Developmental Psychology PDF

General Psychology DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Development u Developmental psychology: the study of the pattern of change that starts from conception and continues throughout the lifespan The Earliest Development u Zygote: New cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm u u First 2 weeks are known as...

General Psychology DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Development u Developmental psychology: the study of the pattern of change that starts from conception and continues throughout the lifespan The Earliest Development u Zygote: New cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm u u First 2 weeks are known as the germinal period Embryo: Developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs u Embryonic period – Entered by the developing individual, two weeks after conception u Organs are clearly recognizable, despite being at a primitive stage of development The Earliest Development u u Fetus: Developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth u Fetal period u Movements become strong enough for the mother to sense them u Age of viability: Point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely (22 weeks) Preterm infants - Born before week 38 u Unable to develop fully in utero, infants are at higher risk for illness, future problems, and death Prenatal Environmental Influences u Prenatal development involves passing through several sensitive periods: Time when organisms are susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli u Teratogens: Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect u Mother’s nutrition u Mother’s illness u Mother’s emotional state u Mother’s drug use u Mother’s age u Incompatible blood types u Paternal factors The Extraordinary Newborn u Neonate: Newborn child u Reflexes: Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli u Rooting reflex u Sucking reflex u Gag reflex u Startle reflex u Babinski reflex Motor Development Milestones Physical Development u Physical development u Children gain triple their birth weight during first year of life u Increase in height by half during first year of life u From age 3 to adolescence, average growth of 5 pounds (2.3 kg) and 3 inches (7.6 cm) per year Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent u Adolescence: Developmental stage between childhood and adulthood u The start of adolescence is usually marked by puberty u Puberty: Period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs beginning at about age: u 11 or 12 years for girls u u Menstruation 13 or 14 years for boys u Spermarche Physical Development: The Peak of Health u For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health u u Around age 25, the body becomes slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease Menopause: Women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile u Treated through hormone therapy (HT) with hormones estrogen and progesterone u Risks associated with HT Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body u Genetic preprogramming theories of aging u u Suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time Wear-and-tear theories of aging u Suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World u The process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience u Important processes and concepts u Organization: Tendency in human beings u Schemas: Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge u Assimilation: Adding new knowledge to schemas u Accommodation: adding new knowledge that requires changing schemas u Equilibrium: state of balance between pre-existing schema and environment Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World u Piaget’s theory of cognitive development u Sensorimotor stage: Stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child constructs their understanding of the world through coordinating sensory experiences and motor movements u Object permanence: Awareness that objects continue to exist even if they are out of sight Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World u Preoperational stage: Period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by symbolic thought, language development, and egocentric thought u Egocentric thought: Way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective u Principle of conservation: Knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World u Concrete operational stage: Period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by concrete and logical thought. Children are able to do concrete operations in this stage u Formal operational stage: Period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract, idealistic, and logical thought Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development u Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development - considering culture u Cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems u Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves u Scaffolding - Provides support for learning Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development Stormy Adolescence: Myth or Reality? u Adolescent egocentrism - State of self-absorption in which a teenager views the world from his own point of view u Imaginary audience - Belief that everybody is looking at them u Personal fables - Belief that one’s experience is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else Cognitive Changes: Thinking About – and During - Late Adulthood u Fluid intelligence - Information-processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy u u Shows decline in late adulthood Crystallized intelligence - Based on the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience u Remains steady and in some cases improves Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development u Psychosocial development: Development of individuals’ interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World u Attachment: Positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual u Konrad Lorenz u u Focused on newborn goslings u Labeled a process called imprinting u Imprinting - Behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object observed Harry Harlow’s study on attachment u Wire monkey versus cloth monkey Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World u Assessing attachment u Ainsworth strange situation: involving a child and caregiver (typically mother) u Securely attached children u Avoidant children u Resistant (Ambivalent) children u Disorganized-disoriented children Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World u Father’s role u Number of fathers who are primary caregivers for their children has grown significantly u Engage in more physical, rough-and-tumble activities u Nature of attachment to children can be similar to that of mother’s Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong u Kohlberg’s theory of moral development u Suggests that the changes in moral reasoning can be understood as a threelevel, six stage sequence u Preconventional morality: use probability of rewards and punishments to judge right and wrong u u Stage 1: obedience and punishment orientation u Moral thinking tied to punishment u Children obey because they fear punishment Stage 2: individualism, instrumental purpose and exchange u Pursuing own interests is the right thing to do, others do the same u What is right involves equal exchange, E.g. I scratch your back, you scratch mine. Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong u Conventional morality: use standards of others to judge right and wrong u Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity u u Adopt parents’ moral standards – want to be called “good boy” / “good girl” Stage 4: Social systems morality u Based on understanding social order, law, justice, and duty u Community can function only if there are laws and members follow the law, no exceptions Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong u Postconventional morality: use own standards to judge right and wrong u u u Stage 5: Social contract or utility and individual rights u Laws are social contracts created by humans u Evaluate laws based on their utility or contribution to the greater good Stage 6: Universal ethical principles u Moral standard based on universal human rights u Laws only valid if they are ground in justice u Law vs conscience: Should follow conscience in spite of risks Difficulty with the theory - Pertains to judgments, not moral behavior Social Development: Working at Life u People typically launch themselves into careers, marriage, and families during this period u Midlife transition - Period when people may begin to question their lives u Little evidence for an actual midlife crisis Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties u Changes in marriage and divorce trends have increased the number of single-parent households over the last two decades u Economic and emotional consequences for the single-parent households u Often economically less well off u Children: parents’ divorce may result in obstacles establishing close relationships later in life u Children: may blame themselves, or feel pressure to take sides Thinking About – and During – Late Adulthood u Social world of late adulthood: Old but not alone u Activity theory of aging: Suggests that successful aging is characterized by maintaining the interests and activities of earlier stages of life u Life review: Process by which people examine and evaluate their lives Adjusting to Death u Five stages of facing impending death suggested by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross u Denial u Anger u Bargaining u Depression u Acceptance