Developmental Psychology Notes PDF

Cognition ➔ The activity of knowing & the processes thru which knowledge is acquired and problems are solved ➔ Schemes: a set of rules or procedures that can b repeated and generalized across various situations ◆ Construct models Piaget Interactionist perspective...

Cognition ➔ The activity of knowing & the processes thru which knowledge is acquired and problems are solved ➔ Schemes: a set of rules or procedures that can b repeated and generalized across various situations ◆ Construct models Piaget Interactionist perspective ○ Build schemes from their experiences using: Organization: combine existing schemes into new and more complex ones Adaptation Assimilation: fitting the new info into an existing schema ○ Calling all animals w four legs “doggies” bc has concept of doggie Accommodation: expanding framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation and thus learning a new concept to accurately name the animal Disequilibration: detect discrepancies or contradictions b?t the models we are constructing n the experiences we r having in our interactions in the world Equilibration: readjust actions and models so they are better alignment Viewed intelligence as processes thru which we adapt to our environment Used clinical method INFANCY First stage of cognit dev is referred to as the sensorimotor stage thru six sub stages Object permanence ○ The fundamental understanding is that objects are permanent when they are no longer visible ○ Even if something is out of sight, it still exists,, typically acquired by 8mths A-not-B error: ○ Search for an object in the place where they last found it rather than its new hiding place Stranger anxiety ○ Unable to assimilate stranger into an existing schema Critique of piaget - Timetables piaget laid out questioned CHILDHOOD Second stage: Preoperational stage (2-7) ○ Representing things w words and images 2 stages ○ Symbolic functions substage– symbolic thinking, dependence on perception, 2-4 ○ Intuitive thought substage- greater dependence on intuitive thinking , 4-7 Pretend play Symbolic representation Thinking limitations: ○ Egocentrism: tendency to view the world solely from their own perspective ○ Perceptual salience Children reason, not based on what the know but based on what they perceive (see and hear) in the present local context ○ Animism: attributing life-like qualities to objects Preschoolers ○ Symbolic capacity ○ Focus on perceptual salience ○ Engage in centration (focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation, whilst disregarding all others) ○ Limitations in transformational thought Conservation ○ Certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way ○ Reversibility ○ Transformational v static thought Classification errors ○ Reasoning is typically transductive— making faulty inferences from one specific ex to another Lucienne stated she had not had her nap, therefore it was not afternoon Concrete Operational (7-11) Elementary school ○ Logical operations Seriation ○ Transitivity Describes the necessary relations among elements in a series Thinking logically ab concrete events & grasping concrete analogies Cause & effect, size, distance Inductive reasoning,, trouble solving hypothetical proves or more abstract problems Thought becomes multidimensional ○ Take multiple perspectives at same time  ○ Part-whole relationships ○ Classifications Thought becomes operational– reversible, organized systems of mental actions ○ Reversibility Conservation can now be understood Thought becomes logical ○ Inferring high-order characteristics a child does well on multiple multiple assignments in math, she may conclude that she is high in math ability. ○ Identify defining features ○ Seriation: arranging items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight ○ Transitive inference: if one understands that a dog is a mammal, and that a poodle is a dog, then a poodle must be a mammal. Limitations ○ Cannot think in abstract ways ADOLESCENCE Formal Operational Thought (12-adulthood) a movement from an ability to think and reason from concrete visible events to an ability to think hypothetically and entertain what-if possibilities about the world Abstract concepts and utilize hypothetical & deductive reasoning Potential for mature moral reasoning Able to decontextualize Achievment depends on opportunities to learn scientific reasoning Propositional thought Meta-cogniton: thinking about thinking Relativism Implications ○ Identify ○ Complex moral issues ○ Questioning, revelion ○ compassion toward others ○ Adolescent egocentrism ○ Personal fable ○ Imaginary audience Postformal Thought - relativistic, dialectical, and systemic thinking - Adolescents tend to think in dichotomies– ideas are true or false no middle ground Adolescence improvements in areas Attention Memory Processing speed Adolescent Egocentrism adolescents’ inability to distinguish between their perception of what others think about them and what people actually think in reality Problems ○ Imaginary audience: adolescent anticipates the reaction of other ppl to him/herself in actual or impending social situations Audience is created, believes he/she will be focus of attention ○ Personal fable: convinced that own feelings are unique and they are special and immortal may feel that they are the only ones who have experienced strong and diverse emotions, and therefore others could never understand how they feel. This uniqueness in one’s emotional experiences reinforces the adolescent’s belief of invincibility, Invincibility fable Piaget’s Contributions Qs continue to guide the study of cognit development Infants and children are active in their own development Younger ppl think differently than older ppl Was largely accurate in basic description of cognitive development Challenges to Piaget Underestimating cog abilities of infants and children Wrongly claiming that broad stages of development exist Failing to adequately explain development Giving limited attention to social influences on cognitive development Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Changes in Thought With Guidance recognized for identifying the role of social interactions and culture in the development of higher-order thinking skills 3 themes ○ Human dev & learning originate in social, historical, and cultural interactions ○ Use of psychological tools, particularly language, mediates the development of higher mental functions ○ Learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development  Sociocultural theory ○ Emphasizes the importance of culture and social interaction in the development of cognitive abilities ○ (Rogoff): guided participation A learner actively acquires new culturally valuable skills and capabilities thru a meaningful, collaborative activity w an assisting, more experienced other Language as as developmental tool ○ A social medium, was the mechanism thru which we build knowledge of the world ○ Language becomes internalized as thought and use this to guide their action Scaffolding and the “Zone of Proximal Development” ○ Person not only has a set of actual abilities but also a set of potential abilities if given proper guidance by others ○ Guided participation → Scaffolding, child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development ○ Influential in education in general Morality ➔ Historically studied from a cognitive perspective ➔ Deeply influenced by one’s family, culture, and experiences Conscience Consists of the cognitive, emotional, and social influences that cause young children to create and act consistently w internalized standards of right and wrong ○ Biologically based temperament involved End of preschool yrs develop a “moral self” Requires ○ Moral emotions ○ Self-control Role of Parents ○ Secure parent-infant attachment ○ Mutually responsive orientation Theory of Mind Ability to think ab other ppl’s thoughts (meta-cognition) Important for empathy and prosocial behavior  Other ppl’s experience mental states such as desires, beliefs, intentions that are different from our own and their states are what guide their behavior Promoting competent social interactions False belief task– Salley-Anne task ○ False beliefs – age ⅘ ○ Children’s understanding is fused Desire Psychology 2-3 ○ Diverse-desires Understanding that 2 ppl may have diff desired regarding the same object Belief Psychology ○ Diverse-beliefs ○ Knowledge access (knowledge/ingorance) ○ False belief Impaired Theory of Mind in Individuals with Autism ○ Typically show an impaired ability to recognize other people’s minds Moral Development Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development - How ppl decide what is right or wrong - Thinking Process involved is more important than the decision itself - 3 universal stages - Preconventional morality - Conventional morality - Postconventional morality Level 1: Preconventional ○ Stage 1- Consequences, concepts of punishment ○ Stage 2- self interest and reward Level 2: Conventional ○ Authority ○ Mutual expectations and relationships ○ Social norms or lawd ○ Ppl care ab the effect of their actions on others  Level 3: Postconventional ○ Beyond convention or what other ppl think to a higher, universal ethical principle of conduct that may or may not be reflected in the law Our active engagement w thought processes that helps our development Authoritarian parenting style, edu, peers Critiques ○ Simple ○ Western samples ○ Emphasizes justice w out incorporating compassion and other moral consideration, ○ Gender ○ Underestimates children’s moral sophistication ○ Fails to recognize cultural differences ○ Neglects intuition/emotion ○ Says too little ab the many influences besides moral reasoning on moral behavior Cognitive Developmental Theory Gilligan’s Stages of the Ethic of Care (1977) Gender role norms influence moral reasoning Boys focus on justice and fairness Girls focus on care/compassion and responsibility ○ Role of complex relationships  Cross-cultural studies ○ Postconventional reasoning more common in western societies Collectivist cultures— stage 3 conventional Morals specifically pertain to group welfare ○ Social learning perspective supported Cultural developmental perspective ○ Inform moral thinking around the world and that the balance of them differs from culture to culture Ethnic of Autonomy Ethnic of Community Ethnic of Divinity Evolutionary Theory ○ Engage in prosocial behavior bc it benefitted our ancestors ○ Altruism Especially towards kin → pass on genes ○ Uniquely altruistic Play Childhood Play Importance of play ○ Cognitive, social, emotional, and motor development ○ Freud- play in terms of emotional dev ○ Piaget & Vygotsky: play as intellectual abilities dev  How play changes ○ More social (ages 2-5) ○ More imaginative (2-5) ○ More rule-governed (after age 5) Piaget + Smilanksy Types of Play ○ Functional Splashing in the bath ○ Constructive play Building w blocks ○ Symbolic play Moving a pretend steering wheel ○ Games w rules Soccer Parten’s Six Categories of Play ○ Unoccupied: more random w out specific goal, least common form ○ Solitary: play by themselves, do not interact w others or engaging in similar activities as children around them ○ Onlooker: observing other children playing, may comment and make suggestions but not directly join play ○ Parallel: play alongside eachother, using similar toys but do not directly act w each other ○ Associative: interact w each other and share toys, not working toward a common goal ○ Cooperative: interacting to achieve a common goal, may take on diff tasks to reach that goal Non-social play: unoccupied, solitary, onlooker Social play: parallel, associative, cooperative - younger children engage in non-social play more than older children Development of Play ○ Age 1: first pretend play ○ Age 2-5: lots of pretend play, start social pretend play ○ Ages 5+: organized games w rules Pretend Play ○ Symbolic thought ○ Fantasy & Imagination ○ Complex form of pretend play emerged in Partens last 2 stages– associative and cooperative play ○ Sociodramatic play: make believe play w other involving an actions and objects woven into some imagined situation or story, often scaffoled Perspective taking  Emotional development Sports & physical education Memory Infancy & Childhood Fleeting and fragile Older children and adults experience infantile amnesia (childhood amnesia), the inability to recall memories from the first few years of life Infant autobiographical Memory ○ Biological perspective: immaturity of brain, hippocampus ○ Cognitive: lack of linguistic skills, reducing ability to encode memory ○ Level of sociocultural support ○ Sense of self ○ Verbatim (exact) versus gist storage (typical experience) Infants older than 6 mths age can retain info for longer periods of time, need less reminding to retrieve info in memory Deferred imitation: limitation of actions after a time delay Adult Autobiographical Memory What determines whether an event is likely to be recalled? ○ Personal significance ○ Distinctiveness ○ Emotional intensity ○ Life phase of the event Most likely to remember things that have happened in recent years, however late teens-20s seem to have a lot of memories/events remembered Memory & Aging  Some forgetfulness can be normal ○ May be due to sensory register Declines more severe among the most elderly ○ Not noticeable until the 70s Older adults… ○ Slower to retrieve & learn info ○ Perform worse when Material is unfamiliar/meaningless Task requires recall memory Task requires explicit memory Changes in working memory ○ Phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive (shows most marked declines w age) Changes in Long-term Memory ○ Semantic (knowledge of facts), episodic, implicit ○ Episodic shows greater age decline than semantic Contain the event and when and where event took place ○ No major changes in semantic tasks ○ Tip of the tongue (TOT) events Implicit memory (stored procedural skills, classical conditioning, and priming, little conscious effort) ○ Few declines ○ Priming- changes in behavior as a result of frequent or recent experiences Prospective memory ○ Remembering things we need to do in the future Time-based (more likely), event-based Recall vs Recognition ○ Older adults show roughly equivalent memory to young adults when assessed with a recognition task. However, in recall tasks, older adults show memory deficits in comparison to younger adults. The Age Advantage ○ Tests of word knowledge or vocab New Research on Aging & Cognition ○ Learning new things, engaging in challenging activities, physically active may build a reserve to minimize effects of primary aging of brain Why do we see Memory Changes? ○ Reasons Metamemory: individuals understanding of how their own memory is working then able to demonstrate that on a memory task  Memory strategies Basic processing capacities ○ Not a reason: Knowledge base Atypical Memory Impairment ○ Has memory gotten noticeably worse in the past 6 mths? ○ Do memory probs interfere w activities at work or home? ○ Are fam and friends concerned ab the individuals memory problems? Language ➔ System of communication that uses symbols in a regular way to create meaning Foundations of Language Components of language: ○ Phonemes: smallest unit of sound, basic units of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language “Bit” has three phonemes Infants are born able to detect all phonemes, but lose ability to so as get older ○ Morphemes: string of one or more phonemes that makes up the smallest units of meanings in a language, not syllables Some are prefixes and suffixes used to modify other words… re as in rewrite or repay means to to do again ○ Semantics: set of rules we use to obtain meaning from morphemes Adding “ed” to end of a verb makes it past tense ○ Syntax: set of rules of lang by which we construct sentences For english requires each sent have a noun and verb, may b modified by adjectives and adverbs ○ Pragmatics: social side, how we communicate effectively & appropriately w others Turn taking, staying on topic, volume and tone of voice, appropriate eye contact Contextual information to interpret – knowledge and nonverbal expressions Theoreis of Language Development ○ Nativism Naom Chomsky advocate for nature approach– human brains contan a language acquisition decide (LAD) that includes a universal grammar Lang is developed as long as infant is exposed to it, innately human  Differentiites b/t the deep structure of an idea and the surface structure ○ At the end of a lecture, you will remember a lot of the deep structure (i.e., the ideas expressed by the instructor), but you cannot reproduce the surface structure (the exact words that the instructor used to communicate the ideas). Critical periods ○ Cross-culturally similar Children learn native language with ease ○ Native Language Neural Commitment Hypothesis Proposed that language learning is going to produce some deicated neural networks in the brain that essentially code for sounds and structures of a person’s native language during development. Language Acquisition Device: ○ Brain areas for language Brocas area: language production Wernicke’s area: language comprehension For most ppl left hemisphere is specialized for language ○ Is there a critical period for learning language? Appears to be b/t infancy and puberty Case of Genie and Wild child The research with hearing impaired children reveals that this critical period for language development is not exclusive to infancy, and that the brain is still receptive to language development in early childhood. ○ Learning Theory Association and reinforcement (skinner) Bandura (imitation) Gradual improvement in language skills over time More generative than imitative ○ Social pragmatics Children use language not only as means of achieving some material goal, but to also make themselves understood in the mind of another person Language Development in Infancy - Recognize mother’s voice and discriminate lang mother speaks and foreign lang - Preferences for faces moving w audible lang Do Newborns communicate? W thoughts & needs w body posture, gestures, cries, facial expressions Intentional vocalizations Cooing: one syllable combination of a constant and a vowel sound (coo or ba) - 2mths Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, vowel sounds 4-6mths 7mths– babbling : ma-ma, da-da ○ Helps understand social, communicative function of lang Sign Language Similar stages of language acquisition ○ Babbling ○ Similar errors Similar neural activation Risk for language impovershiment ○ Deaf children born to hearing parents Gesturing Understanding 10 mths: infant can understand more than he/she can say → receptive language ➔ Slow Expansion: 12-18 monnths Holophrasic Speech One word expressions Begin using first words at ab 12/13 mths, partial words Ju for word juice Language Errors  Underextention: initially think word can b used for only that particular object ○ Result of children learning the meaning of a word in a specific context ○ Only a family’s Irish Setter is a doggie Overextention: a label applied to all objects that are similar to the original object ○ Function of child’s smaller vocab ○ Apple is red/green fruit but start calling oranges or pears apples ○ All vehicles are trucks ○ All animals become “doggies” First words & cultural influences If child is using english, first words tend to be nouns Chinese however may learn more verbs Two-word sentences & telegraphic (text message) speech Occurs when unnecessary words are not used Give baby ball rather than give the baby the ball Infant Directed Speech Universal tendency– baby talk or sing-song type Exaggerating vowel and constant sounds, high-pitched voice, great facial expression Attention, articulation, pattern of interaction Language Development in Early Childhood - Dev of symbolic representation during 2nd yr of life leads to an explosion of lang growth ➔ The Naming Explosion: 18-24 months Vocabulary growth ○ 2-6 expands 200 words to over 10,000 words → vocab spurt ○ Fast mapping: words are easily learned by making connections b/t new words and concepts alr known Learning the name of an object after only one exposure ○ Telegraphic Speech Early combinations of 2-4 words Literal meanings ○ Can repeat words or phrase but do not always understand meanings Overregularization cognitive ○ Child learns to add “ed” to end of word then forms sentences I goed or I doed Impact of training ○ Active participation ○ Scaffolding Bilingualism ○ Cognitive executive function skills ○ Prefer phonemes of native language by 12 mos. ○ Code-mixing is normal  ○ Better at task switching ○ Earlier is better ○ Verbal working memory ○ Mutual-exclusivity bias: monolingual children find it easier to learn new name of prev labelled object Learnig to Read ○ Emergent literacy Precursors to reading Working memory and attention ○ Need direct instruction ○ Alphabetic principle Letters represent sounds ○ Four steps Prealphabetic phase Partial alphabetic phase Full alphabetic phase Consolidated alphabetic phase ○ Dyslexia: differences in phonological awareness Language & cognition Piaget’s contributions ○ Qs continue to guide the study of cognit development ○ Infants and children are active in their own development ○ Younger ppl think differently than older ppl ○ Was largely accurate in basic description of cognitive development Challenged to Piaget ○ Underestimating cognitive abilities of infants and young children ○ Wrongly claiming that broad stages of development exist ○ Failing to adequately explain development ○ Giving limited attention to social influences on cognitive development Vygotsky ○ Tools pass culturally valued models of thinking and problem solving to children Spoken language Writing Using numbers ○ Language shapes thought ○ Thought changes fundamentally once we begin to think in words ○ Preschool children use private speech Speech to oneself that guides one’s thought and behavior Forerunner of the silent thinking-in-words adults use  ○ ZOPD: The gap b/t what a learner can accomplish independently and what he/she can accopmplishj w the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled partner Implications Knowledge is not fixed No single test or score can adequately reflect the range of a person’s knowledge Development consists of moving toward the upper range of the zone Guided participation: active participation in culturally relevant activities w the aid and support of their parents and other guides Scaffolding: more skilled person gives structured help to a less-skilled learner Evaluation Places too much emphasis on social interaction ○ Assumed that all knowledge and understanding of the world is transmitted thru social interaction Work & Vocation ➔ A primary task of early adulthood is vocational choice Vocational Interests & Personalities Realistic ○ Ppl who like solving real world problems; working with their hands, fixing, making things; operating equipment, tools or machines. ○ Mechanical and manual occupations like engineering, electrician, horticulturist, or farmer Investigative ○ Discover and research ideas; observe, investigate and experiment, ask qs and solve problems ○ Science, research, journalism, medical and health occupations Artistic ○ Enjoy creating or designing things; using art,music,writng, or drama to express themselves; communicate or perform ○ Creative arts, writing, photography, desing Social ○ Like people and are concerned for other’s well-being and welfare; like working w others to teach, train, inform, help, cure, and serve ○ Helping or human service profession, like teaching, social work, or counseling Enterprising  ○ Adventurous; like meeting, leading, and influencing others; planning and strategizing ○ Business, management, supervisory positions, sales, or politics Conventional ○ Enjoy working indoors at taks that involve organzing, following procedures, working w data or numbers, planning work and events ○ Busines, librarian, worker, computer operator Familial Influences SES of family origins Status and range of occupations parents model Parenting Style Authoritative parenting provides greatest support for construcige vocational decision making Authoritarian parenting: parentally-specified options Permissive parenting Neglectful parenting Upward Social mobility In general, children and youth tend to prefer the kinds of occupations that they see in their parents and neighbors young person can break out of the SES level of their family of origin, as seen for example, in the great success of many first generation college students. Societal & Cultural Factors Trends in politics and business Unions, minimum wage, growth of info economy Teacher support and encouragement Gender Stereotypes Status and salary levels Sexism: prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender ○ Occupational sexism: women make 78 cents for every dollar a man earns Non-college Bound Youth Difficult to fine jobs other than ones held during high school Apprenticeship programs in European countries ○ More research needed in US Stages of Career Development Stage One ○ What appears glamorous or exciting Stage 2 ○ Considers abilities and limitations Stage 3 ○ Narrow choices further  Stage 4 ○ Settle into career Systems theory of career development Trends in Career Development - More likely than pervious generations to job-hop - Basic career interests may remain similar - More likely to want to feel engaged/purposeful Work & Careers in Adulthood Climate in the workplace for middle-aged adults Job satisfaction tends to peak in midlife But not for everyone ○ Glass ceiling ○ Job burnout Energy depletion or exhaustion Increased mental distabnce from job, negativism Reduced feelings of prof effectiveness or efficacy ○ females employed at large corporations are twice as likely to quit their jobs as are men American workers may experience burnout more often than workers in many other developed nations, because most developed nations guarantee by law a set number of paid vacation days  ○ Work more hours per year Challenges in the Workplace for Middle-aged Adults Economic downturns Fewer hourrs/having to switch to part-time Pay cuts Loss of retirement savings Lack of opportunities for middle-aged adults Work, Volunteering, and Retirement in Late Adulthood 9% of adults 75+ were in the labor force (2020) Lower absenteeism Greater investment Opportunities exist for volunteering face to face and virtually Retirement Transitioning to Retirement ○ Average age: 65 ○ Bridge jobs/encore: 60% of workers ○ Encore workers: 15% of workers When Should You Retire? ○ Certain benefits not available until age 65 ○ Mandatory retirement ○ Considerations: Laws Financial resources Psychological reasons ○ Delayed retirement Economic reasons Psychological reasons– health benefits anf social contacts Associeyd w helping one live longer Retirement Stages (Atchley 1994) ○ Remote pre-retirment phase: fantasizing ab what one wants to do in retirement ○ Immediate pre-retirement phase: when concrete plans are establish ○ Actual Retirement ○ Honeymoon phase: retirees travel & participate in activities they could not do while working ○ Disenchantment phase: when retirees experience an emotional let-down ○ Reorientation phase: when retirees attempt to adjust to retirement by making less hectic plans and getting into a regular routine Post-Retirement ○ Volunteering, caregiving and informal helping can help keep engaged ○ Educational experiences ○ 70% of retirees who are not involved in productive activities spent most of their time watching TV, which is correlated with negative affect