PSY1PAC 2024 Semester 2 Lecture 2 PDF

latrobe.edu.au PSY1PAC Introductory Psychology: People and Culture Lecture 2...

latrobe.edu.au PSY1PAC Introductory Psychology: People and Culture Lecture 2: Development of the Self Readings: Heine Ch 6 (pp. 204-219) Prof Emi Kashima Department of Psychology, Counselling and Therapy [email protected] La Trobe University CRICOS Provider Code Number 00115M © 2024 by E Kashima Part 1: Learning Objectives 1. Explain how socialisation practices may differ across cultures by referring to mother-infant interaction patterns. 2. Compare socialisation practices that emphasise learning by observing and pitching in (LOPI) vs. assembly line instruction (ALI) or one-to-one communication. 3. Understand how independent and interdependent parental assumptions differ. PSY1PAC Week 2 2 Human Development In humans (among modern hunter-gatherers), the juvenile period is 14+ years (weaning at 3, first reproduction at 17-20). Longer than great apes: chimps/orangutans 8yrs, gorillas 6yrs. A popular explanation is that people are required to: (1) learn complex skills for a living (gathering food; task skills) (2) develop social skills – how to cooperate/compete with peers & rivals, negotiate and resolve conflicts with outgroups (3) develop cultural knowledge – group norms and regulations; perform family and societal roles, rituals, and ceremonies. Does it take 20 years to learn PSY1PAC Week 2 3 to hunt and gather?  Humans are not born with skills and knowledge of how to survive in the wild or in urban ghetto. The environment we learn to live in is variable. Rather, humans are born prepared to learn from any cultural environment. For example - Newborns can imitate other’s facial expressions Overimitation: young children might copy all of an adult model’s novel actions, even components that are clearly irrelevant for the purpose (Meltzoff, 1995) The theory of mind: enabling infants to read others’ intentions and coordinate PSY1PAC Week 2 4  Cultural Socialisation Cultural socialisation refers to the developmental processes through which children acquire the beliefs, values, and attitudes of the parental tradition(s); for instance: Beliefs about our environment Mayur Kakade/ Moment via Getty Images How to look after the self and family Appropriate manners Stereotypes about outgroups Cultural taboos, cultural heroes Gender norms PSY1PAC Week 2 5 Photo by Picsea on Unsplash  Cultural Socialisation The process involves explicit teaching (verbally communicated) and implicit teaching (non-verbal) Interactions between the child and the carer(s). Cognitive and social competences Mayur Kakade/ Moment via Getty Images o Cognitive competence—what the child knows and can say; emphasised in Western middle- class cultures. o Social competence—behave consistent to the norms; emphasised in working-class cultures and traditional societies. PSY1PAC Week 2 6 Photo by Picsea on Unsplash Bronfenbrenner’s ecocultural system model Bronfenbrenner (1979) theorized that a child’s development is influenced by 5 environmental systems that interact with each other. The Microsystem – family, friends, neighbours, classmates; The Mesosystem (home – school relationship); The Exosystem (e.g., mass media, community resources); The Macrosystem – cultural environment The Chronosystem – historical context Family is influenced by the larger environments as well as the child. PSY1PAC Week 2 7 Family environment is especially influential in cultural socialisation. Children’s experiences are structured by caregivers in ways they see natural and appropriate. Children are shaped into a competent person (as construed by the culture) both cognitively and socially, through participations in the family’s way of life. PSY1PAC Week 2 8  1. Parent-child interaction patterns Parent-child interaction patterns refer to the ways in which parents and children communicate, behave, and respond to each other. Keller et al. (2007) investigated body contacts and other aspects of mother-infant (3 month-olds) interactions in diverse cultural contexts: Urban middle-class Germans Urban middle-class Greeks Urban working-class Costa Ricans Rural Indian Gujarati (the Rajputs) Rural Cameroonians (the Nso) Heidi Keller The Rajputs and the Nso parenting supports communal relationships; German parenting orients towards PSY1PAC Week 2 9 fostering personal agency.  In Costa Rica, rural India & Cameroon, bodily contact was more frequent. o Proximal parenting style which encourages the development of emotion sharing, intimacy, interdependence, and obedience. In Germany and Greece, face-to-face interaction was more frequent o Distal parenting style which encourages the development of the child’s personal autonomy o Mothers were also more responsive (e.g., mirroring the child’s expressions). PSY1PAC Week 2 10 2. Parenting and Ideal Affect People generally want to feel positive, not negative; however, ideal emotions differ across cultures. (more on this topic later by Dr Ruby) In some cultures, low-arousal positive (LAP) emotions are ideal; in others, high-arousal positive (HAP) emotions are ideal. LAP: Calm, relaxed, peaceful HAP: Enthusiastic, excited, elated According to Jean Tsai, these cultural differences likely emerge among 3-5 years old infants. PSY1PAC Week 2 11  Ideal affect is associated with preferred smile, activities & goals LAP ideal affect Quieter smile Quieter activities ‘Adjustment Goals’ - suppress personal needs and change own behaviours to meet others’ needs. HAP ideal affect Excited smile Exciting activities ‘Influence Goals” - assert personal needs and change others’ behaviours to meet own needs. PSY1PAC Week 2 12 How is ideal affect shaped by family environment? Children’s books and other written materials emphasise HAP in North America and LAP in Asian cultures Parent-child interaction – Parents who value LAP talk to babies in a softer voice and fewer facial expressions; those who value HAP talk to babies in a more exciting voice and dynamic facial expressions; “It is as if the American mother wanted to have a vocal, active baby, and the Japanese mother wanted to have a quiet, contented baby” (Caudill & Weinstein, 1969, p. 31) Cultural socialisation involves explicit and implicit processes, but is the transmission of ideal affect explicit or implicit? PSY1PAC Week 2 13 Which do you think is the IDEAL AFFECT in Australia? 1. High-arousal positive (HAP) 2. Low-arousal positive (LAP) PSY1PAC Week 2 14 Children’s picture books America Japan 三歳向け絵本 To be shown during lecture Children’s picture books Australia 15 2 PSY1PAC Week 3. Broader Socialisation Practices Barbara Rogoff contrasted two patterns of socialisation practices across cultures: Typical in middle-class American parenting: o parents engage, one-to-one, at a toddler’s level o task focus; a school-like ‘language lesson’ (e.g., a dinner table one-person-at-a-time presentation) o learning is considered as adult-to-child transmission of information—also called assembly line instructions (ALI) practice. PSY1PAC Week 2 16  In contrast, typical in Native American parenting (also working-class Americans and the traditional majority world): o Children learn by observing and ‘pitching in’ (LOPI) to a range of activities done by parents, older children, and community members. o Encouragement for ‘keen observation’; divided attention to multiple movements; nonverbal communication o Learning is considered as “guided participation.” (Family structure also likely differs, see Slide 34) See Barbara Rogoff, Learning by Observing and Pitching In PSY1PAC Week 2 17 Parental Interview Experiment You are being interviewed by a researcher, with your kid (2 ½-year-old) beside you. The researcher hands an attractive toy to the tot, who requires your assistance to play with it. How would you and your tot behave? Systematic differences in the parents’ behaviours was found, showing the expected patterns: middle-class Americans faced the child; the Native Americans divided their attention. Rogoff, B., Mistry, J., Göncü, A., Mosier, C., Chavajay, P., & Heath, S. B. (1993). Guided participation in cultural activity by toddlers and caregivers. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child development, i-179. PSY1PAC Week 2 18  In sum, two contrasting patterns of parenting are seen across societies: Independent & Interdependent “Independent” Parenting: “Interdependent” Parenting: Western middle-class stresses Western working-class and the majority autonomy worlds stress relatedness Emphasis: Emphasis: beliefs in early independence from caretakers beliefs in a continuing close mother- child tie the same-generation; and romantic relationships inter-generational interdependence early engagement with the world of early engagement with the social non-social objects world scientific intelligence, scepticism, and the importance of social intelligence curiosity in learning Greenfield, P.M., Keller, H., Fuligni, A., & Maynard, A. (2003). Cultural pathways through universal development. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 468-481. PSY1PAC Week 2 19 Part 2: Learning Objectives 1. Understand the view that the self has its social roots, proposed by classic psychologists and maintained today. 2. Briefly explain how culture influences the development of the extended self and the conceptual self. 3. Differentiate the independent and interdependent views of the self. PSY1PAC Week 2 20 What is ‘Self’? The sense of who you are, who you are not Guides your experience – thoughts, emotion, behaviour, motivation Develops during early life, relatively stable, but can change through experiences Where does it come from? What constitutes it? PSY1PAC Week 2 21 The Historical View on Self William James (1842-1910) The Principles of Psychology (1890) I-self (the self as subject): the stream of consciousness. Me-self (the self as object): self-concept o The material self – one’s body, possessions o The social self – oneself as viewed by others o The spiritual self – one’s inner emotions http://www.nndb.com/people/569/000087308/william-james-3-sized.jpg The self involves multiple facets. PSY1PAC Week 2 22 Historical views (cont.) Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) “There is no sense of ‘I’ without its correlative sense of you, or he, or they.” Looking-glass self o We imagine how others see us; o which let us imagine how they judge us; http://www2.asanet.org/ governance/Cooley.jpg o which forms our self-evaluation. George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) “The self is something which has a development; it is not initially there, at birth, but arises in the process of social experience and activity, …. as a result of his relations to that http://en.wikipedia.org/w process as a whole and to other individuals within that process.” iki/Image:Mead.jpg Known as Symbolic Interactionism The social origin of the self (check it out if you want to know more) PSY1PAC Week 2 23 Is self-concept influenced by how others see you? Social psychologists studied this by conducting an experiment. Participants (Intro Psych students) were asked to describe themselves, in one of two conditions (random allocation): A. Introverted condition: Describe yourself as an “introverted” person B. Extraverted condition: Describe yourself as an “extraverted” person They were further told either: 1. Public condition - “there is an audience; your description is traceable to you.” 2. Private condition - “no audience; not traceable to you.” Finally, they sat with other students and rated their personality. Tice, D. M. (1992). Self-concept change and self-presentation: The looking glass self is also a magnifying glass. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 435-451. Results: 80 More extravert → Described the self as: 60 Self-rated extraversion 40 Introvert 20 Extravert 0 Public Private The behavioural measure: Sitting 170 Described the self as:  Closer distance from another student 160 150 Introvert 140 Extravert 130 Public Private Conclusion: What you see in oneself in others’ presence, has more impacts on your self-concept and even your behaviour.  The Development of Five Facets of the Self (Ulric Neisser) 1988 1. The Ecological Self: the immediate and direct awareness of yourself (vs. others) when interacting with the environment. (by 5 months) 2. The Interpersonal Self: the immediate and direct awareness of yourself when interacting with the social world; the knowledge of how others see and evaluate you, how your behaviour affects your relationships, derived from interactions and emotion sharing (by 8-9 months) These self-facets are here and now, not involving internal self-representations. Photo by Lawrence Crayton on Unsplash PSY1PAC Week 2 26 3. The Private Self: “Me-self”, your inner thoughts, emotions, and feelings not directly observable to others; your internal world, privately held understanding of yourself. The sense of “me” that usually emerges during the second half of the second year and gradually develops. o reflected in mirror self-recognition PSY1PAC Week 2 27 Infants’ Mirror Self Recognition PSY1PAC Week 2 28 PSY1PAC Week 2 29  Most human children recognise themselves in a mirror by 24 months. Longitudinal study shows this likely appears between 18 and 21 months. o Mirror self-recognition is an indicator of self-awareness, a higher cognitive function. o In parallel, increases in the use of self-descriptive statements (‘I do it’) o the awareness of self-categories like gender and child. PSY1PAC Week 2 30 4. The Extended Self: the sense of continuity and consistency of the self o Autobiographical memories—the memory of significant personal experiences from our lives; what happened, where, who was there, and how you felt. o Future “possible self” – thinking of your potential future, which guides your future behaviours Cultural influences are observed in the extended self. PSY1PAC Week 2 31 Social–cultural–developmental theory (Qi Wang) “Memory conversation” with adults helps young children to construct an autobiographical memory of past experiences; coherence and evaluative. A “parent-child future talk” can help the child construct a possible self. In Western cultures, autobiographical memories tend to become elaborate and detailed, focusing on the person’s roles, preferences, and feelings. In Asian cultures, autobiographical memories tend to be relatively skeletal, centring on daily routines and social interactions; behaving properly may be highlighted. PSY1PAC Week 2 32 5. The Conceptual Self: the self-concepts Self-beliefs about who you are, including your body, mind, traits, relationships, societal roles, groups we are part of, etc. gained through social interactions, including others’ approval and disapproval of your behaviours, thus linked to self- evaluation and self-esteem. PSY1PAC Week 2 33 How Culture Influences Self? Understanding about the self is influenced by: Child-rearing practices that are tied to cultural values and norms. Family structure and functions (linked to the surrounding ecology) o In societies where the family structure is large and complex, and individuals are connected to unique cultural roles, gaining this knowledge fully and placing the self in that framework is a complex task. o For instance, Aboriginal children develop self-concepts through understanding people’s relationships and their roles in the extended family, community and within the cultural fabric. “Where I fit in this space” constitutes self-concepts, which are highly relational. The meaning of family in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures: Queensland Government PSY1PAC Week 2 34 Independent and Interdependent Self Researchers suggest some fundamental differences in self- views-- how the self is subjectively organised. Markus and Kitayama (1991) named them independent and interdependent self-views (or construal). Self-views serve several functions: o direct attention o organise information o interpretation of situations o emotional experiences o shape one’s concerns and how to deal with them o guide one’s choice of partner and relationships PSY1PAC Week 2 35 The Independent Self-View You derive your identity from inner attributes that are unique, stable across situations and life spans, and coherent. Relationships can be formed and dissolved relatively more easily, thus has relatively little impact on self-identity. You tend to maintain larger social networks and trust others. The ingroup-outgroup boundary is more fluid and permeable. PSY1PAC Week 2 36 The Interdependent Self-View You feel fundamentally connected to and influenced by your relationships. Self-definitions are unbounded and relatively flexible, changing across contexts and depending on the roles. Relational concerns are high as self- definitions tend to depend on them. Ingroup-outgroup distinctions are crucial. The boundaries are stable but maintaining a favourable evaluation of the ingroup requires hard work. PSY1PAC Week 2 37 Who Am I? (Self-Concepts) This activity is called the TST “Twenty- Statements Test” (Kuhn & McPartland, 1954). TST aims to capture people’s self-concept. Researchers have found some cultural differences in TST response patterns. PSY1PAC Week 2 38 Aspects of the Self Individual Self (personal characteristics) prominent in those with the Independent Self Sometimes called The sense of who I am, based on self-defining “inner attributes” including traits, attitudes, beliefs, and physical Personal-Identity characteristics and behaviours or Private-Self Relational Self (family roles, specific relationship) The sense of who I am, based on my relationship with Sometimes called another individual, including attitude (“I like Sam”), Social-Identity or behaviours, family roles (“caretaker”, “mother of two”) Social-Self Collective Self (group memberships) Prominent in those The sense of who I am based on group membership and social category membership (e.g., “a LTU student”, “a footy with the fan”) or a non-family social role (“teacher”). Interdependent Self PSY1PAC Week 2 39 Who Am I? (self-concept across cultural groups) High Independent Self High Interdependent Self individual self relational/collective self Ma & Shoeneman (1997) found differences in self-concepts across five groups of university students and non-students in the US and Kenya. PSY1PAC Week 2 40 Recommended reading for this lecture: Koh, J. B. K., & Wang, Q. (2012). Self-development. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 3(5), 513-524. References from this lecture Keller, H., Abels, M., Lamm, B., Yovsi, R. D., Voelker, S., & Lakhani, A. (2005). Ecocultural effects on early infant care: A study in Cameroon, India, and Germany. Ethos, 33(4), 512-541. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.2005.33.4.512 Meltzoff, A. N. (1995). Understanding the intentions of others: Re-enactment of intended acts by 18-month-old children. Developmental Psychology, 31 (5), 838–850.10.1037/0012- 1649.31.5.838 Neisser, U. (1988). Five kinds of self‐knowledge. Philosophical psychology, 1(1), 35-59. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515088808572924 PSY1PAC Week 2 41 Week 3: Gender and Norms Readings: Heine, S. J. (2020). Cultural Psychology (4th ed.). Norton. Chapter 6 (Read pp. 219-223) Guimond, S. (2008). Psychological similarities and differences between women and men across cultures. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 494- 510. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00036.x (Read pp. 494-498) PSY1PAC Week 2 42