Psychology Block 2 Notes PDF

PSYCHOLOGY BLOCK 2 Learning outcomes JULY 3, 2024 By Nadia Britz Table of Contents 1. Comprehend the Nature and Processes Behind Motivation........................................... 4 1.1 Define Motivation and Distinguish Between Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Mo...

PSYCHOLOGY BLOCK 2 Learning outcomes JULY 3, 2024 By Nadia Britz Table of Contents 1. Comprehend the Nature and Processes Behind Motivation........................................... 4 1.1 Define Motivation and Distinguish Between Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation...................................................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Identify the Key Elements of the Early Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation...................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Explain the Characteristics of the Three Types of Needs.............................................. 5 1.4 Identify the Key Elements of the Arousal and Incentive Approaches to Motivation........ 6 1.5 Describe How Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Self-Determination Theories Explain Motivation...................................................................................................................... 7 Learning Outcomes for Psychology: Sexuality and Gender Roles.......................................... 8 2. Demonstrate an Understanding of Sexuality and Gender Roles..................................... 8 2.1 Distinguish Between Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics................................ 8 2.2 Explain How Sex Characteristics Develop................................................................... 8 2.3 Identify the Psychological, Biological, Environmental, and Cultural Influences on Gender........................................................................................................................... 8 2.4 Compare and Contrast Different Views of How Gender Roles Develop......................... 9 2.5 Describe How Men and Women Differ in Thinking, Social Behavior, and Personality..... 9 2.6 Identify the Four Stages of a Sexual-Response Cycle................................................. 10 2.7 Identify Some Influences on the Development of Sexual Orientation......................... 10 Learning Outcomes for Psychology: Social Psychology...................................................... 12 3. Demonstrate an Understanding of the Underpinnings of Social Psychology................. 12 3.1 Factors Influencing Conformity................................................................................ 12 3.2 Impact of Others on Behavior................................................................................... 12 3.3 Compliance Techniques.......................................................................................... 13 3.4 Factors Making Obedience More Likely..................................................................... 14 3.5 Components of Attitude Formation.......................................................................... 14 3.6 Changing Attitudes.................................................................................................. 15 3.7 Attitude-Behavior Consistency................................................................................. 16 3.8 Forming Impressions............................................................................................... 16 3.9 Explaining Behavior................................................................................................. 16 3.10 Prejudice vs. Discrimination................................................................................... 17 3.11 Overcoming Prejudice............................................................................................ 18 3.12 Factors in Interpersonal Attraction......................................................................... 19 3.13 Types of Love (Sternberg)....................................................................................... 19 3.14 Aggressive Behavior............................................................................................... 20 3.15 Factors Influencing Helping Behavior..................................................................... 20 1|Pa ge  3.16 Examples of Group Conformity.............................................................................. 21 4.1 Define the Term Personality and Identify Several Traditional Perspectives in the Study of Personality.................................................................................................................... 25 4.2 Explain How the Mind and Personality Are Structured, According to Freud................. 25 4.3 Distinguish Among the Five Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development........... 26 4.4 Describe How the Neo-Freudians Modified Freud’s Theory........................................ 27 4.5 Evaluate the Influence of Freudian Theory on Modern Personality Theories................ 27 4.6 Compare and Contrast the Learning Theories of Bandura and Rotter......................... 27 4.7 Evaluate the Strengths and Limitations of the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Learning Views of Personality...................................................................................................... 28 4.8 Describe How Humanists Such as Carl Rogers Explain Personality............................ 28 4.9 Evaluate the Strengths and Limitations of the Humanistic View of Personality............ 29 4.10 Describe Early Attempts to Use Traits to Conceptualize Personality......................... 29 4.11 Identify the Five Trait Dimensions of the Five-Factor Model of Personality................ 30 4.12 Evaluate the Strengths and Limitations of the Trait View of Personality..................... 31 4.13 Explain How Twin Studies and Adoption Studies Are Used in the Field of Behavioral Genetics....................................................................................................................... 32 4.14 Evaluate the Role of Neuroscience in the Investigation of Biological Bases of Personality.................................................................................................................... 32 4.15 Summarize Current Research on the Heritability and Neuroscience of Personality... 32 4.16 Identify the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories to Measure Personality.................................. 33 4.17 Identify the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Projective Personality Tests..... 33 4.18 Identify Ways in Which You Informally Assess the Personality of Others................... 34 Demonstrate an Understanding of the Underpinnings of Psychological Disorders............... 35 5.1 Explain How Our Definition of Abnormal Behavior and Thinking Has Changed Over Time.................................................................................................................................... 35 5.2 Identify Models Used to Explain Psychological Disorders.......................................... 36 5.3 Describe How Psychological Disorders Are Diagnosed and Classified....................... 36 5.4 Describe Different Disorders of Mood, Including Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorders...................................................................................................................... 36 5.5 Compare and Contrast Potential Explanations for Depression and Other Disorders of Mood............................................................................................................................ 37 5.6 Identify Different Types of Anxiety Disorders and Their Symptoms............................. 37 5.7 Describe Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Stress-Related Disorders................... 39 5.8 Identify Potential Causes of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress Disorders............................ 40 5.9 Differentiate Among Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Fugue, and Dissociative Identity Disorder........................................................................................................... 41 2|Pa ge  5.10 Summarize Explanations for Dissociative Disorders................................................ 42 5.11 Identify the Symptoms and Risk Factors Associated with Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge-Eating Disorder............................................................................... 42 5.12 Describe Types of Sexual Dysfunction and Explain How They May Develop.............. 43 5.13 Classify Different Types of Personality Disorders..................................................... 44 5.14 Identify Potential Causes of Personality Disorders.................................................. 44 5.15 Distinguish Between the Positive and Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia............ 44 5.16 Evaluate the Biological and Environmental Influences on Schizophrenia.................. 45 5.17 Identify Some Ways to Overcome Test Anxiety........................................................ 46 Demonstrating Understanding of Psychological Therapies................................................. 47 6.1 Historical Changes in the Treatment of Psychological Disorders................................ 47 6.2 Freud’s Psychoanalysis and Modern Psychodynamic Approaches............................. 47 6.3 Humanistic Therapies: Person-Centred and Gestalt Therapy..................................... 48 6.4 Behavioural Therapies Using Conditioning................................................................ 48 6.5 Cognitive and Cognitive-Behavioural Therapies (CBT)................................................ 49 6.6 Factors Influencing Therapy Effectiveness................................................................ 50 6.7 Types of Psychotropic Drugs.................................................................................... 50 6.8 Effectiveness of Biomedical Therapies..................................................................... 51 6.9 Newer Technologies in Treating Psychological Disorders........................................... 51 6.10 Benefits of Physical Exercise and Nature on Mental Health...................................... 52 6.11 Strategies for Reducing Mental Health Stigma......................................................... 52 3|Pa ge 1. Comprehend the Nature and Processes Behind Motivation 1.1 Define Motivation and Distinguish Between Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation Definition of Motivation: Motivation refers to the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior. It involves the interplay of biological, psychological, and environmental factors. Motivation causes individuals to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge. Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation arises from within the individual, driven by personal satisfaction or interest in the task itself. For example, reading a book because you enjoy the story or learning. Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards such as money, grades, or praise. For example, studying hard to get a good grade or working overtime to earn a bonus. 1.2 Identify the Key Elements of the Early Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation Early Instinct Approach: Instinct Theory: Behavior is driven by innate, fixed patterns of behavior (instincts) that are inherited. Key Elements: o Behavior is automatic and unlearned. o Specific instincts drive specific behaviors, such as mating instincts in animals or maternal instincts in humans. Drive-Reduction Approach: Drive Theory: Suggests that physiological needs create internal states of tension (drives) that motivate organisms to satisfy those needs. Key Elements: o Primary drives are biological needs like hunger, thirst, and warmth. o Secondary drives are learned through conditioning and association. o The goal of behavior is to reduce these drives and restore homeostasis. 4|Pa ge 1.3 Explain the Characteristics of the Three Types of Needs McClelland’s Theory: Need for Achievement (nAch): The drive to excel and achieve in relation to a set of standards and strive to succeed. For example, an entrepreneur who sets high goals for their business. Need for Affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. For example, a person who enjoys social gatherings and maintains a large network of friends. Need for Power (nPow): The need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise. This can be personal (controlling others for personal gain) or institutional (organizing people to achieve goals). For example, a manager who likes to direct team efforts toward achieving company objectives. Biological Needs: Stem from basic survival requirements like food, water, and shelter. Essential for maintaining physiological equilibrium. Psychological Needs: Related to emotional and psychological well-being. Include needs for belongingness, love, and self-esteem. Self-Actualization Needs: 5|Pa ge  Highest level in Maslow's hierarchy. Concerned with personal growth, fulfillment, and realizing one's potential. 1.4 Identify the Key Elements of the Arousal and Incentive Approaches to Motivation Arousal Theory: Suggests that individuals seek an optimal level of arousal or stimulation. Moderate arousal levels are associated with peak performance. Both low and high levels of arousal can lead to decreased motivation. For example, someone might seek out exciting activities like skydiving if their arousal level is low. Incentive Theory: Focuses on external factors that motivate behavior. Emphasizes the role of rewards, punishments, and incentives in driving behavior. People are motivated to seek rewards and avoid punishments. For example, working hard to receive a promotion (positive incentive) or to avoid being fired (negative incentive). 6|Pa ge 1.5 Describe How Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Self-Determination Theories Explain Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A pyramid-shaped model categorizing human needs from the most basic (physiological needs like food and water) to higher-level psychological needs (self- actualization, or realizing one's potential). Each level must be satisfied before moving to the next. For example, a person must have their safety needs met before they can focus on love and belonging. Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Focuses on intrinsic motivation and the inherent psychological needs that drive behavior. Identifies three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Emphasizes the role of autonomy in promoting intrinsic motivation and well-being. For example, a student who feels competent in their studies, has supportive relationships, and feels they have control over their learning will be more motivated. Comparison: Maslow’s theory is hierarchical, suggesting a sequence of needs, while SDT emphasizes the universality of psychological needs. Both theories underscore the importance of internal motivations, but SDT places greater emphasis on intrinsic motivation and the fulfillment of psychological needs. Maslow's theory is more prescriptive, whereas SDT offers a broader framework for understanding motivation across various contexts. 7|Pa ge Learning Outcomes for Psychology: Sexuality and Gender Roles 2. Demonstrate an Understanding of Sexuality and Gender Roles 2.1 Distinguish Between Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics Primary Sex Characteristics: Definition: Physical features directly involved in reproduction. Examples: Testes in males and ovaries in females. Secondary Sex Characteristics: Definition: Features that appear during puberty but are not directly related to reproduction. Examples: Breast development in females and facial hair in males. 2.2 Explain How Sex Characteristics Develop Development of Sex Characteristics: Primary Sex Characteristics: o Development: Occurs in the womb, driven by sex chromosomes (XX for females, XY for males) and hormones like testosterone and estrogen. Secondary Sex Characteristics: o Development: Occurs during puberty due to hormonal changes. 2.3 Identify the Psychological, Biological, Environmental, and Cultural Influences on Gender Psychological Influences: Cognitive processes and individual experiences that shape gender identity and roles. Biological Influences: Genetic and hormonal factors that influence gender development and behavior. 8|Pa ge Environmental Influences: Socialization processes, including family, education, and media, that shape gender roles and expectations. Cultural Influences: Cultural norms and values that define gender roles and behaviors. For example, in some cultures, gender roles are more rigidly defined than in others. 2.4 Compare and Contrast Different Views of How Gender Roles Develop Social Learning Theory: Suggests that gender roles are learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. Example: Children learn gender-appropriate behaviors by watching their parents and peers. Cognitive Developmental Theory: Proposes that children actively construct gender knowledge as they grow and develop. Example: By age 2-3, children start to identify as boys or girls and begin to adopt gender-specific behaviors. Gender Schema Theory: Combines social learning and cognitive development theories, suggesting that children develop a framework for understanding gender based on social and cultural experiences. Example: Children learn to categorize activities and objects as masculine or feminine. 2.5 Describe How Men and Women Differ in Thinking, Social Behavior, and Personality Thinking: Some studies suggest differences in spatial abilities, with men typically performing better on tasks requiring spatial manipulation. Women often excel in verbal fluency and social cognition tasks. Social Behavior: Women generally show more empathy and nurturing behavior. Men may display more assertiveness and competitiveness. These differences are influenced by socialization and cultural expectations. Personality: 9|Pa ge  Research often finds women to be higher in agreeableness and neuroticism. Men are higher in openness to experience and extraversion. These differences are influenced by cultural and social factors. 2.6 Identify the Four Stages of a Sexual-Response Cycle Excitement: Initial arousal, including increased heart rate and blood flow to the genitals. Plateau: Continued arousal and intensification of physical changes. Orgasm: Peak of sexual pleasure, characterized by muscle contractions and release of sexual tension. Resolution: Body gradually returns to its normal state. Refractory period in men during which they cannot achieve another orgasm immediately. 2.7 Identify Some Influences on the Development of Sexual Orientation 10 | P a g e Biological Factors: Genetic influences, prenatal hormone levels, and brain structure differences have been linked to sexual orientation. Psychological Factors: Early childhood experiences and emotional bonds can influence sexual orientation. Environmental and Social Factors: Cultural norms and societal attitudes can impact how individuals perceive and express their sexual orientation. 11 | P a g e Learning Outcomes for Psychology: Social Psychology 3. Demonstrate an Understanding of the Underpinnings of Social Psychology 3.1 Factors Influencing Conformity Normative Influence: Definition: Desire to fit in and be accepted by a group. Example: Dressing similarly to peers to fit in. Informational Influence: Definition: Belief that others have more accurate knowledge or judgment. Example: Conforming to others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation. Group Size: Definition: Larger groups tend to elicit more conformity. Example: More conformity in larger group settings. Group Cohesion: Definition: Stronger bonds within a group increase conformity. Example: Close-knit teams show higher conformity. Culture: Definition: Cultural norms can shape conformity tendencies. Example: Collectivist cultures exhibit higher conformity rates. Social Influence: Definition: The real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Conformity: Changing one’s own behavior to match that of other people. 3.2 Impact of Others on Behavior Social Facilitation: Definition: Enhanced performance on simple or well-rehearsed tasks in the presence of others. Example: Cyclists ride faster when racing against others. Social Inhibition: 12 | P a g e  Definition: Impaired performance on complex or unfamiliar tasks in the presence of others. Example: Struggling with a new skill in front of an audience. Social Loafing: Definition: Exerting less effort in a group setting, assuming others will compensate. Example: Contributing less in group projects. Groupthink: Definition: Prioritizing group unanimity and cohesiveness over realistic appraisal of alternatives. Example: Poor decision-making in cohesive groups. Group Polarization: Definition: Tendency for group discussion to result in more extreme positions. Example: Riskier decisions made after group discussions. 3.3 Compliance Techniques Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Definition: Starting with a small request to increase the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later. Example: Asking for a small donation before requesting a larger one. Door-in-the-Face Technique: Definition: Starting with a large request that is refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. Example: Asking for a large favor, then scaling down to a smaller favor. 13 | P a g e Low-Balling: Definition: Gaining commitment to a deal at a lower price, then raising the price after commitment. Example: Car sales tactics with additional fees after initial agreement. Compliance due to Perceived Authority: Definition: Request perceived as a command from an authority figure. Example: Compliance with orders from a supervisor. 3.4 Factors Making Obedience More Likely Legitimacy of Authority: Definition: People are more likely to obey authority figures perceived as legitimate. Example: Compliance with instructions from a police officer. Proximity: Definition: Physical closeness to the authority figure increases obedience. Example: Higher obedience when the authority figure is nearby. Gradual Escalation: Definition: Gradually increasing demands make obedience more likely. Example: Slowly increasing the difficulty of tasks. 3.5 Components of Attitude Formation Affective Component: Definition: Emotional reactions or feelings toward an object, person, or situation. Example: Feeling happy when seeing a favorite brand. Behavioral Component: Definition: Actions or behaviors influenced by attitudes. Example: Buying products based on positive attitudes. Cognitive Component: Definition: Beliefs, thoughts, and knowledge about the attitude object. Example: Believing a product is high quality. Formation: Definition: Attitudes are formed through experiences, socialization, and exposure to information. 14 | P a g e  Example: Repeated exposure to a brand forming a positive attitude. 3.6 Changing Attitudes Persuasion: Definition: Using communication to change attitudes through logic, emotion, or credibility. Example: Advertisements changing consumer attitudes. Cognitive Dissonance: Definition: Changing attitudes to reduce discomfort caused by inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors. Example: Quitting smoking due to health concerns. Lessening Cognitive Dissonance: Definition: Changing conflicting behavior, changing conflicting attitude, or forming a new attitude. Example: Justifying behavior by adopting new attitudes. 15 | P a g e 3.7 Attitude-Behavior Consistency Cognitive Dissonance: Definition: Uncomfortable feeling when attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent. Example: Feeling discomfort from believing in exercise but not exercising. Self-Perception Theory: Definition: Inferring attitudes from observed behaviors. Example: Concluding you enjoy an activity after frequently engaging in it. 3.8 Forming Impressions Impression Formation: Definition: Combining information about a person to form an overall impression. Example: Judging someone as friendly based on their smile. First Impressions: Definition: Initial judgments based on limited information. Example: Forming opinions based on appearance and behavior. Social Categorization: Definition: Automatic unconscious assignment of a new acquaintance to some category or group. Example: Categorizing someone as a student based on their attire. Stereotypes: Definition: Generalized beliefs about characteristics of a group. Example: Assuming someone is studious because they wear glasses. Attribution: Definition: Explaining behavior by attributing it to internal or external factors. Example: Attributing success to hard work (internal) or luck (external). 3.9 Explaining Behavior Attribution Theory: 16 | P a g e  Definition: Explaining behaviors by attributing them to dispositional (internal) or situational (external) factors. Example: Attributing a friend's lateness to their personality (internal) or traffic (external). Fundamental Attribution Error: Definition: Tendency to attribute others' behavior to internal factors while overlooking situational influences. Example: Blaming someone's rudeness on their character rather than their bad day. 3.10 Prejudice vs. Discrimination Prejudice: Definition: Negative attitudes or beliefs about individuals or groups based on stereotypes. Example: Holding biased views about a racial group. 17 | P a g e Discrimination: Definition: Behaviors directed against individuals or groups based on prejudice. Example: Refusing to hire someone based on their race. 3.11 Overcoming Prejudice Contact Hypothesis: Definition: Increased contact between groups can reduce prejudice. Example: Diverse workplace interactions reducing biases. Education and Awareness: Definition: Providing information and challenging stereotypes. Example: Anti-prejudice training programs. Equal Status Contact: Definition: Interacting with members of other groups on an equal footing. Example: Team-building exercises among diverse groups. Social Learning Theory: 18 | P a g e  Definition: Prejudice is learned through observation and reinforcement. Example: Children adopting prejudiced views from parents. Social Identity Theory: Definition: Formation of a person’s identity within a particular group. Example: Identifying with a social group and adopting its norms. Stereotype Vulnerability: Definition: Knowledge of someone else’s stereotyped opinions affecting one's behavior. Example: Performing poorly due to awareness of negative stereotypes. Stopping Prejudice: Equal Status Contact: Contact between groups with equal status can reduce prejudice. “Jigsaw Classroom”: Educational technique where individuals must work together to solve a problem, promoting cooperation. 3.12 Factors in Interpersonal Attraction Proximity: Definition: Physical closeness increases the likelihood of attraction. Example: Being friends with someone who lives nearby. Similarity: Definition: People are attracted to others who are similar to themselves. Example: Forming friendships based on shared interests. Physical Attractiveness: Definition: Physical appearance influences initial attraction. Example: Being drawn to someone because of their looks. Reciprocity: Definition: Mutual liking and positive feedback enhance attraction. Example: Liking someone more because they like you. 3.13 Types of Love (Sternberg) Intimacy: Definition: Emotional closeness and connection. Example: Sharing personal thoughts and feelings. 19 | P a g e Passion: Definition: Physical attraction and arousal. Example: Feeling excited and physically attracted to someone. Commitment: Definition: Decision to maintain the relationship long-term. Example: Deciding to stay with a partner through challenges. Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love: Intimacy + Passion: Romantic love. Intimacy + Commitment: Companionate love. Passion + Commitment: Fatuous love. 3.14 Aggressive Behavior Biological Factors: Hormonal Influences: Effects of hormones like testosterone. Genetic Predispositions: Inherited tendencies toward aggression. Brain Structures: Role of the amygdala and limbic system in aggression. Learning Factors: Observational Learning: Learning aggression by watching others. Reinforcement: Behavior encouraged by rewards. Social Modeling: Adopting behaviors seen in influential figures. Media Violence: Definition: Exposure to violent media increasing aggressive behavior. Example: Children imitating aggressive acts seen on TV. 3.15 Factors Influencing Helping Behavior Altruism: Definition: Helping others without expecting anything in return. Example: Donating anonymously to charity. Social Exchange Theory: Definition: Helping because perceived benefits outweigh costs. Example: Helping a friend expecting future help in return. Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: 20 | P a g e  Definition: Helping out of genuine concern for others' well-being. Example: Assisting someone in distress due to empathy. Bystander Effect: Definition: Presence of others reduces the likelihood of helping. Example: Failing to help in an emergency when many are present. Diffusion of Responsibility: Definition: Assuming others will take action, leading to inaction. Example: Not helping in a crowded area because others are expected to help. 3.16 Examples of Group Conformity Fashion Trends: Definition: Adopting similar styles due to social influence. Example: Wearing popular clothing brands to fit in. Peer Pressure: 21 | P a g e  Definition: Engaging in behaviors to fit in with peers. Example: Teens trying smoking due to peer influence. Political Affiliation: Definition: Aligning beliefs with those of a social group. Example: Adopting political views of friends and family. Vocabulavry Definition of Term Example Term The scientific study of how we Social think about, influence and psychology relate to one another Either a person is always The theory that we explain angry or they are angry Attribution someone’s behaviour by because they were just theory crediting either the situation or stung by a large jellyfish the person’s disposition while swimming If someone cuts you off on The tendency for observers, the highway, you are more when analysing another’s Fundamental likely to say they are always behaviour, to underestimate attribution a bad driver than to say the impact of the situation and error they just forgot to check to overestimate the impact of their blind spot that one personal disposition time If you believe Harry Potter Feelings, often influenced by should be a banned book, our beliefs, that predispose us anyone you see wearing a Attitude to respond in a particular way Harry Potter T-shirt would to objects, people and events likely be someone you would not like to talk to Occurs when interested People who are naturally Central route to people focus on the analytical or involved in an persuasion arguments and respond with issue favourable thoughts Occurs when people are Peripheral influenced by incidental cues, Endorsements by route to such as a speaker’s respected people persuasion attractiveness The tendency for people who Foot-in-the- An activist may first ask one have first agreed to a small door to sign a petition, followed request to comply later with a phenomenon by a monetary request larger request 22 | P a g e  A set of explanations/norms about a social position, Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Role defining how those in the simulation position ought to behave The theory that we act to When our awareness of our Cognitive reduce the attitudes and our actions dissonance discomfort/dissonance we feel clash, we can reduce the theory when two of our thoughts are resulting dissonance by inconsistent changing our attitudes Normative Influence resulting from a Asch’s conformity social person’s desire to gain experiments influence approval or avoid disapproval Informational Influence resulting from one’s social willingness to accept others’ Groupthink influence opinions about reality Although your idea would The mode of thinking that look better and be easier, occurs when the desire for you do not want to cause Groupthink harmony in a decision-making tension in the group, so you group overrides a realistic say nothing about your appraisal of alternatives idea Generally, it involves An unjustifiable attitude stereotyped beliefs, Prejudice towards a group and its negative feelings and a members predisposition to discriminatory action A generalised belief about a All Asian kids are great Stereotype group of people violinists Unjustifiable negative Coloured vs white drinking Discrimination behaviour towards a group fountains before the Civil and its members Rights Movement ‘Us’ – people with whom we In-group All students at Eduvos share a common identity ‘Them’ – those perceived as Out-group different or apart from our in- All students at UCT group Any physical or verbal Man hit his child with his Aggression behaviour intended to hurt or belt destroy The principle that frustration – After missing a shot, the Frustration- the blocking of an attempt to golfer is more likely to aggression achieve some goal – creates become aggressive than if principle anger, which can generate he had achieved his goal aggression 23 | P a g e  Usually present at the Passionate An aroused state of intense beginning of a love love positive absorption in another relationship but usually does not last The deep affectionate Companionate attachment we feel for those Growing old together love with whom our lives are happily intertwined White South Africans Unselfish regard for the Altruism fighting alongside black welfare of others activists against racism Although Mark is crying in a The tendency for any given corner, no one stops to help Bystander bystander to be less likely to him because others, not effect give aid if other bystanders are feeling responsible for present Mark’s wellbeing, are not helping The theory that our social Helping Mark would make Social behaviour is an exchange one late for work, which exchange process, the aim of which is to would have repercussions, theory maximise benefits and although leaving him there minimise costs causes oneself no harm 24 | P a g e 4.1 Define the Term Personality and Identify Several Traditional Perspectives in the Study of Personality Personality: The unique and stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals. Traditional Perspectives: Psychoanalytic: Focuses on unconscious processes and childhood experiences (e.g., Freud). Behaviorist: Emphasizes learned behaviors (e.g., Skinner). Humanistic: Stresses individual growth and self-actualization (e.g., Rogers, Maslow). Trait: Focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics (e.g., Big Five). 4.2 Explain How the Mind and Personality Are Structured, According to Freud Freud’s Structure of the Mind: Id: Instinctual drives and desires, operating on the pleasure principle – libido/ immediate satisfaction needs. Ego: Mediates between the id and reality, operating on the reality principle. Superego: Internalized societal and parental standards, guiding moral behavior. Defense mechanisms 25 | P a g e 4.3 Distinguish Among the Five Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development Psychosexual Stages: 1. Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting). 2. Anal Stage (1-3 years): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination. 3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous feelings. 4. Latency Stage (6-puberty): Dormant sexual feelings. 5. Genital Stage (puberty onward): Maturation of sexual interests. 26 | P a g e 4.4 Describe How the Neo-Freudians Modified Freud’s Theory Neo-Freudians: Carl Jung: Introduced concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes. Alfred Adler: Emphasized social factors and introduced the concept of inferiority complex. Karen Horney: Focused on social and cultural factors and criticized Freud’s views on women. Erikson: focused on social relationships across the lifespan 4.5 Evaluate the Influence of Freudian Theory on Modern Personality Theories Influence: Freud’s ideas about the unconscious, defense mechanisms, and the importance of childhood experiences have significantly impacted modern psychology, despite some criticisms and modifications. 4.6 Compare and Contrast the Learning Theories of Bandura and Rotter Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Emphasizes observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Introduced the concept of self-efficacy. Rotter’s Social Learning Theory: Focuses on the role of reinforcement and expectancies. Introduced the concept of locus of control (internal vs. external). 27 | P a g e 4.7 Evaluate the Strengths and Limitations of the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Learning Views of Personality Behaviorists define personality as a set of learned responses or habits. Social cognitive theorists emphasise the importance of others’ behaviors and one’s own expectations. Strengths: Empirical support. Practical applications in behavior modification. Emphasis on the environment. Limitations: Underestimates the influence of biological factors and internal thoughts. 4.8 Describe How Humanists Such as Carl Rogers Explain Personality Carl Rogers’ Humanistic Theory: Emphasizes self-actualization and the self-concept. Stresses the importance of unconditional positive regard and congruence between self-image and reality. The Third Force The third force: Humanism and personality Humanistic perspective led psychologists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, to focus on things that make people uniquely human 28 | P a g e 4.9 Evaluate the Strengths and Limitations of the Humanistic View of Personality Strengths: Positive view of human nature. Emphasis on individual growth and personal responsibility. Limitations: Lack of empirical evidence. Overly optimistic and may ignore negative aspects of human behavior. 4.10 Describe Early Attempts to Use Traits to Conceptualize Personality Trait Theories: Allport: Identified thousands of personality traits. Cattell: Used factor analysis to identify 16 personality factors. 29 | P a g e 4.11 Identify the Five Trait Dimensions of the Five-Factor Model of Personality Big Five Model: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN). 30 | P a g e 4.12 Evaluate the Strengths and Limitations of the Trait View of Personality Strengths: Empirical support. Practical applications in various fields. Ability to predict behavior. Limitations: May overlook the influence of situational factors and dynamic aspects of personality. 31 | P a g e 4.13 Explain How Twin Studies and Adoption Studies Are Used in the Field of Behavioral Genetics Twin Studies: Compare the similarities between identical and fraternal twins to estimate genetic influence on personality traits. Adoption Studies: Compare adopted children with their adoptive and biological parents to separate genetic and environmental influences. 4.14 Evaluate the Role of Neuroscience in the Investigation of Biological Bases of Personality Neuroscience: Investigates the role of brain structures, neurotransmitters, and genetic factors in shaping personality. For example, the role of the amygdala in emotional regulation. 4.15 Summarize Current Research on the Heritability and Neuroscience of Personality Current Research: Indicates that personality traits have a significant genetic component, with heritability estimates around 40-60%. Neuroscientific studies link specific brain regions and neurotransmitter systems to personality traits. 32 | P a g e 4.16 Identify the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories to Measure Personality Interviews: Advantages: Rich, qualitative data, and insights into thought processes. Disadvantages: Subjective, time-consuming, and potential for interviewer bias. Behavioral Assessments: Advantages: Objective, observable behaviors, and ecological validity – natural environment Disadvantages: Limited to specific situations and behaviors, potential observer bias. Personality Inventories: Advantages: Standardized, reliable, and valid measures of personality traits. Disadvantages: May lack depth, potential for social desirability bias, and limited by self-report inaccuracies. 4.17 Identify the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Projective Personality Tests Advantages: Can provide insights into unconscious processes and reveal hidden aspects of personality. 33 | P a g e Disadvantages: Subjective interpretation, low reliability, and validity. 4.18 Identify Ways in Which You Informally Assess the Personality of Others Informal Assessment: Observing behavior. Listening to speech patterns. Noting reactions in different situations. Considering body language and facial expressions. 34 | P a g e Demonstrate an Understanding of the Underpinnings of Psychological Disorders 5.1 Explain How Our Definition of Abnormal Behavior and Thinking Has Changed Over Time Historical Views: Ancient Beliefs: Abnormal behavior was attributed to supernatural forces. Middle Ages: Seen as demonic possession. Enlightenment: Shift towards medical and scientific explanations. Modern Views: Abnormal behavior results from a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Defined by deviation from societal norms, maladaptiveness, and personal distress. How do we define Abnormal? Deviant behavior- Going against a Statistical or social norm Deviant behavior must cause subjective discomfort/distress. Inability to function normally A psychological disorder is any pattern of behavior that is causing distress to harm self/others harms ability to function in daily life 35 | P a g e 5.2 Identify Models Used to Explain Psychological Disorders Biological Model: Focuses on genetic, neurochemical, and anatomical contributions. Psychological Models: Psychodynamic: Emphasizes unconscious processes. Behavioral: Focuses on learned behaviors. Cognitive: Examines thought patterns. Humanistic: Stresses individual growth. Sociocultural Model: Considers social and cultural influences on behavior. Biopsychosocial Model: Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors. 5.3 Describe How Psychological Disorders Are Diagnosed and Classified Diagnosis and Classification: Uses the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to classify and diagnose mental disorders based on specific criteria and symptomatology. 5.4 Describe Different Disorders of Mood, Including Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorders Major Depressive Disorder: Persistent sadness, loss of interest, changes in sleep, appetite, and concentration. Bipolar Disorders: Episodes of depression and mania. Mania: Elevated mood, increased energy, impulsive behavior. 36 | P a g e 5.5 Compare and Contrast Potential Explanations for Depression and Other Disorders of Mood Biological Explanations: Genetic predisposition, neurotransmitter imbalances (e.g., serotonin), brain structure abnormalities. Psychological Explanations: Cognitive distortions, learned helplessness, negative thought patterns. Sociocultural Explanations: Stressful life events, social isolation, cultural factors. 5.6 Identify Different Types of Anxiety Disorders and Their Symptoms Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Excessive, uncontrollable worry about various aspects of life. Panic Disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and fear of future attacks. Phobias: Intense, irrational fears of specific objects or situations. Social Anxiety Disorder: Fear of social situations and being judged by others. 37 | P a g e Name of the phobia: Fear of: Xenophobia Strangers 38 | P a g e Ophidiophobia Snakes Panaphobia Everything Cynophobia Dogs Numerophobia Numbers Arachnophobia Spiders Murophobia Mice Microphobia Germs 5.7 Describe Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Stress-Related Disorders Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Intrusive, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) performed to reduce anxiety. Common Obsessions: Common Compulsions: Contamination fears of germs, dirt, etc. Washing Imagining having harmed self or others Repeating Imagining losing control of aggressive urges Checking 39 | P a g e Intrusive sexual thoughts or urges Touching Putting things in A need to have things "just so" order Stress-Related Disorders: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Flashbacks, nightmares, severe anxiety following a traumatic event. Acute Stress Disorder: Similar to PTSD but symptoms occur within a month of the trauma and are shorter in duration. 5.8 Identify Potential Causes of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress Disorders Biological Causes: Genetic predisposition, neurochemical imbalances, brain structure anomalies. Psychological Causes: Traumatic experiences, learned behaviors, cognitive distortions. Environmental Causes: Stressful life events, social factors, cultural influences. 40 | P a g e 5.9 Differentiate Among Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Fugue, and Dissociative Identity Disorder Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall important personal information, usually following a traumatic event. Dissociative Fugue: Sudden, unexpected travel away from home, accompanied by amnesia for past identity. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states, with gaps in memory for everyday events. 41 | P a g e 5.10 Summarize Explanations for Dissociative Disorders Psychodynamic Explanation: Repression of traumatic memories and dissociation as a defense mechanism. Cognitive Explanation: Maladaptive coping strategies, disruptions in memory processes. Biological Explanation: Potential genetic and neurobiological factors. 5.11 Identify the Symptoms and Risk Factors Associated with Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge-Eating Disorder Anorexia Nervosa: Extreme weight loss, fear of gaining weight, distorted body image. Risk factors: Perfectionism, cultural pressure, family dynamics. Bulimia Nervosa: Binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors like vomiting or excessive exercise. Risk factors: Societal pressure, emotional distress, impulsivity. 42 | P a g e Binge-Eating Disorder: Recurrent episodes of binge eating without compensatory behaviors, leading to distress and obesity. Risk factors: Genetic predisposition, emotional eating, negative self-esteem. 5.12 Describe Types of Sexual Dysfunction and Explain How They May Develop Sexual Dysfunction: Disorders like erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, female orgasmic disorder. Development: Biological factors (hormonal imbalances, medical conditions), psychological factors (anxiety, past trauma), sociocultural influences (negative attitudes towards sex). 43 | P a g e 5.13 Classify Different Types of Personality Disorders Cluster A (Odd/Eccentric): Paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal personality disorders. Cluster B (Dramatic/Erratic): Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic personality disorders. Cluster C (Anxious/Fearful): Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. 5.14 Identify Potential Causes of Personality Disorders Causes: Combination of genetic predisposition, early childhood experiences, dysfunctional family dynamics, environmental factors. 5.15 Distinguish Between the Positive and Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia Positive Symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking. Negative Symptoms: 44 | P a g e  Apathy, lack of emotion, social withdrawal. 5.16 Evaluate the Biological and Environmental Influences on Schizophrenia Biological Influences: Genetic predisposition, brain abnormalities, neurotransmitter imbalances (dopamine hypothesis). Environmental Influences: Prenatal stress, early childhood trauma, urban upbringing. 45 | P a g e 5.17 Identify Some Ways to Overcome Test Anxiety Overcoming Test Anxiety: Relaxation training, cognitive restructuring, time management skills, practice exams. 46 | P a g e Demonstrating Understanding of Psychological Therapies 6.1 Historical Changes in the Treatment of Psychological Disorders Historical Treatment: o Ancient practices included exorcism and confinement in asylums. o Transitioned to humane treatments like moral therapy. o Development of psychotherapies and medications in the 20th century. Modern Treatment: o Involves evidence-based psychotherapies and psychotropic medications. o Includes integrative approaches combining different therapeutic methods. 6.2 Freud’s Psychoanalysis and Modern Psychodynamic Approaches Freud’s Psychoanalysis: o Techniques: Free association, dream analysis, transference. o Focus on uncovering unconscious conflicts and repressed material. Modern Psychodynamic Approaches: o Emphasize unconscious processes and early experiences. o More focused and time-limited compared to traditional psychoanalysis. o Free association 47 | P a g e  Technique for revealing the unconscious mind. Revised by Freud’s co-worker, Joseph Breuer. Say freely whatever comes to their mind without fear of being evaluated negatively. Resistance: the patient becomes unwilling to talk about certain topics. Transference: the therapist becomes a symbol of a parental authority figure from the past. Counter Transference: is experienced by a therapist as a reaction of transference Interpersonal Psychotherapy Known as IPT: developed to address depression. Focuses on relationships with self & others & the interplay between mood & the events of everyday life. Derived from psychodynamics. Research supports its effectiveness in treating depression when combined with medication. IPT is not considered to be a psychodynamic therapy as it combines aspects of humanistic & cognitive-behavioural therapies. 6.3 Humanistic Therapies: Person-Centred and Gestalt Therapy Does not focus on the unconscious, or hidden conflicts. Humanistic focus on conscious, subjective experiences of emotion & people’s sense of self as well as the immediate experiences in their daily lives. Originates from Carl Rogers Person- Centered Therapy & Fitz Perls’s Gestalt Theory. Person-Centred Therapy (Carl Rogers): o Key Elements: Unconditional positive regard, empathy, congruence. o Goal: Help clients achieve self-actualization. Gestalt Therapy (Fritz Perls): o Focus on the present moment and client’s experience. o Techniques: Role-playing, empty chair to enhance self-awareness. o Directive 6.4 Behavioural Therapies Using Conditioning Classical Conditioning: o Techniques: Systematic desensitization, exposure therapy. 48 | P a g e  o Used for phobias and anxiety. Operant Conditioning: o Techniques: Reinforcement, punishment. o Used in behavior modification programs (e.g., ADHD treatment). 6.5 Cognitive and Cognitive-Behavioural Therapies (CBT) Cognitive Therapy: o Focus on changing maladaptive thoughts. o Techniques: Cognitive restructuring, challenging irrational beliefs. Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT): o Combines cognitive and behavioral techniques. o Effective for disorders like depression and anxiety. 49 | P a g e 6.6 Factors Influencing Therapy Effectiveness Key factors include: o Therapeutic alliance. o Therapist competence. o Client motivation. o Match between therapy type and client issues. 6.7 Types of Psychotropic Drugs Antidepressants: For depression and anxiety disorders. Antipsychotics: For schizophrenia and psychotic disorders. Mood Stabilizers: For bipolar disorder. Anxiolytics: For anxiety disorders. 50 | P a g e  Stimulants: For ADHD. Electroconvulsive Therapy Use to treat severe depression and disorders that are resistant to treatment. The application of an electric shock resulting in seizure that appears to normalize the balance of neurotransmitters within the brain. Side-effect is memory loss Psychosurgery Last resort- involves cutting into the brain to remove brain tissue associated with the symptoms of a mental disorder. In the 1900s -Lobotomies, today the bilateral anterior cingulotomy is used for OCD, and depression or bipolar Emerging Techniques Emerging techniques (rTMS, DBS) Still research phases- Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation are evaluated as treatments for PTSD. Deep brain stimulation is investigated as possible treatment for depression, OCD and resistant Anorexia. 6.8 Effectiveness of Biomedical Therapies Generally effective, especially combined with psychotherapy. Considerations include potential side effects and long-term management needs. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): o Used for severe depression, rapid response needed. o Involves brief electrical stimulation of the brain under anesthesia. Psychosurgery: o Rare, used for severe cases where other treatments fail. o Includes procedures like anterior cingulotomy for mood regulation and OCD. 6.9 Newer Technologies in Treating Psychological Disorders Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): o Noninvasive, used for depression when other treatments fail. 51 | P a g e  Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): o Implanted neurostimulator for treatment-resistant depression, OCD. Virtual Reality Therapy: o Used for anxiety disorders, PTSD, and phobias. Smartphone Apps and Online Therapy: o Provide accessibility to therapeutic techniques and services. 6.10 Benefits of Physical Exercise and Nature on Mental Health Physical Exercise: o Reduces symptoms of depression and anxiety. o Releases endorphins, reduces inflammation, improves brain function. Spending Time in Nature: o Reduces stress and increases pleasant feelings. o Contributes to physical well-being and reduces health problems. 6.11 Strategies for Reducing Mental Health Stigma Education: o Correct misconceptions, increase compassion. Visibility and Representation: o Normalize mental health issues through media and public discussions. Language: o Promote respectful language to reduce negative attitudes. Support and Empowerment: o Encourage help-seeking, provide community support groups. Legislation and Policy Change: o Protect rights and ensure equal opportunities for people with mental health conditions. 52 | P a g e