Psyc 185 Exam 3 Notes PDF

Piaget’s developmental stage Age Stage Description Birth to 2 yrs old Sensorimotor Infants’ achievements consist largely of coordinating their...

Piaget’s developmental stage Age Stage Description Birth to 2 yrs old Sensorimotor Infants’ achievements consist largely of coordinating their sensory perceptions and simple motor behaviors. As they move through the six substages of this period, infants come to recognize the existence of a world outside themselves and begin to interact with it in deliberate ways. Object permanence – 4-8 months 2 to 6 yrs old Preoperational Young children can represent reality to themselves through the use of symbols, including mental images, words, and gestures. Still, children often fail to distinguish their point of view from that of others, become easily captured by surface appearances, and are often confused about causal relations. 6 to 12 yrs old Concrete operational As they enter middle childhood, children become capable of mental operations, internalized actions that fit into a logical system. Operational thinking allows children to mentally combine, separate, order, and transform objects and actions. Such operations are considered concrete because they are carried out in the presence of the objects and events being thought about. 12 and up Formal operational In adolescence, the developing person acquires the ability to think systematically about all logical relations within a problem. Adolescents display keen interest in abstract ideas and in the process of thinking itself. CHAPTER 10 — contexts of development I. Family context Family = first & most important influence; dynamic ○ surrounding environments influence parenting syle ○ child’s microsystem ○ dynamic system —> complex networks of relationship styles; interactions changes beatrice & john whiting = differences in family life influence child development ○ Gusii, kenya vs. Americans, new england (orchard town) ○ children of industrialized societies = less nurturing and responsible since they’re mostly at school II. Biocultural origins of family Developmentalist term: family structure = how family is organized socially ○ Nuclear family = consist of parents & their children ○ extended family = parents, children, grandparents, cousins, aunts, uncles etc. family and culture ○ Philippe Aries —> nuclear fam is private structure unique to modern societies large migrations transformed families from extended to nuclear ○ extended family link to dealing with low income and social standing family and evolution ○ extended fam provide resources: food, income, child care, and help maintaining household allocaregiving = child care and protection provided by group members other than parents increase of mothers giving birth networks of allocaregivers — cooperative breeding = networks of support in which non-parental individuals contribute resources toward rearing the young ○ delayed maturation —> by-product of brain evolution; we have long childhoods because we grow big brains III. Parenting practices parenting goals ○ Robert Levine 3 major goals shared by parents universally survival goal: ensuring child’s survival by providing for their health and safety economic goal: ensuring child acquire skills and other resources needed to be economically productive adults (tutoring etc.) cultural goal: ensuring child acquire basic cultural values of the group The way parents raise the child reflects the extent to which local ecology threatens any of these goals  e.g. places where children’s survival is threaten (indonesia), parents focus on keeping their children on their bodies industrialized societies —> education is crucial to earning a living wage —> focus on “school readiness” ○ No-sense parenting = mix of high parental control (punishment) and warmth; esp african american single mothers african americans and mexican americans protective response to treats parenting styles ○ 3 key dimensions: emotional warmth = sensitive & responsive to needs; caring behavioral control = efforts to control/monitor behaviors rules - no phone, standards - kind, helpful, limits - curfew autonomy support = extent to which parents support & respect child’s feelings & needs ”adolescent autonomy” ○ Diana Baumrind —> parenting styles Authoritative demanding but reciprocal favor reasoning encourage independence Authoritarian demanding & controlling punishment over reasoning stress obedience over independence; manipulation Permissive undemanding & little control allow children learn through experience neither independence nor obedience neglectful Little to no demand or control learning through neglect Emotionally distant ○ Heidi Keller —> comparing 2 countries on parenting styles germany vs. india germany = independece, personal freedom & autonomy india = interdependence of family & social connections IV. Role of siblings positive and negative aspects; influential in one another’s development ○ provide each other with models of how to act ○ pos: warmth & intimacy —> emotional understanding & sharing ○ neg: later adjustment problems relationships ○ siblings as peers —> sharing, friends  ○ “” caregiver —> power & influence ○ “” rivals —> competition ○ “” teachers —> social skills children exposed to trauma have high levels of sibling rivalry V. Family diversity Immigrant families ○ emphasize EDUCATION ○ “Ideologies of opportunity” & “cultures of optimism” Parents believe new life in new country = increase opportunities for their children ○ Carola Suarez —> “Americanization” of foreign-born children —> exposed to racism & peer influence = undermine initial sense of optimism & regard for education ○ familism = sense of obligation, common in Hispanic families 1. Structural dimension: extended rather than nuclear; marriage & childbearing is earlier 2. Behavioral dimension: actions for family obligations; economic & social support 3. Attitudinal dimension: values & attitudes emphasizing family loyalty & solidarity Single-Parent families —> sole breadwinner, caregiver, & house manager ○ Behavioral, social, academic problems quality of home environment is lower ○ not single parent but other factors correlating with single-parenthood Critical factors: exposure to poverty & family instability Children likely experienced family instability —> divorce or remarriage John Kesner & patrick McKenry =no differences betw single and two parent in ethnicity or socioeconomic status African Americans support single parents & attach less stigma Sexual Minority ○ diverse VI. Distressed families —> facing social, economic, and/or psychological challenges Fam in Poverty ○ Poverty vs. children’s well being early exposure —> greater challenge esp academic achievement Risk for mental health Jane Costello —> decrease in risk when families go above poverty line physical health probelms environmentally induced illness  rundown housing w/ deteriorating lead paint = lead poisoning Child-rearing Dangerous circumstances —> harsher & controlling parents ○ housing quality & health care, access to education, recreational facilities, safety ○ food insecure = no access to enough food for good health Fam w/ teen moms ○ children w unmarried teen moms —> more aggressive, less self-control, less intellectual ○ young moms less prepared & little interest for child-rearing Limited to financial resources less intellectually mature —> affect parenting Abusive fam ○ “maltreatment” in different cultures —> what is deemed appropriate & inappropriate treatment of children varies spanking ○ why abuse their child? parents victims of child abuse stress — poverty, job loss, divorce, social isolation young, poorly educated, alcohol abuse family affluence/wealth ○ Suniya Luthar & Bronwyn Becker Kids in wealthy communities —> high levels of depression, esp among girls, & substance abuse; bullies ○ wealthy children —> high pressure to achieve VII. Nonparental child care home child care = nanny in their own homes caregiving (grandma etc.) ○ children younger than 5 yrs old ○ Pros: flexibility, child comfort, normal routine, same person ○ Cons: expensive, socialization, training is variable (nanny) family child care = care at someone else’s home ○ pros: increase socialization, family environment, new setting ○ cons: low flexibility, low training Child-care centers = care in center/school supervised by licensed professionals ○ before 8 months (object permanence) ○ pros: high socialization, regulations ○ Cons: ratio - child/caregiver, transition, caregiver turnover, quality ○ PUT PHOTO HERE FROM THE TEXTBOOK VIII. Developmental effects of child care physical & intellectual effects ○ socializing = high risk for infections ○ stress Children’s time —> high levels of salivary cortisol = poorer executive functioning in daycare  ○ low SES children prevent/lessed decline in intellectual performance Social & emotional development ○ children in child-care —> self-sufficient & independent, verbally expressive, knowledgeable about social world, comfortable in new situations ○ importance of warm, responsive caregivers ○ negative: children more oppositional & aggressive when entering school at 6 Neighborhoods & communities —> micro affected by elements of exosystem social capital = resources that communities provide to children & fam; school, health service, social structure, expectations for behavior, & levels of trust & cooperation IX. Community & culture Donna Marie San Antonio —> study of children from 2 neighboring ○ 2 communities differ on what a good life ○ different sets of beliefs & values reflected in children’s language & social interaction X. Distressed communities economic disadvantage neighborhoods affect children’s development & well-being, above effects of income levels ○ Lower SES in poor housing vs. Lower SES in better housing poor house —> greater risk for emotional, academic physical & social disorder ○ Neighborhood physical disorder = physical deterioration ( garbage on streets, rundown buildings) and chaotic activity (crowding, high noises) ○ Social disorganization = weak social cohesion (trust betw people), poor neighborhood climate (lvl of fear related to crime & violence), perceived racism poor parent-child relationships, reduced parental warmth & high conflict XI. Media contexts media = mass communication; newspaper, magazine, radio ○ bet ages 11 & 14 — media usage 8 ½ hours typical day ○ 2 issues: (affects on development) physical form content Print Media ○ children’s literature —> foster intellectual development & “school readiness” ○ certain types of literature’s is more appealing & effect on children's emotional development Bruno Bettelheim  fairy tales include symbolic representations of universal childhood anxieties ○ Need for children to find solutions to their own inner conflicts & fears therapeutic device Television ○ between birth & 6 years = almost 1 hour of television each day ○ between 8 & 10 = under 4 hours per day ○ making sense of TV sounds etc. preoperational thinking —> young children have difficulty understanding reality status of what they see on TV failure to comprehend fast paced scenes ○ Content: violence — amount of violent TV —> problems with acting aggressively & victimized by bullies Jamie Ostrov = children who watched the most TV more engage in prosocial behavior social stereotypes music videos —> hold more traditional attitudes toward gender roles ‘ ethnic minorities underrepresented & misrepresentation Interactive Media ○ computer games — cognitive skills, divided attention, spatial imagery ○ stimulate emotional responses ○ increase usage —> decrease socialization ○ positive aspects: encourages self-disclosure (relate w/ intimacy) = sharing personal information ○ negative: family relationships — less sharing ○ Content: violent video games —> link w/ increase aggression & antisocial behavior Likely to engage problem behaviors Repeated = desensitization being rewarded (points, next level) CHAPTER 12: SCHOOL AS CONTEXT FOR DEVELOPMENT I. Contexts of learning 3 fundamental social process: ○ Social enhancement – using resources present in the environment ○ Imitation – observing & copying behaviors of others ○ Explicit instruction – deliberate teaching & knowledge of skills; can happen anywhere  Formal education = most structure; adults instruct children in specialized knowledge & skills of their culture Apprenticeship = working with an adult for an extended period of time ○ Large web of family relationships Formal vs. Informal — setting ○ formal: school setting ○ informal: home, playground, museum Traditional apprenticeship vs. formal edu: ○ 1. Motivation: apprentice — begin practicing their craft immediately; see results of their work early Students — must wait years to apply skills ○ 2. Social relations apprentice — taught by masters, often family or community members students — taught by teachers ○ 3. Social organizations apprentice — learn in work setting w/ diverse ages & skill levels; multiple sources of assistance students — peers of similar age; rely on one teacher; individual work ○ 4. Medium of instruction apprentice — oral instruction students — oral instruction written symbols; emphasis on literacy types of problems: everyday vs. school ○ School problem = support abstract reasoning ○ everyday problem = support reasoning based on concrete experience II. School Readiness Precursor to learning to read, write & math — idea that preschool has skills developed already ○ Emergent literacy = knowledge, skills, attitudes for learning to read & write pretend to write or read, holding a book, scribbling, understanding objects mean something ○ Emergent Numeracy = “ “ learning to do math understand which words reflect larger amount, number words Reading & writing  ○ Decoding = unit of print (graphemes), to unit of sounds (phonemes) distinguish between letters — constituent syllables phonological awareness = sound system —>important for reading ”rabbit” = “R” —> Er learning Mathematics ○ Process of translation # of words & symbols mapping symbols to quantities —> 2 to 3 yrs of age 1 to 1 correspondence ○ # of errors - important numbers have special language diff. Number correspond to diff. Quantities sequence of words matter in counting ○ language spoken in different environments ○ ^ more math experience = envision quantities in a mental number line manipulation of numeric units only emerge in deliberate instruction III. Role of Family Family’s role — support children literacy & numeracy development thru toys, games, activities promotes school-readiness skills (math, reading, writing) Jonathan Tudge — compared 3 yrs olds in U.S, Kenya, Brazil ○ middle-class = more academically oriented play (counting, spellings) ○ working-class (kenya) = “world lessons” & work-related activities (cleaning, repairing) being read to at 14 months improves language comprehension, vocabulary size, cognitive function (by age 2) Helen Raikes — “snowball” effect = reading & vocabulary lead to more reading & language-learning opportunities IV. Preschools origins: to protect chi;dren from urban life’s challenges ○ Designed to address developmental needs & levels 1960s “war on poverty” & Head Start ○ Project Head Start = purpose: intervene cycle of poverty at crucial time in children’s lives federally supported —> free for low-income families 3 crucial assumptions: environment —> poverty-level homes are insufficient to prepare child success in school Social mechanism —> school enables societal success overcome poverty —> extra assistance success depends on classroom quality Perry Preschool Progran ○ higher achievement scores ○ increased high school graduation & employment rates  ○ reduced criminal activity & welfare dependency Barriers to preschool participation: economic, cultural, & systemic V. In the classroom Social organizarion in the classroom ○ Bottom-up processing = starts w/ basic skills, once mastered, then move to more complex task ○ top-down processing = using skills to accomplish tasks Standard classroom ○ teacher = authority figure; students = passive listeners ○ Use of instructional discourse = way of talking & thinking typically in school but rarely in everyday interaction in community or home “known-answer questions” — “what does this word say?” ○ Criticism: limited opportunities for independent problem-solving Alternative forms ○ reciprocal teaching combines bottom-up & top-down processing, through small group discussions KEY: asking questions, summarizing, clarifying, predicting based on vygotsky’s zone of proximal development comprehension ○ Realistic Mathematics education focus on conceptual understanding & real-world application of math 4 features: Using meaningful activities: contextualized math problems; make-believe situations (bus conductor, passengers) Basic skill support: different ways to represent total (4+4=8, or 6+2=8) use of models: “arithmetic rack” group collab, reaosning & problem-solving ○ Playworld practice play, art, and literature into learning — representation of the world Sonia Baumer — children enacting scenes from The Lion, The Witch, & the Wardrobe: 5-7 yrs role-play, drawing, costume = improved language skills (comprehension, storytelling) VI. Barriers to school success Specific Learning Disabilities = academic difficulties despite normal IQ ○ Diagnosis methods: 1. Severe discrepancy (SD) — gap between intellectual functioning (IQ) and academic performance (grades)  2. Response to intervetion (RTI) = Lack of improvement after targeted interventions 3. Patterns of strenghts & weaknesses (PSW) — Discrepant scores on cognitive tests (e.g strong spatial reasoning but weak reading comprehension) ○ examples of SLD: dyslexia: difficulty reading (phonological processing issue) test: pseudoword reading to assess phonological processing dyscalculia: difficulty with math due to quantitative IQ ; but verbal IQ is high dysgraphia: issues w/ writing, spelling, & expressing thoughts on paper, poor handwriting Motivation to learn ○ academic motivation = ability to try hard & persist at school task ○ 2 approaches to school task: mastery orientation = goals of learning, try hard, & improvement optimistic, persistent, adnvanced stategies “I can do it if i try harder next time” or “how do i better understand the concept?” incremental intelligence model performance orientation = goals of performance, ability, incentives Avoid challenges, gives up after failure Entity intelligence model “What can i do to get a better grade?” ○ Models of intelligence entity model = intelligence is fixed; either smart or not leads to avoidance of failure, hopelessness, and lower achievement incremental model = intelligence can grow with effort; can do it but not good at it “yet” School engagement = thoughts, behaviors, & emotions about school & learning ○ dimensions: school liking/avoidance — enjoys school, complaints about school, enjoys classroom activities (participation) cooperative/resistant classroom participation — follows teacher requests, rule-breaking, defiance ○ high engagement —> higher academic success ○ resistance/avoidance = risk of academic problems VII. Cognitive consequences of schooling school-cutoff strategy = comparing intellectual performance of children in same age but begin school a year apart (before/after age cutoff) ○ Younger starters score lower on achievement tests (4th & 8th grade) & likely to repeat grades ○ long-term disadvantages, lower chances of attending college  School-non school comparisons = compares schooled vs. non schooled in cognitive development areas ○ Logical thinking — no effects ○ memory — schooling improves memory for strategies, clustering, rehearsal but not for capactiy daniel wagner ○ metacognitive — schooled child develops reflective thinking of thought process & language VIII. Second-generation impact of schooling Literate mothers contribute to ○ lower infant mortality, better health & higher achievement ○ skills, habits mother acquire in school 1. Ability to understand written texts & engage discussions about health/education involving child 2. Use of teaching & learning models 3. Willingness to acquire & accept information from gov agencies about child health & development cognitive gains, effect work in one of 3 ways: ○ 1. Increasing child’s knowledge base, including language use ○ 2. Teaching specific information-processing strategies relevant to school itself ○ 3. Changing child’s overall life situations & attitudes —> later passed on to their children (child-rearing practices) IX.Contemporary Challenges in a Globalizing World Challenges in Education Access to Quality Education: ○ Disparities by country, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. 2. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: ○ Rising numbers of immigrant families with diverse languages and cultures. ○ Immigrant children are often overrepresented among students with academic difficulties. The Culture of School 1. Cultural Style: ○ Individualistic (Independence): Emphasizes personal goals and achievements. Example: U.S. schools reward individual academic success. ○ Collectivist (Interdependence): Emphasizes group harmony and social networks. 2. Conflicts Between Home and School Cultures: ○ Children from interdependent backgrounds may struggle with school’s individualistic focus.  ○ Example: Mexican immigrant students face stress balancing family obligations and school demands. 3. Parental Involvement and Success: ○ Example: Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian refugee children thrived due to strong parental involvement (e.g., reading to children in native languages). Cultural Mismatch and Academic Performance 1. African American Children: ○ Use expressive movement for communication. ○ Perform better in classrooms incorporating active storytelling (e.g., clapping, dancing) (Boykin & Cunningham, 2001). 2. Language Use in Homes and Schools (Heath, 1983): ○ European American Teachers’ Families: Frequent use of instructional discourse at home. Encouraged linking stories to personal experiences. ○ European American Textile Workers: Focused on literal text meaning; no encouragement to connect to broader experiences. ○ African American Families: Encouraged thinking about personal experiences and roles but less exposure to school-like language patterns. Culturally Responsive Classroom Strategies 1. General Approach: ○ Incorporate home language and cultural practices into the curriculum. ○ Programs like bilingual education and heritage language classes support transitions for English Language Learners (ELLs). 2. Examples of Culturally Responsive Practices: ○ Odawa Classroom (Erickson & Mohatt, 1982): Group-oriented teaching aligned with Odawa norms (e.g., no public criticism, group praise). ○ African American High School Students (Lee, 2010): Taught literary analysis using cultural familiarity with signifying (innuendo and witty dialogue). Result: Improved literary understanding and engagement. Chapter 6: Social & Emotional Development in Infancy Nature of Infant Emotions & Emotional Expressions Emotion = a feeling state involving a physiological response & cognitive evaluation emotion regulation = to control emotions Features:  ○ Physiological aspect — heart rate, breathing, sweat, hormonal fucntioning ○ communicative function — facial expression, vocalizations ○ cognitive — how we appraise what’s happening to us ○ action — emotions are source of action; joy = laugh or cry, scared = we withdraw Basic emotions = universally experienced in all cultures & present in babies ○ Joy, Anger, Interest, Disgust, Surprise, Sadness, Fear I.Theories of Emotional Development 2 approaches to theories: ○ Etic approach = you as the observer; universal aspects of behavior ○ Emic approach = behavior in specific cultural contexts; individual differences differential emotion theory — Carol Izard ○ definition: basic emotions are innate, universal, emerge in adult form at birth or timetable ○ universal facial expressions recognized across cultures ○ emotional development —> brain maturation ○ emotions serve adaptive purposes: biological: protection & eliciting care cultural: social connections Emotions as Ontogenetic adaptations ○ definition: emotions evolved for survival & development ○ emotional expression & infant-caregiver interaction ○ Smiling: endogenous smiles (0-2 months) — related to internal, physiological states social smiles (2-3 months) — response to and eliciting social interactions ○ emotional development —> continuous & context-dependent Emotions as socialized in cultural contexts ○ Emic approach individualistic cultures = encourage positive emotions & individuality (germany) collectivist = value calmness & discourage intense emotions (Gusii of Kenya) ○ Infants biologically expresses basic emotions — parents/caregivers biologically primed to response to infanI II.Infant Emotions and Social Interaction Primary Intersubjectivity —> “the dance” ○ mom & baby looking at each other; focused on emotional connection ○ E.g. baby mimics/response ○ Breakdown of synchrony (e.g., still-face experiments) leads to negative infant responses. Secondary Intersubjectivity ○ Mom & baby looking at another object together e.g. Mom points to a plane —> baby shifts gaze  ○ major turning point —> sharing one’s thoughts, feelings, & expectations about the world Experimental Disruptions in Synchrony: ○ Still-Face Method = Parent holds neutral face; infant reacts with distress Stop smiling, cry show distress maternal depression ○ Delayed Transmission = Misaligned visual/audio cues via TV monitors disrupt synchrony ○ both experiment investigate intersubjectivity Maternal Depression: ○ Depressed mothers are less sensitive to infants’ emotional cues. ○ Infants of depressed mothers may disengage to avoid stress, linked to later anxiety and conduct disorders. Pouting = early form of emotion regulation; controls distress ○ Signals need for comfort before crying begins III.Intersubjectivity & the Brain mirror neurons = brain cells that fire when seeing or hearing action; active during imitations ○ infants imitate facial actions from birth ○ Imitation builds emotional connection & sense of agency imitation ○ Young infants enjoy imitative games, fostering social and emotional connections ○ By 14 months — modify behaviors to engage adults in imitation games First Emotional Relationships IV.Theories of Attachment Attachment = emotional bond children form with caregivers at ~7 to 9 months ○ 4 signs of attachment in babies & young children 1. Seek to be near primary caregiver; after 8-7 months → follow caregivers 2. Show distress if separated from caregiver 3. Happy when reunited w/ person whom they’re attached 4. Orient their actions to caregiver; Freud’s Drive-Reduction Theory ○ Humans motivated by biological drives → impulse to attempt satisfy essential physiological needs Attachment forms due to the caregiver satisfying biological needs (e.g., hunger). ○ Harry Harlow’s studies with monkeys showed attachment is more about comfort than feeding — contradicted Freud’s theory Infant monkeys preferred terry cloth “mothers” over wire “mothers” that provided food. John Bowlby’s Ethological Theory  ○ Detachment = state of indifference; when child separated from caregiver for extended period of time & have not form stable relationship ○ Attachment is biologically driven for survival. ○ Infants show innate behaviors (e.g., clinging, crying) that promote attachment ○ Harlow’s Studies: Monkeys preferred cloth mother for comfort, supporting Bowlby. ○ Primary intersubjectivity → absence of sensitive & responsive social partner interfered w/ infant-mother emotional relationship V.Bowlby’s Four Phases of Attachment Preattachment Phase (Birth to 6 weeks) ○ No discrimination; no distress w/ unfamiliar people ○ Infants remain close to caregivers but don't protest when left with others. Attachment-in-the-Making (6 weeks to 6–8 months) ○ Discrimination of familiar & unfamiliar people ○ Infants begin to show preference for familiar caregivers. Clear-Cut Attachment (6–8 months to 18–24 months) ○ Caregiver (mother) as a secure base for exploration ○ Separation anxiety when caregiver leaves Reciprocal Relationship (18–24 months and older) ○ Develop a partnership with caregiver; share responsibility for maintaining contact ○ Secure during separation due to growing symbolic capacities ○ Form an internal working model of relationships Internal working model = mental model children construct resulting from experiences w caregivers & guide their interactions w/ caregivers & oyhers VI.Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth’s Strange Situation) Strange situation = assess children’s attachment to their mothers ○ Parents present; play w child → stranger comes in & sits → parent leaves room; stranger remains → child distressed → parent returns comfort; stranger leaves → parent leaves; baby alone → stranger comes in &  comforts child → parent returns Attachment style: Ainsworth ○ Secure Attachment (65%) Use mother as a secure base  Distressed when she leaves; comforted upon return ○ Avoidant Attachment (23%) Indifferent to mother's presence. May not be distressed when she leaves; avoid upon return ○ Resistant (Ambivalent) Attachment (12%) Anxious, clingy; not easily comforted Seek and resist contact upon reunion ○ Disorganized Attachment Lack coherent strategy; may appear dazed or show contradictory behaviors. VII.Attachment Across Development and Generations Secure attachment → to positive social outcomes (e.g., better peer relationships). Internal Working Model: Expectations about caregiver responsiveness guide future relationships. Stability of attachment influenced by consistency of caregiving Intergenerational Transmission: ○ Disorganized attachment can be passed from parent to child. ○ Maternal sensitivity affects attachment security. Cultural Contexts of Attachment ○ Western Cultures: Focus on exclusive, one-to-one relationships. ○ Collectivist Cultures (e.g., Aka, Samoa): One-to-many caregiving networks. Criticisms of Traditional Attachment Theory: ○ Attachment theory focuses on exclusive mother–infant relationships, which may not apply universally. ○ Cultures with communal caregiving (e.g., Aka, Israeli kibbutzim) show distinct attachment behaviors. One-to-Many Caregiving: ○ Example: Aka people (Central African Republic) Infants cared for by multiple caregivers. Infants show attachments to multiple people. Cultural Variations: ○ Attachment behaviors may differ based on cultural practices. ○ The Strange Situation may not be appropriate for all cultures. Fathers and Other Caregivers: ○ Increasing recognition of fathers' roles in attachment. ○ Children form attachments with nonparental caregivers (e.g., daycare providers). The Changing Nature of communication VIII.Social referencing = babies look at caregiver for an indication of how to feel & act when encountering unfamiliar event/object  Tricia Striano & Philippe Rochat ○ compared 7 & 10 month old infants in laboratory playroom reacting to controlled toy dog barking intermittently 10 month old begin “selective social referencing” — knew they obtain information from adult when adult looks at them following caregiver’s signs of interest ○ infants communicate by following caregiver’s gaze or what they’re pointing at IX.A sense of Self ○ By 6 months, infants develop a sense of separateness through interactions and locomotion ○ Enables sharing experiences and comparing reactions with others. Intentional Behavior: ○ Example: 10-month-old using emotional expressions (e.g., screeching) to elicit attention, showing awareness of impact on others X.Self recognition Around 18 months, same time as 2 word utterances Key Experiments: Rouge test ○ Gordon Gallup (1970): Chimpanzees demonstrated self-recognition in mirrors (e.g., touching marked spots on their faces). Monkeys failed to show self-recognition despite recognizing mirror-reflected objects. Developmental Stages in Infants: ○ 0–3 months: Little interest in mirror images. ○ 3 months: Cooing, smiling at, and reaching for own image. Field (1979): Infants looked longer at their own image but vocalized more at images of other babies. ○ 9 months: Differentiate between own live image and mimicking adults (Rochat & Striano, 2002). ○ 18 months: Respond to red spot on their face in a mirror by touching it or asking about it. ○ 2 years: Can identify themselves in a mirror and respond to “Who’s that?” with “Me.” XI.Self-Conscious Emotions Definition: Emotions emerge after 8 months tied to self-awareness and social evaluation ○ Pride, embarrassment, shame Requirements: ○ Ability to evaluate self in relation to others’ judgments and social standards. ○ Complex interaction of cognition and emotion. Brain Involvement: ○ Basic emotions: Primitive brain areas (limbic system).  ○ Self-conscious emotions: Prefrontal cortex (self-regulation, higher cognition) End of Infancy: Markers of a Developing Self-System 1. Increasing Self-Awareness: 2. Awareness of Social Standards: ○ Sensitivity to adult expectations (e.g., “good” behavior). 3. Autonomy Development (Erikson, 1963): ○ Growing desire for independence and resistance to adult-imposed limits. 4. Cognitive and Emotional Growth: ○ Ability to create plans and judge them against social standards XII. Developing Trust and Autonomy Erikson’s stages infancy ○ 1. Basic trust vs. mistrust = first stage; children trust others as reliable or mistrust as insensitive ○ 2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt = second stage; child develop sense of themselves as competent or not “No i do it” Controlling parents CHAPTER 9: SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Theory of mind = how do we understand other’s mind? Their relationships between thoughts & actions? Kylie Hamlin’s experiment on child’s morality → preferred positive character Identity development Erik Erikson’ theory of identity stages early childhood ○ Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2 years): Terrible twos Children assert independence ("I do it!", “No, I want that”) ○ Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood): Children assert autonomy & individuality but conforming to social roles and moral standards Examples: eagerness in adult planning & constructing, Building forts, baking cookies Identification = Psychological process where children try to look, act, feel, and be like people in their social environment (family, religion, culture). ○ Sex-role identity: Gender-related roles and behaviors ○ Ethnic identity: Cultural belonging and attitudes I.Gender Identity Development ○ By age 2: Use of gender-typed words. ○ By age 3: Distinct toy/play preferences and gender segregation Distinct gender-typed patterns in affiliative behaviors = behaviors involving seeking & establishing friendly contact w/ peers ○ by age 2, girls affiliated with other girls rather than boys Gender segregation = gender preference; girls w/ girls Gender Identity = personal sense of self as a boy or girl Gender roles = sets of beliefs abt how men and women should behave Five Theoretical Approaches: ○ Psychodynamic View (Freud): phallic stage = period around 3 or 4 yrs; children start to regard their own genitals as major source of pleasure Oedipus complex (boys) = desire of young boys to get rid of father and marry the mother Resolve: boys differentiate from mothers & identify w/ their fathers Electra complex (girls) = young girls blame mothers for their “defiency”/“castrated”, transfer their love to father & compete w/ mother for father’s affection girls differentiate from fathers & identify w/ their mothers; short-circuited Criticized for biological determinism and gender bias. ○ Social Learning View: Identification arises through modeling (imitation of same-sex figures) and differential reinforcement (reward for gender-appropriate behavior) Siblings and media also influence gender identity. ○ Constructivist View: Children actively construct gender roles through gender schemas (mental models of gendered behaviors and objects) environment affects child’s understanding of gender indirectly, though a schema, or cognitive structure ”boy things” & “girl things” ○ Cultural View: Gender roles shaped by cultural tools (e.g., classroom environments, toys) Children’s behavior mediated by content of gender categories & rigidness of gender categories & consequences of crossing category boundaries ○ Influence of Society: Girls: More flexibility in crossing gender boundaries. Boys: Greater restrictions and societal intolerance for "feminine" behaviors.  II. Ethnic Identity = sense of belonging to an ethnic group, & feelings & attitudes accompanied by the sense of group membership Key Findings: ○ Kenneth & Mamie Clark Doll Study: African American children showed a "white bias" in doll preferences ○ Margaret Spencer: African American children prefer white doll, but displayed positive self-esteem; bias isn't connected to how children think about themselves ○ Ethnic identity is shaped by ethnic socialization = ethnic-based messages communicated to children Cultural socialization = Pride in ethnic heritage Preparation for bias = Awareness and coping with racial bias; spirituality, academic achievement, & managing negative emotions Impact: Promotes cognitive skills, problem-solving, and behavioral adjustment. III. Personal Identity = I-self & me-self Two parts of personal identity: ○ I-self = person’s sense of his or her self who exist over time & acts and experiences the world ○ Me-self = sense of self objective characteristic — physical appearance, abilities, other personal features (e.g i have blue eyes) Young children’s self-description is fluid and shifting ○ incapable of differentiating “real” self and “ideal” self— doesn’t emerge until middle childhood Autobiographical memory = personal narrative helping children acquire a sense of themselves ○ use of language ○ family context; caregivers tell them they are boys or girls etc. adults help children recall & interpret events Early Self-Descriptions: ○ Focused on observable traits, abilities, and preferences. ○ Unrealistically positive (e.g., "I know all my ABCs" even if untrue). Autobiographical Memory = Personal narrative of past events. ○ Role of Caregivers: Help children recall and interpret experiences. Stories shape identity and cultural understanding. Variations in storytelling styles (e.g., moral lessons, exaggeration) New moral world IV. psychodynamic view - freud  We internalized moral standards of our parents through identification w/ same sex parents = personal sense of right & wrong ○ Mental Structures: ID = present at birth; operates unconsciously based on pleasure principle (immediate satisfaction of drives) Ego = mediates betw. ID & the social world enabling children to control & regulate their behavior; operates on reality principle (how bodily drives satisfy while considering reality) Superego = develops around 5 yrs; internalized adult standards, rules, admonitions —> shame & guilt V. constructivist view - piaget Moral reasoning evolves through cognitive development & social interactions Heteronomous morality (preoperational thinking — Jean Piaget) = young children define morality by external controls & objective consequences ○ E.g. Young children judge naughtiness based on amount of damage (e.g breaking more cups = naughtier) ○ Autonomous morality (middle childhood) = morality based on personal choice & reasoning VI. Social domain view different types of “right” and “wrong” 3 domains: ○ Moral rules = justice & welfare of others, fairness physical harm: hitting psychological harm: hurt feelings, ridiculing fairness & rights: refusal of taking turns divine source; universal across culture ○ social conventions = rules governing social behavior in specific cultures; cultural scripts social behavior: chewing gum in class appearance: wearing pajamas to school gender norms: boys wearing barrettes during football vary widely among cultures ○ personal sphere = personal preferences & habits hygiene: not brushing teeth habits: loud eating social events: not sending a thank-you card for a gift Children 3 or 4 yrs can differentiate among moral, social, & personal rules Developing self-regulation self-regulation = ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions & behaviors VII. Regulating thought & action effortful control = inhibition of impulsive behaviors ○ Higher means higher academic performance & social adjustment; higher in girls ○ Tasks: behavioral measures  hot task = regulating emotion & motivation e.g: resist touching a desirable toy cold task = regulating behavior for problem-solving e.g: reverse sorting objects ○ Cultural influences: confucian values(self-control, obedience) = higher effortful control ○ socio economic impact: low income = low effortful control but benefit from physical training VIII. self-regulation and play encourages children to control impulses & coordinate behaviors w/ others Vygotsky theory: imaginary play —> help children separate thoughts from actions; starting age 2 ○ e.g: pretending a rectangle block is a phone sociodramatic play = make-believe play; two or more participants enact social roles ○ Requires negotiating, follow shared-scripts, regulate behavior (against impulses) IX. regulating emotions controlling feelings ○ between 2 & 6 yrs— children develop strategies to control their feelings Avoidance (closing eyes, turning away) distraction (pleasurable activities) Reinterpreting events (“i didn’t want to play w her anyway”) reassurance self-encouragement culture & emotions ○ theory of mind = understanding people have internal beliefs, desires, & emotions ○ Display rules = informal conventions of when and how emotions should be expressed e.g: hiding disappointment about a gift u didn’t like ○ Individualism (western) vs. Collectivism (asian) Understanding aggression X. Development of aggression Early signs: forceful behaviors (pulling toys, biting) in infancy may develop into intentional aggression Forms of aggression: ○ Physical Aggression: Hitting, kicking, pushing. ○ Verbal Aggression: Name-calling, teasing. ○ Relational Aggression: Gossiping, excluding others from activities. Developmental Patterns: ○ Teasing increases around 2 years old as language and cognitive skills develop ○ Physical aggression becomes less tolerated as children grow older Gender differences ○ Boys more likely to engage in physical and verbal aggression  ○ Boys aggression towards boys – increase from 1-3 yrs old; aggression toward girls decreases XI. What causes and controls aggression Biological Contributions ○ Evolutionary Perspective: Aggression as an adaptive trait for survival and reproduction (Darwin, 1859). Example: Territorial behavior in animals to secure resources. ○ Dominance Hierarchies: Hierarchies reduce overall aggression once social order is established Social and Cultural Contributions ○ Family influences ○ Group-based child care increases aggressive behaviors due to larger social conflicts Cultural Variations: ○ Children model adult behaviors. Example: Higher aggression observed in communities where violence is normalized (Fry, 1988). Emotional and Cognitive Contributions ○ Aggression linked to frustration or negative feelings ○ Fight-or-flight impulses → rudimentary anger (fight) or fear (flight) ○ Poor emotion regulation → higher aggression ○ Essentialist view/beliefs (e.g aggression is a permanent trait) → likely to favor aggressiveness Developing prosocial behaviors Prosocial behavior = voluntary actions intended to benefit others ○ Sharing, helping, caregiving, showing compassion XII. Empathy = sharing and understanding another’s emotions Link to Piaget → decreasing egocentrism and increasing decentration = enhance empathy Stages of empathy (Hoffman): ○ Global Empathy (Infancy): Reflexive response to others’ distress (e.g., crying when another baby cries). ○ Egocentric Empathy (2nd Year): Understanding others’ distress but offering egocentric help (e.g., giving their own security blanket). ○ Early Childhood: Role-taking skills develop, leading to less egocentric and more sensitive responses. Language expands empathic contexts (e.g., empathizing with distant or fictional people). ○ Middle Childhood: Recognizes emotional responses tied to unique personal histories. XIII. Sympathy = feeling sorrow or concern for another w/o experiencing the same emotion Nancy Eisenberg ○ personal distress = overarousal in response to another person’s distress Influencers of sympathy ○ Emotional regulation – ability to manage strong feelings ○ Attention-focus – enhance understanding of others’ needs CHAPTER 13: SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD New Sense of self I. Changing conceptions of the self Erik Erikson’s theory – middle childhood = sense of competence ○ Industry vs. inferiority stage = which children judge themselves to be industrious and successful at meeting the new challenges posed by adults at home and school, or inferior and incapable of meeting such challenges Industry: feeling competent and effective Inferiority: feeling inadequate and incapable of meeting expectations Transition from concrete to abstract self-description ○ Early childhood → focus on objective traits; me-self (“i have brown eyes”) ○ Middle childhood → focus on abstract traits, future possibilities of self ○ Influenced by social comparison = process of defining oneself in relationship to one’s peers Becomes more subtle with age (e.g., avoiding overt bragging). Around 8 yrs, social comparison is deliberate and important; “i bet i beat your score in the video game” By age 12, children compare themselves w/ media portrayals, including celebrities & fictional characters Differentiated Self = A sense of self as including many fluctuating attributes ○ Children recognize they possess multiple “Selves” that vary by context E.g. polite w/ grandparents but rowdy w/ friends Possible Selves = Possibilities about what the self might be like in the future ○ Includes ideal or hoped-for selves (what they want to become) and feared selves (what one is afraid of becoming) ○ Young adolescents (9-13) engage more in self-experimentation ○ Digital media offers opportunities for self-exploration: 3 motives Social compensation: To feel less shy; to talk more easily about certain topics Social facilitation: To make new friends; to get a date; to get to know people more easily Self-exploration: To explore how others react to me; to try out how it feels to be someone else II. Self-esteem Definition: Evaluation of one’s worth Susan Harter ○ Middle childhood – evaluation becomes specific to areas like school work, friendships & sports ○ Comparison of actual self vs. ideal self Foundations of Self-Esteem ○ Linked to parenting styles and parent-child relationships  ○ Stanley Coopersmith – 3 parental characteristics for higher self-esteem in middle childhood Parenting style: firm control, encouragement of independence, reasoning w/ children Acceptance of their children : Affection and interest boost self-worth and indicates personal importance for children Setting defined clear limits: Provides structure and significance of norms Parent’s respect for Individuality: Encourages independence and self-expression within limits Parenting Impacts ○ High self-esteem is associated with supportive, reasonable parenting. ○ Hostile/aggressive parenting linked to poor self-esteem. ○ Children with low self-esteem often seek validation from peers, sometimes associating with deviant groups Moral development III. Constructivist views of moral development Piaget moral development – from heteronomous morality to autonomous morality ○ Ages 7 or 8 start to play– games based on rules ○ Heteronomous morality Ages 6-8 – “mystical respect” for the rules of the game believe that rules are “eternal and unchangeable” because they have been handed down by authority figures such as parents, grandparents, or even God ○ Autonomous morality Ages 10-12– rules are rational, agreed upon by players, modifiable ○ Games as models of society = rule-based games have certain fundamental characteristics of social institutions Teach children: Respect for rules Negotiating disagreements Making and enforcing rules Cooperating within a group ○ Kohlberg’s theory of moral development 3 levels: 6 substages Level of stage Doing right Reasons Preconventional level Stage 1 – heteronomous Conform to rules Avoid punishment  Obey for sake of Follow higher obedience authority Avoid causing harm Stage 2 – instrumental Follow rules when in Allow self and others morality your best interest to to achieve interests & do so fulfill desires Act to serve ur own interest Conventional level Stage 3 – good-child morality Live up to Care for others expectations of those Be a good person close to you according to your own Concern for others and others’ standards. Trust, loyalty, & Desire to maintain respect to rules that enforce relationships good behavior. Stage 4 – law & order Uphold the law Post-conventional level Stage 5 – social contract Be aware of the Have a sense of variety of values and obligation to obey the opinions that may be law due to a social held by individuals. contract that requires you to act for the welfare of the group. Stage 6 – universal ethical Have self-chosen Believe in universal principles ethical principles. moral principles. IV. Social domain theory Elliot Turiel: ○ Children as young as 5–6 prioritize fairness and welfare over authority. ○ Example: A peer stopping a fight is seen as more legitimate than a teacher allowing it. Moral vs. Social Conventional Domains: Moral Domain: ○ Young children: Concepts of harm and welfare.  ○ Older children: Justice and rights. ○ Moral transgressions (e.g., hitting, stealing) are judged independently of rules or authority. Social Conventional Domain: ○ Young children: Rules and authority. ○ Older children: Abstract concepts like social roles and group functioning. Cultural Variations: Some cultures interpret social conventions as moral issues. Example: North Americans vs. other societies. Peer relationships V. Peer relationships and social status VI. Bullies and their victims VII. Competition and Cooperation among peers VIII. Relationship between Boys and Girls IX. Friendship: A special type of relationship The influence of parents X. Changing interactions XI. Parents and peers XII. Divorce