response (Salivation) that was not associated with one another. Note that the meat is the unconditioned stimulus and the saliva produced by the dog is the unconditioned response, while the striking of the bell is the conditioned stimulus. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Outline three differences between Operant and classical conditioning. You may expect the following answers in addition. Thus: i). In Operant conditioning, the behaviour is emitted by organism while in classical conditioning, behaviour is elicited by stimuli. ii). Operant and classical conditioning differ in terms of association, in operant conditioning the association is between the emitted behaviour and reinforcement applied while in classical conditioning, the association is between stimuli and elicited responses. iii). Operant conditioning exhibits an active form of learning while classical conditioning encourages passive learning 3.4 Social (Observational) Learning Theory Social Learning Theory emphasize on social variable as determinants of behaviour and personality. Albert Bandura, a Stanford University Psychologist was the proponent of social learning theory. Bandura’s position differs from Skinnerian (radical behaviourist) viewpoint and other traditional S-R theorists. For instance “a phenomenon skinnerians have difficulty explaining is the way a child acquires a new behaviour that the child never attempted before; the key steps involved in the process of learning from models, the way that consequences (reinforcement, punishment) influence future actions, and the development of complex behaviours (Thamos, 1992). Social Learning theorists like Bandura proposed that children learn through imitation or modeling on what they see and hear other people say and do. Bandura (1969) uses the word modeling along with the terms as observational learning and vicarious learning to mean that the 33 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY child adds to his repertoire of actions by seeing or hearing some-one else perform the behaviour rather than by overtly manifesting the behaviour himself. The new behaviours are learned initially through observing and imitating a model than through differential reinforcement. The models are classified as real-life, symbolic and representational. For example at home and school, real-life models for younger children are parents and relatives; and teachers and other persons in the community. Children also acquires symbolic model through the presentation of instructions and pictures especially in the school. A model presented by television is representational. Further, in the schools and homes much attention is given to exemplary models. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Discuss the importance of learning theories in human development and behaviour. 4.0 CONCLUSION This Unit highlighted some learning theories (operant and classical conditions and social learning theory) of human development and behaviour. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we have learnt The relevance of learning theories as they influence human developmental stages and behaviour. You have seen that psychologists usually see how instrumental conditioning and respondent conditioning influence a child’s development and behaviour while social learning theory emphasized how a child learn actively through imitation and modeling what he sees and hears other people say and do. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT In the course of your study, discuss how Learning theories contribute to human development and behaviour 34 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Blair G.M.; Jones R.S & Simpson R.H (1962). Educational Psychology. New York: Macmillan Company. Hurlock, E.B. (1959). Developmental Psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw: Hill Publishing Ltd. Zanden, Dames W.V. (1978). Human Development. New York: A Borzo. Book Publishers Ltd. 35 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF ERICK ERIKSON CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Developmental Stages 3.2 Trust versus Mistrust 3.3 Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt 3.4 Initiative versus Guilt 3.5 Industry versus Role Confusion 3.6 Indentity versus Role Confusion 3.7 Intimacy versus Isolation 3.8 Generativity versus Stagnation 3.9 Ego Integrity versus Despair 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In unit 1 of module 2, we have learnt Freudian theory of Psychosexual Development. Sigmund Freud concentrates on the sex instincts and focuses upon psychosexual development. Along this line, this unit will discuss stages of Erick Erikson psychosocial theory. Among the best known of the Neo-Freudian scholars is Erick Erickson’s. He pays more attention on the important socio-cultural determinants of human development. He agrees with Freud that people are born with basic instincts and that the personality has three components namely the id, ego and superego. Erikson (1972) stresses that children are active, adaptive explorers who seek to continue their environment rather than passive creatures who are molded by their parents. He also assumes that human beings are rational creatures whose thoughts, feelings and actions are largely controlled by the ego. Erikson has been known as an ego psychologist because he believes that an individual must first understand the realities of the social world (an ego function) in order to adapt successfully and show a normal pattern of personal growth (Shaffer, 1985). His primary concern is with psychosocial development but he did not clearly specify the types of experience that an individual must have in order to cope with and revolve psychosocial crises. Erikson also notes that individuals develop a “healthy personality” by mastering life’s outer 36 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY and inner dangers. Development follows the epigenetic principle which according to Erikson (1968) implies that anything that grow has a ground plan and out of this ground plan the parts arise, each having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole”. Fundamentally, Erikson believes that all human beings face eight major crises or conflicts during the course of their lives as they interact with their social environment. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:  identify and describe eight major stages of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development  Compare Freudian theory of psychosexual development and Erickson’s theory of psychosexual development. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Developmental Stages Erik Erikson observed that human beings follow a developmental Pattern throughout their lifetime. He formulated eight major stages of Development accompanied with crisis or conflicts during childhood, Adolescent hood and adulthood. Erikson identifies the stages as: i) Basic Trust versus Mistrust (birth – 1 year). ii) Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1 - 3 years) iii) Initiative versus Guilt (3 – 6 years) iv) Industry versus Inferiority (6 – 12 years) v) Identity versus Role Confusion (12 – 20 years) vi) Intimacy versus Isolation (20 – 40 years) vii) Generativity versus Stagnation (40 – 65 years) viii) Ego Integrity versus Despair (65 – death) These developmental stages from infancy to old age are associated with psychosocial crisis or conflicts, social setting and favourable outcome. Basically interaction takes place between an individual and social environment during each developmental stage which can change the course of personality either positively or negatively. 37 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 3.2 Trust versus Mistrust Basic Trust versus Mistrust Stage (oral - sensorial stage) of psychosocial development occurs predominantly during infancy. This stage relates to Freudian oral stage and Piagetian sensori motor stage. In the family, the mother breast – feeding baby develops trust with human affection, love and warmth. The deprivation of affection and love in infancy threatens the baby to turn into mistrust or a suspicious person. 3.3 Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt The Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt correspond to anal – muscular stage of psychosexual theory of Freud. This stage also corresponds to pre-operational stage (symbolic) of Piaget’s Cognitive developmental theory. The autonomy versus shame and doubt of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development fall within early childhood stage. Children at this stage become autonomous in their personal care, and explore their physical environment and reaffirm their autonomy in terms of self control. 3.4 Initiative versus Guilt The Initiative versus Guilt corresponds to psychomotor stage of Piaget and Phallic stage of Freud. Majority of children at this stage have finished their pre-primary school and start primary school according to Nigerian National Policy on Education (2004). Here children initiate activities or games with their peers having achieved physical autonomy. In this respect if the family and school environment are strict and inflexible, they may acquire undesirable feelings of guilt. 3.5 Industry versus Role Confusion The Industry versus Inferiority of developmental stage of psychosocial of Erickson corresponds to latency stage of Freudian theory of psychosexual development and concrete operational stage of Piaget. Children at this phase may have finished primary school and enter junior secondary school. Majority of children acquire a sense of mastery, competence and responsibility while in the school environment. In contrast, children tend to experience an inferiority complex when there is no acknowledge of the progress achieved. 3.6 Identity versus Role Confusion Erickson’s developmental stage of identity versus role confusion (Genital stage of Freud and Formal operations of Piaget) in fact correspond to puberty and adolescence stage with the age bracket of 12 38 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY to 18 years plus. Erickson made the greatest contribution to the study of identity in adolescence which he expressed as “identity crisis” Here the adolescent is in search of his own identity quiet different from his parents or from socio-cultural setting especially among his peer groups and out groups. At this stage the adolescent also tends to search for vocational identity among a variety of professions and specialties. He also exhibits sexuality identity, ideological identity and personal identity apart from vocational identity. The sexuality identity leads the adolescent to identify with adults, made or female which may cause problems for many teenagers (Melgosa, 2002) while ideological identity accounts for another dilemma the adolescent has to face. Teenagers cannot continue to blindly accept the parent’s or other influential adults’ ideologies (Melgosa, 2002). It is a search for personal identity. In regard, some resolve their problems early and others take years to do so. In this circumstance, failure in the identity search eventually brings role confusion in his belief, ideas, sexuality and career or vocation. 3.7 Intimacy versus Isolation Another developmental stage involves Intimacy versus Isolation (youth stage). The adolescent’s role confusion is shaped at this stage. He/she develops the ability to work toward a specific career accompanied with intimate relationship with friends. This is a stage of young adulthood where a man and a woman establish an intimate relationship which leads to mutual trust and healthy development. The failure of adolescents to establish interpersonal relationships can lead to isolation. 3.8 Generativity versus Stagnation The adulthood stage according to Erikson is associated with Generativity versus Stagnation of psychosocial crisis and healthy personality. The adults build up new family and work. They also contribute beyond their immediate families and to society through hard work as well as through the upbringing of their children and relatives, the adult’s failure to attain their developmental tasks and goals may lead them to stagnation or fixation. 3.9 Ego Integrity versus Despair At the old age, adults experience psychosocial crisis in terms of integrity versus despair as a result of retirement. The individuals at stage have retired this and accept life as it is and face his last days and death with dignity. Some of them acquire satisfaction in looking back upon their live. If the psychosocial crisis of the older individuals is not solved, dissatisfaction occurs when they are approaching the end of their lives 39 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY which leads to despair. Despair according to Erickson (1963) implies the feeling that the time is now short, too short for the attempt to start another life and to try out alternative roads to integrity. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Identify eight major stages of psychosocial development according to Erik Erikson and discuss any one of them. You may expect the following answers in addition: Eriksson’s eight stages of human development are: i) Basic Trust versus Mistrust (Infancy) ii) Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Early childhood) iii) Initiative versus Guilt (Middle childhood) iv) Industry versus Inferiority (late childhood) v) Identity versus role Confusion (Adolescenthood) vi) Intimacy versus isolation (Young Adulthood) vii) Generality versus stagnation (Middle Adulthood) viii) Integrity versus Despair (old age) Each crisis or stage is phrased as a struggle between two opposite or conflicting personality characteristics. The trait of trust vies for dominance over mistrust in the infant’s personality. This occurs between birth to 18 months. The trust versus mistrust personality developmental stage of Erickson correspond to Freudian, oral stage and Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (birth to two years). The predominant social setting is the family where the breast-feeding baby develops trust if it has hygienic and feeding care with human affection, love and warmth. The deprivation of love and affection, and warmth in infant threatens the baby to turn into mistrust or suspicious person. 4.0 CONCLUSION Erick Erickson, Danish psychologist of neo-Freudian psychoanalytic tradition identifies eight major psychosocial stages. Each psychosocial crisis or stage is phrased as a struggle between two opposite or conflicting personality characteristics throughout a person’s life span. 40 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we have learnt that: i). Erick Erickson, the Danish Ego Psychologist of psychoanalytic tradition concentrates on sociocultural determinants of human development. ii). Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development of an individual undergoes eight psychosocial crises. These crises are the trait of trust that vies for dominance over mistrust in the infant’s personality. The next stage, the trait of autonomy struggles for shame and doubt. The third stage is initiative versus guilt. The fourth stage is industry which vies for the ascendancy of inferiority. The fifth stage occurs during puberty and adolescence which is identity confronting role confusion. The sixth stage happens at youth stage which implies intimacy versus isolation, for positive or negative inter personal relationships. The seventh stage is known as generativity versus stagnation which occurs during adulthood. The eighth stage is the integrity which vies for despair as crisis. iii). Erickson made the greatest contribution to the study of identity in adolescence which he expressed as identity crisis. A basic task of the adolescent stage versus the search for vocational identity, personal identity, sexuality identity, and ideological identity. The solution of these crises contributes to the success of the stages. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1. Discuss psychosocial crisis of identity versus role confusion of puberty and adolescence with appropriate examples. 2. Identify two similarities and three differences between Freudian Psychosexual theory and Erickson’s psychosocial theory. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Melgosa, J. (2002). New to Lifestyle to Adolescents and Parents. Spain: Editorial Safeliz S.L. Shaffer, David R. (1985). Developmental Psychology: Theory, Research and Applications, California: Books/Cole Publishing Company Thomas, R. Murray (1992). Comparing Theories of Child Development. (3rd ed.). California: Wadsworth Inc. Zandan, James: W. Vander (1978). Human Development: New York: Borzo. Book Published – Alfred A. Knopt Inc. 41 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 4 COGNITIVE THEORY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. THE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT VIEW CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Basic Concepts in Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development 3.2 Piagetian Stages of Cognitive or Intellectual Development 3.2.1 Sensorimotor Stage 3.2.2 Pre-operational Stage 3.2.3 Concrete Operational Stage 3.2.4 Formal Operational Stage 3.3 Implications for Human Development – Contribution and Criticism of Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In units, 1, 2, and 3 of Module 2, we have learnt four major theories of human development, the Freudian psychosexual stages of human development; the psychosocial stages of development by Erik Erickson; and learning theories. The Sigmund Freud, Erik Erickson and Jean Piaget among others see development as separated into stages. They are known as major stage theorists of human development. The stage concept implies that development occurs in step like fashion with clear – cut changes in behaviour which consistently involves one stage to the next. In this unit, you will learn a giant of 20th century psychology known as Jean Piaget who focused on the occurrence of changes in the child’s mode of thought which gave rise to Piaget’s cognitive stages of development. Jean Piaget believes that cognitive development involves the interaction of heredity and environmental experiences. This unit will briefly discuss Jean Piaget’s cognitive stages of human development. 42 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:  explain certain concepts in the cognitive stages in Development of Piaget. (Shemas, assimilation, accommodation, equilibrium etc).  describe Piagetian cognitive stages of human development. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Basic Concepts in Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. Piaget assumes that intelligence is made up of two divisions namely functional invariants and structure. The functional invariants are of two types known as organization and adaptation. He further grouped adaptation into two processes namely accommodation and assimilation. The next word Piaget used is schemas (singular schemata). Piaget believes that intelligence works through the terms mentioned. Basically organisation and adaptation are inborn intellectual functions of cognitive structures. Organisation is “the process by which a child combines existing schema into new and more complex intellectual structures” or bodies of knowledge (Shaffer, 1985). A schema is a logically organized pattern of thought or action that one constructs to interpret some aspect of one’s experiences. Piaget believes that a child is born with a number of reflection schemata. Piaget (1977) described three kinds of intellectual or cognitive structures as behavioural schemata, symbolic schemata and operational schemata. The behaviour schemata are organized patterns of behaviour that are used to represent and respond to objects and experiences (Shaffer, 1985, Zanden, 1978, and Gardner, 1978). The symbolic schemata imply that the child is capable of representing actions mentally to satisfy his/her objectives. The internal mental symbols (images or verbal codes) are used to help child to represent aspects of experience. The operational schemata imply that a child performs on his or her objects of thought through a cognitive operation that include mental activities such as actions implied in mathematical symbols. The goal of organisation is to advance the adaptive function. Adaptation is the aspect of intelligence which organizes the interaction between the individual and environment. It is a process of adjusting to the demands of the environment. Adaptation also occurs when the process of assimilation and accommodation are balanced. According to Piaget, 43 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY adaptation occurs through two complementary activities of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the psychological process by which the child understands the new information or interprets new experiences in relation to the existing scheme which is integrated into cognitive structures – assimilation. Piaget believes that as we assimilate new experiences, we will also accommodate such experiences. Accommodation as cognitive structure and complement of assimilation is the process of modifying existing schemas (old schemas) or structures in order to account for new experiences (or new schemas). Every assimilation of schemata involves an accommodation to that schema (mental model) or experience. Everyday children are repeatedly assimilating new schemata and accommodating their cognitive structure to those experiences. The total process of assimilation and accommodation for maintaining intellectual balance at all age levels in Piagetian theory of cognitive development is called equilibration. According to Piaget, cognitive development is marked by altering states of equilibrium and disequilibrium. 3.2 Piagetian Stages of Cognitive or Intellectual Development Piaget asserts that intelligence unfolds in four distinct stages or periods between early childhood and adolescence namely: a. The sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) b. The preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), c. The stage of concrete operations (7 to 11 years) and d. The stage of formal operations (11 years to 21 years) 3.2.1 Sensorimotor Stage The sensorimotor stage maintained that children are relying on behavioural schemata as a means of exploring and understanding the environment. Sensorimotor child is characterized by sense of perception and vocalization. At the preoperational stage, the child is thinking at a symbolic level but the logical thoughts are not yet, developed. Piaget divided this stage or period into the pre-conceptual stage or pre-logical stage which lies between two to four years and the intuitive reasoning stage or the perceptional operation stage from four to seven years. In our review of this level of pre-operation thought, we need to understand what Piaget meant by operations. Operations, in Piaget’s system, are ways of manipulating objects in relation to each other. These 44 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY manipulations of objects may be according to size or colour etc. The manipulations of objects can be concrete operations (Physical manipulation) or formal operations (mental manipulation). The Pre- conceptual child (2 to about 4) is characterized by egocentric use of language and heavy dependence on perception in problem solving (Thomas 1992). Here the child’s talk is social communication i.e asking parents to reach a toy he cannot get or telling mother he wants to go to the toilet etc. The child also increases the use of symbols with causal relationships and develops conservative concepts. Piaget at this stage identified logical mathematical experience as another interactive experience with the physical world. 3.2.2 Pre-Operational Stage The intuitive period or stage of pre-operational (from age 4 to age 7) is marked by more social or communicative speech and greater dependence or intuitive thinking rather than just on perception. This stage marks the movement toward greater decent ration. The child is able to see more than one factor at a time that influences an event (Piaget, 1969). The mental activities which are necessary for schooling begin to develop various kinds of conservation as quantity, length, number etc and by appearance; density and seriate objects in order and size starting with the smallest to the largest etc. 3.2.3 Concrete Operational Stage The next stage of Piagetian cognitive development is the concrete operational stage (about 7 years to 12 years). The concrete operations stage emphasized the children capability of performing operations that are directly related to objects. Children can now conserve, classify, seriate, decentre, accommodate and participate in the most of the things required of them at school. Piaget noted that one of most significant characteristics of cognitive activity at the concrete operations stage (Grinder 1978) children’s achievement in number, mass, weight and so on. Children at this stage increase in knowledge and skills and decrease in egocentrism or self-centredness. 3.2.4 Formal Operational Stage Finally the next stage of Piaget’s cognitive development is the formal operations stage (about age 11 to age 15 plus). This stage according to Jean Piaget is the cognitive development in adolescents and relationship with other developmental and cultural phenomena. The term formal is used by Piaget because adolescence at this level of thinking possesses the ability to consider the possible, and therefore, is 45 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY able to reason about the form of an argument apart from its contents (Manaster, 1977). The formal operational child will manipulate relations between relations to work with proportion, correlations and probability. Here the child becomes capable of logical thinking with abstractions. He /she acquires higher order operations which imply applying abstract concepts and hypothetical events to his / her problems. Basically the adolescents can accept assumptions, hypothesis and laws for problem solving. Manaster emphasized that the adolescent at this stage makes use of the hypothetico – deductive method of reasoning indicating “formal thought begins with a theoretical synthesis. This implies that certain relations are necessary and thus proceeds in the opposite direction. 3.3 Implications for Human Development – Contribution and Criticism of Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory The Piagetian theory of cognitive development has a lot implication for teacher–interns and professional teachers” in the field. The teacher should apply the step like arrangement of the theory to provide effective teaching and learning. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Explain the following key concepts in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development:- a. Organisation b. Adaptation c. Accommodation d. Assimilation e. Schema You may include the following answers accordingly: In Piaget’s cognitive development theory, organisation is the process by which a child combines existing schema into new and more complex cognitive structures or bodies of knowledge. Organisation within the child’s innate tendency ensures that all schemas are properly interrelated and adjusted to each other to form an integrated self. In Piaget’s theory, adaptation as aspect of cognitive structures is the interaction between the individual and the demands of his/her environment. It also occurs when the process of assimilation and 46 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY accommodation are balance. According to Piaget, adaptation occurs through two complementary activities of assimilation and accommodation respectively. Assimilation is the psychological process by which the child understands the new information or interprets new experiences in relation to the existing held schema (mental model) of the world. Piaget believes that as we assimilate new experiences (new information), we will also accommodate these experiences. In Piagetian cognitive development theory, accommodation as cognitive structure and complement of assimilation in the process of modifying existing schemas (old schemas) or structures in order to match new schemas or new experiences to the world of reality. Every child is repeatedly assimilating new schema and accommodating his cognitive structures to these experiences. Schemata are a central concept in Piagetian theory. The schemata are the cognitive structure that a child evolves for dealing with specific kinds of situation in his /her environment. It is logically organized thought or action that a child constructs to interpret some aspects of his/her experiences. Piaget believes that a child is born with a number of reflective schemata. She identified three kinds of intellectual or cognitive structures as behavioural schemata; Symbolic schemata and operational schemata. 4.0 CONCLUSION Piaget believes that intellectual growth proceeds through step like stages which determines maturational readiness. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit we have learnt that: i) Piaget’s work concentrated on the cognitive stages in development. ii) He describes children as active that explores knowledge (schemata) and modify these cognitive structures through the processes of organization and adaptation. iii) Schema is an organized pattern of thought or action that the child constructs to interpret his/her experiences or cognitive structure iv) Organization is the process by a child rearranges his existing knowledge into schemata. v) Adaptation comprises of two complementary activities namely assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation in Piaget’s theory 47 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY is the process by which the child attempts to match new experiences to existing schemata (old schemata). Accommodation implies the process of modifying existing schemata in response to new experiences or schemata. vi) Equilibrium in Piagetian theory is a balance between the processes of assimilation and accommodation. vii) The key concepts of Piaget’s theory are schemata, assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium and they find expression in the four developmental stages of Piagetian theory. The sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage (the pre-logical stage and intuitive operation stage); the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage. The sensorimotor stage (0 – 2 years) maintained that children are relying on behavioural schemata as a means of exploring and understanding the environment. The preoperational stage (2-4 years) involves the child’s thinking at symbolic levels. It is subdivided into pre-conceptual stage (pre-logic stage 2 – 4yrs) and the intuitive reasoning stage (4 to 7yrs). The pre- conceptual child is characterized by egocentric use of language and heavy dependence or perception in solving problems. The intuitive stage is marked by more social or communicative speech and intuitive thinking or reasoning’ and greater decent ration. The concrete operational stage (7 to 12 yrs plus) is marked by manipulation of objects. Children at this stage can conserve, classify, seriate, decentre, accommodate and participate fully in most of the activities in primary schools. The formal operations stage (12 to age 15 plus)is also marked with logical thinking with abstractions among adolescents. The adolescent makes use of the hypothetico- deductive methods of reasoning. He / she can accept assumption, hypothesis and laws of problem solving. (ix) The Piagetian theory of cognitive development has a lot of implications to the teacher interns and teachers in the school system whether pre-primary, primary and secondary schools. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT List and describe Piagetian stages of cognitive development theory. 48 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Shaffer, R. David (1985). Developmental Psychology Theory, Research and Applications. California Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Gardner, H. (1978). Developmental Psychology: An Introduction. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Thomas, R. Murray (1968). Comparing Theories of Child Development. (3rd ed.). California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Piaget, J. and Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the Child. New York: Basic Books. 49 PED221 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 3 PHASES/STAGE OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT (THE LIFE SPAN) Unit 1 Prenatal Development Unit 2 Neonatal Development/Infancy Unit 3 The Concept and Nature of Childhood Development 1 Unit 4 Adolescence Stage Unit 5 Adulthood Development UNIT 1 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Biological Determinants of Human Development 3.2 Prenatal Development 3.3 Stages of Prenatal Development 3.4 Factors Affecting Prenatal Development 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summar

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