PSY1PAC 2024 Semester 2 Lecture 6_1pp (PRE) PDF

latrobe.edu.au PSY1PAC Introductory Psychology: People and Culture...

latrobe.edu.au PSY1PAC Introductory Psychology: People and Culture Lecture 6: Motivation Readings: Morling & Lee (2017). Intro (p. 61) & pp. 63-70 Dr Ben Chun Pan Lam Department of Psychology, Counselling and Therapy [email protected] Adapted with permission from Prof. Emi Kashima La Trobe University CRICOS Provider Code Number 00115M  Acknowledgement of country La Trobe University acknowledges that this event and our participants are located on the lands of many traditional custodians in Australia. We recognise that Indigenous Australians have a continuing connection to land, water and community, their living culture and their unique role in the life of these regions, and value their unique contribution to the University and wider Australian society. We are committed to providing opportunities for Indigenous Australians, both as individuals and communities through teaching and learning, research and community partnerships across all our campuses and online. We pay our respects to Indigenous Elders, past, present and emerging and extend this respect to any Indigenous participants joining us online today. Part 1. Learning Objectives Grasp the meaning of several motivation concepts, including social motive, need, goal, value, intension, and self-regulation Describe five core social motives and why they are essential Briefly discuss how goals and values relate to each other PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 3 Motivation Quick review of Motivation in PSY1BAM Social Motivation in PSY1PAC Motivation is the drive to act to achieve your Social motivation is the motivational goals and meet your needs process occurs in a social space that involves other people with whom we Motivation directs your behaviour towards share cultural information (e.g., norms, your goals; achieving the goals is rewarding roles, values) Intrinsic motivations are internally driven (for Therefore, culture shapes our personal satisfaction) motivation and how it is manifested in Extrinsic motivations are externally driven social situations (gain an external review or avoid a punishment) Drives are internal states activated when the physiology of the body is out of balance Goals are desired end states PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 4 Psychological Process underlying Emotion and Behaviour Friend A Going to see the Course Looking busy & messy Advisor Friend B Looking happy & eager WHY? Going to the gym Friend C Going to visit Looking calm but blue grandparents PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 5 Motivation related Concepts Motivation is the psychological process that underlies and explains someone’s behaviour with a particular direction and intensity Motive is a reason or purpose for behaviour (“why”); it compels people to act in certain ways ○ Social motives concern people Needs are certain psychological states and experiences that are required for one to feel well adjusted PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 6 Motivation related Concepts Goals are specific objectives or desired end states that one will be trying to accomplish Values are ideas/principles that are personally important; values organise goals PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 7 Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Needs are structured hierarchically Lower needs must be met (at least partly) before being motivated by higher- level needs Self-actualization Maximising one’s potential Highest Needs E.g., follow interests for intrinsic pleasure; explore and enhance relationships with others; consider all people, not just themselves PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 8 Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Criticisms Does not explain/predict behaviour that is motivated by higher-level needs but without satisfying lower-level needs (e.g., starving for ideological goals) Behaviour that satisfies several needs at once Assuming universality, but may reflect individualistic way of being ○ E.g., putting Esteem needs on top of Social needs ○ Three basic psychological needs, namely, autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000), but expression and subjective importance can vary across cultures PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 9 Core Social Motives (BUCET) Core social motives are fundamental reasons that drive one’s thinking, feeling, and actions in ways that make social life possible What we are born with—inherited and universal Evolutionary adaptive PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 10 Core Social Motives (BUCET) Five Core Social Motives (Stevens & Fiske, 1995) Belonging: desire to affiliate, to have stable relationships with others Understanding: desire to make sense of reality and predict what will happen; share those understanding with others Controlling: desire to feel effective in dealing with the social environment Esteem: desire to feel good about themselves and feel others value them Trusting: desire to see the social world as benevolent PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 11 Why are Social Motives Evolutionary Adaptative? Ostracism, exclusion, and social isolation are dangerous for the excluded individual Forging one’s tie with the group will help avoid ostracism and secure protection when ostracism may occur Core social motives serve to forge the tie and increase security and chance of survival Adobe Stock PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 12  PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 13 Other Social Motives? Terror Management Theory (TMT; Greenberg et al., 1996) ○ Humans cope with the terror/anxiety about their inevitable death ○ Through a desire for feeling that one’s life is meaningful and remains meaningful even after death (symbolic immortality motives) Humans are driven to seek connections and patterns, and to maintain a sense of an orderly and coherent world (Heine et al., 2006) ○ Meaning-making is a universal, higher-order human need ○ Other social motives are part of a broader motive to maintain coherence to our (own) world Goals People can have many goals varying in priority Some goals are general and abstract ○ “Be aware and responsible” Others are specific and concrete ○ “Switch off lights every time” General goals organise sub‐goals pixabay PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 14 How Do Goals Work? Some goals compete with each other. Goals might be context‐specific, and their priorities can shift We monitor our progress in goal pursuit When an important goal is blocked, we experience an incompleteness, which can cause intrusive thoughts about the goal and help you go back to the goal pursuit Sometimes, persisting with goal pursuit is challenging PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 15 Values & Goals Values are abstract desirable goals that are relatively stable over time and across situations Values serve you when making decisions, i.e., guiding principles in life There are 10 value domains observed across cultures (Schwartz, 1992) Schwart’s values (1992) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 16 Values & Goals Goals are achievable ends; values are not achievable in an absolute sense (continuing with no end) ○ E.g., Getting a degree – a discrete, achievable end ○ Achievement – a value relevant to getting a degree in a particular sociocultural context with no end Connecting goals with values can broaden your horizon and help maintain motivation (further discussed in tutorial) ○ The Valued Living Questionnaire (Wilson et al., 2010) can help you monitor how goals are aligned with your values ○ Value-Affirmation Exercise increases your resilience (Cohen et al., 2006) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 17 Behavioural Intention Intention is a motivated behaviour ○ Hinged on motivation and best predictor of behaviour in a specific situation Theory of Planned Behaviour (Icek Ajzen in 1985) ○ Attitudes: how you feel about doing the behaviour, given the likely behavioural outcomes and their benefits/costs (expectancy value) ○ Subjective Norm: social pressure from relevant people ○ Self-Efficacy: how much control you have over taking and not taking action Powerful theory to understand and change health-related behaviours (e.g., smoking, drinking) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 18 Self-Regulation Controlling your behaviour or emotions (or the ability to do so) SimplyPsychology Children learn strategies for self‐regulation, esp. from parents Strength Model of Self‐Regulation (Baumester et al., 1994) ○ Self‐regulation consumes limited mental resources ○ Lot of effort to self‐regulate depletes the person (ego depletion) ○ When depleted, less able to self‐regulate Though one can train self-regulatory “muscles” PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 19 Self-Regulation Whether ego depletion is avoidable or not has been debated, with contrary evidence Motivation with additional incentives (rewards, praises) may increase self-regulatory power Self-regulatory power depends on implicit theory of willpower (Job et al., 2010) ○ “Nonlimited‐resource theory”: can avoid ego depletion ○ “Limited‐resource theory”: cannot avoid it Some people believe that self-regulation tasks are energizing, not tiring (Savani & Job, 2016) ○ After a tedious clerical task, Indian participants showed even better self- regulation power PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 20 Part 2. Learning Objectives Describe cultural differences in the need for consistency Describe cultural differences in the need for control Explain how one of the core social motives, esteem motive, is expressed and shaped differently in individualistic/independent and collectivistic/interdependent cultures PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 21 Culture & Motivation Culture orients us toward different desired states (e.g., ideal affect, being wise, athletic) Culture shapes unique expressions of universal psychological needs (e.g., food preference, love and affection, ‘consistency’, ‘control’) Culture influences motivation through the process involving distinct self-orientation (independent vs. interdependent self) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 22 Need for Consistency Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger) ○ People are motivated to be consistent ○ When inconsistency in behaviour is noticed (e.g., compared to your attitude), experience dissonance— negative arousal, motivating us to reduce it Image link Reduce dissonance through ○ Changing behaviour to match attitude ○ Changing attitude to be consistent with behaviour PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 23 Need for Consistency Asked to engage in a very boring task for 30 minutes; offered either $1 or $20 to tell another participant that the task is actually exciting and fun Later, asked to rate how much they enjoyed the task Who likes the task more? Those paid $1 or $20? Dissonance results in attitude change when there is no obvious justification Watch the experiment procedure using this link PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 24 Need for Consistency across Culture People from independent vs. interdependent cultures show dissonance in different ways (Cialdini et al., 1999) ○ Lack of self‐consistency ↑ dissonance among highly independent ○ Lack of “other‐consistency” ↑ dissonance among highly interdependent People who emphasise self‐consistency tend to be better adjusted in independent (e.g., the US) but not in interdependent (e.g., Korea) cultures (Suh, 2002) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 25 Need for Control – Primary vs. Secondary Control Primary control = changing one’s environment to fit one’s needs (or internal locus of control) Secondary control = aligning oneself to fit the environment (or external locus of control) Cultures vary in need for secondary (vs. primary) control ○ Secondary control more common in interdependent than independent cultures ○ Associated with feeling that one cannot change the world, and thus, one must adjust own goals to adapt to environment In independent (vs. interdependent) culture, task performance is superior when task provides a sense of primary (even illusory) control PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 26 Need for Control – Primary vs. Secondary Control Study comparing Japanese and American aerobics classes (Morling, 2000) Reasons for choosing their classes ○ Americans chose classes at times more convenient for them ○ Japanese chose classes based on class’s level When instructor’s move was too difficult, ○ Americans did their own move ○ Japanese tried hard to keep up with the instructor Different control strategies for reaching the same goal (stay fit) – secondary control in pixabay Japan, but primary control in the US PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 27 Esteem Motive Esteem motive is universal—the desire for positive self‐regard, being valued by others ○ In independent culture, understood and pursued as self‐enhancement motive (i.e., be better than others) ○ In interdependent culture, understood and expressed as self‐improvement motive (through self-criticism and modesty) These motives uniquely shape thinking, feeling Adobe Stock and behaviour Different self-esteem outcomes based on culture- specific motivations PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 28 Esteem Motive & Self-Esteem University students across culture tend to have comparable levels of esteem motive (e.g., “I want to feel that I have a number of good qualities”, “I want to feel I am satisfying others’ expectation for me”) Esteem Motive in 7 countries (Kashima et al., 2021) 7 5.4 5.4 5.6 6 5.1 5.0 5.2 5.0 5 4 3 2 1 PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 29 Esteem Motive & Self-Esteem Self‐esteem is an overall self‐evaluation, or how positive (vs. negative) you think of yourself Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) ○ On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. ○ At times I think I am no good at all. (reverse-keyed) ○ I feel that I have a number of good qualities. ○ I am able to do things as well as most other people. ○ I feel I do not have much to be proud of. (reverse-keyed) ○ I certainly feel useless at times. (reverse-keyed) ○ I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. ○ I wish I could have more respect for myself. (reverse-keyed) ○ All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. (reverse-keyed) ○ I take a positive attitude toward myself. PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 30  Distribution of Self-Esteem Esteem Motive & Self-Esteem European Canadian Level of self-esteem among university students varies across culture North American data show that most university students have self-esteem higher than mid-point of the scale Japanese (never been abroad) (top right figure), and rate themselves to be better than most others Asian (e.g., Japanese) people report lower self-esteem Heine et al. (1999) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 31 Esteem Motive & Self-Esteem Asian people living in Canada tend to have higher self‐esteem (Heine et al., 1999) Canadians living in Japan tend to have lower self‐esteem (Heine & Lehman, 1997, as cited in Heine et al., 1999) Heine et al. (1999) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 32 Self-Enhancement vs. Self-Improvement Motives Self-enhancement vs. self-improvement motives have downstream consequences for self-esteem Taking a creativity test and receiving feedback (Heine et al., 2001) European Americans Asian Americans Failure feedback Failure feedback External attributions (task difficulty) Internal attributions (lack effort) Discount the importance Emphasise the importance Success feedback Success feedback Internal attributions (traits, ability) External attributions (luck) Emphasise the importance Discount the importance Motivation Motivation Self‐defence & Self‐enhancement Self-improvement through Self‐criticism & modesty Consequence Consequence Higher self‐esteem Lower self‐esteem PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 33 Cultural Construction of the Self Situation-scapes (or “landscapes” of situations) = social settings that afford different cultural patterns to occur These situations have psychological impacts on self-esteem across culture ○ Situations from independent culture afford self-enhancement, lead people to have higher self-esteem ○ Situations from interdependent culture afford self-improvement, lead people to have lower self-esteem PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 34 Cultural Construction of the Self A large number of Japanese and U.S. situations related to increased self-esteem (success situation) and decreased self-esteem (failure situation) were collated (Kitayama et al., 1997) freepik freepik PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 35 Success Situations PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 36 Failure Situations PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 37 Cultural Construction of the Self Japanese and American participants rated each situation on whether and the extent to which it affect their self-esteem Social situations in the US afford self-enhancement ○ Success situations made in the US judged to influence self-esteem more than failure situations Social situations in Japan afford self-improvement via self-criticism ○ Failure situations made in Japan judged to influence self-esteem more than success situations Living and acting in these situation-scapes result in different constructions of the self, with distinct impact on self-esteem PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 38 Practice Question 1 In-class activity (no pre-lecture spoilers) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 39 Practice Question 2 In-class activity (no pre-lecture spoilers) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 40 Week 7: Relationships and Attraction Yuki, M., & Schug, J. (2020). Psychological consequences of relational mobility. Current Opinion in Psychology, 32, 129-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.029 (Prescribed; Read pp.129- 130) Kito, M., Yuki, M., & Thomson, R. (2017). Relational mobility and close relationships: A socioecological approach to explain cross‐cultural differences. Personal Relationships, 24(1), 114-130. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12174 (Recommended; Read pp.114-123) PSY1PAC Lecture 6 Page 41