Human Development In Adolescents PDF

Adolescence Development Notes: 1. Definition and Phases of Adolescence: Biological Start: Begins with puberty. End: When capable of sexual reproduction. Social Aspect: Shift from parental to peer relationships, with increasing capacity for intimacy. Chronological...

Adolescence Development Notes: 1. Definition and Phases of Adolescence: Biological Start: Begins with puberty. End: When capable of sexual reproduction. Social Aspect: Shift from parental to peer relationships, with increasing capacity for intimacy. Chronological Aspect: Adolescence starts with a designated age and ends with a designated age of adulthood. Economic Aspect: Begins with training for adult roles and ends with full adult rights (e.g., voting). Psychological Aspect: Starts with questioning identity ("Who am I?") and ends with the attainment of a sense of identity. Educational Aspect: Starts with entry into junior high/middle school and ends with the completion of formal education. 2. Perception of Adolescence: Influenced by family, peers, school, work, extracurricular activities, and mass media. 3. Psychosocial Development: Includes key aspects like identity, autonomy, intimacy, sexuality, and achievement. 4. Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence: Biological Theories: Focus on hormonal and physical changes during puberty. Challenge: Overemphasis on difficulties during adolescence. Organismic Theories: Focus on the interaction of biological forces and environmental/contextual factors. Challenge: Difficulty in proving specific developmental stages. Learning Theories: Emphasize behaviorism (reinforcement/punishment) and social learning (modeling and observation). Challenge: Not specific to adolescence. Sociological Theories: View adolescence as a group experience shaped by age, gender, ethnicity. Challenge: Oversimplifying adolescent similarities.  Historical/Anthropological Theories: Acknowledge that adolescent experiences differ across historical and cultural contexts. Challenge: Addressing individual differences. Ecological Theories: Consider all contexts (family, school, peers, etc.) in which development occurs, based on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. 5. Stereotypes vs. Science: Parental Influence: Parents' assumptions can affect adolescent behaviors (e.g., alcohol use). Snooping Cycle: Snooping leads to more secrecy in teenagers, which causes more snooping. Cultural Beliefs: Adolescents who believe adolescence is a time of irresponsibility may engage in more risk-taking behaviors. Puberty Overview (Chapter 1, Sep 9th): 1. Puberty Basics: Everyone experiences physical puberty, but not everyone experiences mental aspects. First Period: The average girl experiences menarche at age 12. Puberty marks the beginning of sexual maturation and occurs physically and mentally. 2. Physical Changes During Puberty: Rapid growth acceleration. Development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. Changes in brain anatomy and hormonal influences (endocrine and central nervous system). 3. Hormonal System: GnRH neurons: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons trigger puberty. Endocrine System: Controls hormone levels, akin to a thermostat maintaining balance. Pituitary Gland: Controls general hormone levels.  Hypothalamus: Manages the pituitary gland and contains GnRH neurons. Gonads: Testicles in males, ovaries in females—release androgens and estrogens. 4. HPG Axis (Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonad Axis): Maintains hormonal balance. Signals the body is ready for puberty. Regulates sex hormone production based on "set points" in the body. 5. Factors Influencing Puberty: Genetics: Puberty's timing is "coded" into genes. Environment: Adequate nutrition and environment influence when puberty begins. Kisspeptin Hormone: Stimulates puberty. Leptin promotes kisspeptin, while melatonin suppresses it. Fat and Light Exposure: Higher levels of body fat and light exposure during childhood can trigger early puberty. 6. Evolutionary Context: Humans evolved to reproduce under conditions of food scarcity. Our bodies have not adapted to modern environments with abundant food, which is why fat and light exposure still influence puberty timing. 7. Variation in Puberty Timing: Puberty timing can vary by up to 8 years among individuals. Social factors (e.g., absence of a father) and race influence pubertal timing. The average age of puberty in developed countries is decreasing due to increased obesity, which affects leptin levels. 8. Psychological and Behavioral Impact of Puberty: Puberty impacts adolescents’ self-image, mood, and relationships with parents. Early puberty can increase risk-taking behaviors and impulsive decision-making. 9. Trends in Puberty: Earlier puberty is correlated with increases in adolescent mortality rates.  Declining age of puberty in developed countries (e.g., from age 17 to 12-13 in Norway over 175 years). 10. Puberty and Sleep Patterns: Changes in sleep patterns and adolescent moodiness are linked to puberty. Puberty is stressful for adolescents. September 10th Epiphysis: The closing of the ends of the bones, which terminates growth after the adolescent growth period. Girl Puberty order Growth of breasts, growth of pubic hair, body growth, menarche, underarm hair, oil- and sweat-producing glands Chief Physical Manifestations of Puberty 1. Growth Spurt o Results from an increase in hormonal levels. o Increases in height and weight. o Peak Height Velocity: Period of fastest growth in height during puberty. o Changes in body composition (fat and muscle distribution). o Skeletal Changes: Growth of bones, followed by epiphyseal closure, which terminates growth. o Epiphysis: Closing of the ends of the bones, marking the end of the growth period after the adolescent growth spurt. 2. Development of Primary Sexual Characteristics o Refers to reproductive organs becoming functional. o Involves development in the appearance and function of genitals. 3. Development of Secondary Sexual Characteristics o Changes in the appearance of genitals and breasts. o Growth of pubic, facial, and body hair. o Other physical changes such as voice deepening and development of sweat and oil glands (leading to acne). Thursday September 12th Positive Reactions: Most adolescents react positively to pubertal changes. Girls’ reactions to menarche have improved with more information. Cultural factors influence boys’ reactions to first ejaculation. Awareness of Maturation Timing: Adolescents are conscious of their maturation relative to peers. Self-perception impacts feelings and behavior more than actual development. Early vs. Late Maturation in Boys: Early: Often more popular, better self-esteem; higher risk of risky behaviors. Late: May face challenges with self-esteem and peer acceptance. Effects on Girls: Early Maturation: Poorer self-image, higher risk of eating disorders, social issues. Late Maturation: May face different social challenges. Obesity and Eating Disorders: Puberty influences weight gain; BMI above 95th percentile is considered obese. Obesity is linked to long-term health issues and psychological effects. Prevention includes good parental relationships, encouragement of exercise, and community efforts. Disordered Eating: Types: Anorexia nervosa, bulimia, binge eating disorder. Media portrayal can impact perceptions and behaviors. Ethnic differences in disordered eating patterns. Body Dissatisfaction:  Higher prevalence in girls wishing to be thinner. BMI increases linked to decreased likelihood of being in a romantic relationship. Practical Connection: Counteracting cultural pressures and media impact on eating disorders. Conclusion: Understanding maturation timing helps in supporting adolescents through development. PRACTICAL CONNECTION 1. What might be done to counter the impact of cultural pressures that encourage the development of eating disorders among young women? 2. Is the spread of Western media around the world likely to contribute to rising rates of eating disorders in other countries? 3. September 17th Class Cognitive Changes in Adolescence: Abstract Thinking: Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly, considering possibilities, hypotheticals, and future consequences. Metacognition: They start reflecting on their own thinking, improving their ability to think critically and self-monitor. Multidimensional Thinking: They shift from seeing things in black-and-white to considering multiple perspectives. Adolescent Egocentrism: Imaginary Audience: Adolescents often feel like they are constantly being observed and judged by others.  Personal Fable: They believe their experiences are unique and that typical rules don't apply to them. Adolescent Egocentrism: Moving away from black and white thinking Likely to question other assertions Less likely to accept “facts” from the truth Shift Toward Relativism: Adolescents begin to question absolutes and are more likely to see things as relative, challenging existing beliefs or "facts." Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Infants learn about the world through senses and actions. Preoperational Stage: (2-7 years): Children begin using language and symbols, but their thinking is egocentric and not yet logical. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking starts, but only with concrete objects or information. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Abstract and logical thinking starts, allowing for problem solving and hypothetical reasoning. Stages of Development: From sensory learning as infants to abstract, logical reasoning by adolescence. Challenges to Piaget: Development is seen as more gradual and continuous than Piaget’s stage model suggests. o Little research supports the following ideas: ▪ The cognitive development proceeds in a stage-like fashion. ▪ That there is a uniquely adolescent stage of thinking. Rather, advanced reasoning capabilities develop gradually, continuously, and in a steady fashion. Completion of Cognitive Development At age 15, adolescents are capable as adults in basic cognitive abilities. They are developing advanced cognitive skills like thinking creatively, planning, or judging costs and benefits. The development of advanced abilities is complete in the mid 20s. Information Processing in Adolescence: Attention: Adolescents improve in focusing selectively and dividing attention across multiple tasks. Memory: Increases in working and long-term memory, including autobiographical memory (personal events). Processing Speed: Adolescents process information faster with age, peaking by late adolescence. Organizational Skills: Their ability to use different strategies in various situations improves. Reminiscence Bump The tendency for adults to remember details about people, places, and events they encountered during adolescence better than those from other years. Not because of better memory during this age. Not due to “important life events”. Risk-Taking in Adolescence: Influencing Factors: Emotional states and peer pressure strongly affect decision- making. Adolescents are heavily influenced by their peers’ opinions. The presence of peers can lead to more reckless behaviors. Reward and sensation seeking are heightened during adolescence. Reducing Risk: Practical interventions (rather than education alone) are more effective in preventing harmful risk-taking. o Classroom education may not effectively deter risk-taking o Interventions should focus on practical experiences and setting limits.  Positive Risk-Taking: Not all risks are harmful; healthy risks can foster growth (e.g., trying new activities). o Finding a balance between safe exploration and control is crucial for that stage in life when you know these individuals are more likely to take part in those risk-taking behaviors. Adolescent Brain Development: Imaging techniques have improved research rapidly on the adolescent's brain. Brain Changes: Adolescents experience structural and functional changes in their brain, leading to changes in decision-making, reasoning, and risk behavior. Neuroscientific Techniques: fMRI and EEG help researchers understand these changes, particularly in areas related to risk-taking and decision-making. The Adolescent Brain: Brain Structure: The physical form and organization of the brain. Brain Function: Patters of brain activity. Scientists also study age differences in patters of brain activity using the following: Electroencephalography (EEG): A technique for measuring electrical activity at different locations on the scalp. Event-related potentials (ERPs): Changes in electrical activity in areas of the brain in response to specific simuli or events.cna Key Takeaways: Adolescents experience significant cognitive growth, including abstract thinking, self-reflection (metacognition), and multidimensional thinking. They are more prone to egocentric beliefs, which can contribute to risk-taking behavior. Developmental changes in the brain, attention, memory, and decision-making continue into the mid-20s. September 19th. Brain Structure: Neurons: Basic component of the brain, transmits signals. Synapses & Neurotransmitters: Enable communication between neurons. Gray Matter: Important for brain development, involves synaptic pruning (removing unused connections). White Matter: Consists of myelin, which insulates neurons, aiding faster signal transmission. 2. Brain Areas: Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in thinking, cognitive advances, decision-making. Limbic System: Responsible for emotional responses and behavioral reactions. 3. Changes in Adolescence: Plasticity: Adolescents' brains are adaptable (developmental plasticity), learning and intelligence evolve. Intelligence in Adolescence: Cognition and mental abilities develop during this period. 4. Brain Function: Risk & Reward: Adolescents are more prone to risky decision-making, influenced by values and socioemotional context. Executive Function: Includes changes in physiological processes, individual differences in connectivity, and emotional regulation. 5. Emotion: Limbic System: Linked to dopamine and serotonin, involved in emotional reactivity and control.  Risky Behaviors: Adolescents' decisions are influenced by social contexts and rewards. 6. The Social Brain: Social Cognition: Ability to interpret social cues and understand others' perspectives (Theory of Mind). Social Relationships: Shaped by interactions with parents and peers. Social Conventions: Adolescents learn norms, expectations, and social competence. September 24th- Social Redefinition: Adolescence is a period of social transition where individuals are recognized as adults by society. Attaining adult status leads adolescents to feel more mature and think about their future roles (work, family, etc.). 2. Identity & Autonomy: Adult Status: Shifts in responsibility, independence, and freedom occur. Adolescents face more serious decisions with long-term consequences. 3. Psychosocial Development: Achievement: Legal age requirements exist for full-time employment and leaving school. Relationships: New decisions about intimacy, dating, and marriage arise. Age of Majority: The legal age when an individual is considered an adult. 4. Elongation of Adolescence: Adolescence is longer now than before (puberty starts earlier, adult roles come later). Markers: Menarche (first period) and marriage are key markers of adolescence duration. 5. Inventionists' View: Adolescence may be a social invention, defined by how society views the period. Some problems of adolescence stem from societal definitions, not biological changes. 6. Emerging Adulthood (18-25 years): Key features: Identity exploration, instability (work/relationships), focus on self, feeling caught between adolescence and adulthood, many life possibilities. Varies based on culture, values, and priorities. 7. Changes in Status: Legal boundaries increase, offering more privileges and responsibilities (e.g., driving, voting, gambling). Status Offense: Actions that are illegal for minors but not adults. The U.S. lacks formal ceremonies marking the transition to adulthood. 8. Variations in Clarity: In traditional cultures, initiation ceremonies mark the passage to adulthood (often linked to puberty). In contemporary societies, adulthood is less defined by specific roles (marriage, parenthood) and more by self-reliance. September 25th Discontinuous Transitions: Adult roles are entered abruptly. o Example: Starting a full-time job after completing college. 2. Continuous Transitions: Adult roles are entered gradually. o Example: Working at the family business while growing up. 3. Continuity in Contemporary Society: Young people are often excluded from adult roles, receiving little training in areas like: o Work expectations o Parenting o Civic participation (government, community roles) 4. Continuity in Traditional Society: Education is informal, focusing on hands-on learning by accompanying adults in daily tasks and observing. 5. Trends in Leaving Home: In industrialized countries, young adults are living with their parents longer, influenced by: o Rising cost of living o Increased college attendance o COVID-19 effects (47% to 52% increase in 18-29-year-olds living with parents). 6. Poverty, Minority, and Immigrant Status: Challenges: Black, Latinx, and Native American youth face more difficulties transitioning into adulthood compared to White and Asian youth. o Factors: Poverty, discrimination, segregation, and involvement in the justice system. 7. Effects of Poverty: Youth from minority backgrounds form a large portion of the adolescent population in the U.S. Poverty contributes to difficulties in school, higher rates of substance abuse, and involvement with the justice system. 8. Easing the Transition: Mentoring & Role Models: Positive mentors reduce the likelihood of issues in school, substance abuse, and legal trouble. 9. Impacts of Privilege: Adolescents in wealthy communities often face higher rates of: o Delinquency o Substance abuse o Anxiety and depression September 26th Social Transitions Notes Discontinuous Transitions Definition: Passages into adulthood in which adult roles and statuses are entered abruptly. o Example: Entering the workforce for the first time after completing college. Continuous Transitions Definition: Passages into adulthood where roles are entered gradually. o Example: Continuing to work at a family store. Variations in Continuity Contemporary Society: Young people are often excluded from adult roles, receiving little direct training in: o Work roles/expectations o Child rearing o Government/community roles Traditional Society: Informal education dominates, emphasizing: o Accompanying adults in daily activities. o Learning through observation and hands-on experience. Trends in Leaving Home Living at Home: More young adults (ages 18-34) are living with parents compared to recent decades. o Factors: Cost of living, higher college attendance. o During COVID, this number increased (47% to 52%). Poverty, Minority, and Immigrant Status Challenges: Black, Latinx, and Native American youth face more difficulties transitioning to adulthood than White and Asian youth. o Contributing factors: Poverty, discrimination, segregation, involvement with the justice system. Youth from minority backgrounds make up a growing portion of adolescents in America. Effects of Poverty Impact on Youth: o Mentorship/positive role models can ease the transition to adulthood. o Youth with mentors are less likely to have issues in school, home, or with substance abuse. Impacts of Privilege  Wealthy Adolescents: Higher levels of delinquency, substance abuse, anxiety, and depression compared to middle-class peers. o Drug use in affluent teens can persist into college October 3rd Secondary Education in America Notes What is Secondary Education? Includes middle schools, junior highs, and high schools. Key questions: o What should schools teach? Basics or a diverse range of classes? o Should schools provide more than just education (e.g., social services)? o Should early adolescents be separated from older students? o Is tracking (grouping by ability) appropriate? Contemporary Secondary Education Typical school term: 180 days; students attend 90% of the term. School day: 6 periods, 40% of time on core academic subjects. Education lasts 13 years, with 75% of fifth graders graduating from high school. Historical Context Urbanization: Education provides a way to improve the lives of urban youth. Origins of Compulsory Education: Adolescents were forced out of the workforce due to industrialization and immigration. By the 1920s, secondary education became widespread with goals of intellectual training and preparation for modern roles (work and citizenship). Comprehensive High School Offers general education, college preparation, and vocational education. School Reform Curriculum Changes: o 1950s: Focus on science.  o 1970s: Preventative interventions. o 1990s: Relevance to work. o 2000s: Enforcement of academic standards. COVID-19 Pandemic: Schools became critical for social services, offering meals and extracurricular supervision. No Child Left Behind (1990s) Mandated academic proficiency for all students via standardized tests. Problems: Lack of resources, teaching to the test, and failure to assess critical thinking skills. Obama Administration: Aimed to fix No Child Left Behind, stressing high standards and teacher evaluation. Trump Administration: Focused on school choice, encouraging competition and vouchers for private/charter schools, though critics argued this drained public school funding. Biden Administration: Focused on reopening schools post-COVID and reversing Trump's policies to better fund public schools and reduce achievement gaps. Characteristics of Good Schools Emphasize intellectual activities. Teachers are committed, autonomous, and practices are monitored. Schools are integrated into their communities. Social Organization of Schools School Size: o Larger schools offer more courses and services but can negatively impact student engagement. o Smaller schools promote better performance and participation. Classroom Size: Larger class sizes do not always correlate with poorer academic achievement, except in remedial education. Age Grouping & School Transitions  Elementary to Middle School: Academic motivation drops, but standardized test scores remain stable. This may indicate changes in motivation rather than knowledge. o Middle schools are less personal, larger, and teachers emphasize discipline more. Tracking: Ability-grouping allows tailored lessons, but students in remedial tracks often receive poorer education quality. October 8th Additional Notes on Adolescence & Schools Tracking Pros and Cons Pros: o Allows teachers to create lessons more suited to students' abilities. o Helps students master basic skills. Cons: o Remedial track students often receive poorer quality education. o Students in different tracks socialize only with peers from the same track. o May discriminate against poor and ethnic minority students. Effects of Tracking Both implementing tracking and eliminating it are controversial. Teachers may informally sort students based on ability, creating higher expectations for some and lower ones for others. Extremes in Ability Gifted Students: Unusually talented in intellectual performance. Learning Disabilities: o Dysgraphia (writing difficulties), Dyscalculia (math difficulties), and Dyslexia (reading difficulties).  o ADHD (Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) affects 50-70% of students into adolescence. There are three subtypes: predominantly inattentive, hyperactive/impulsive, and combined. Effects of Extremes Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect: Students in high-achieving environments feel worse about themselves compared to equally successful students in lower-achieving environments. Students with learning disabilities benefit from extra instruction in study skills, organization, and time management. Ethnic Composition & Segregation Effects of Desegregation: o Little impact on academic achievement for either minority or white students. o Minority students feel a stronger connection to schools where they are in the majority. o More diverse schools lead to higher engagement, feelings of safety, and lower instances of harassment. Peer Discrimination: Discrimination based on ethnicity can be verbal or physical, leading to lower self- esteem, depression, and lower academic motivation. Asian American students report more instances of peer discrimination in multiethnic settings due to factors like preferential treatment or being perceived as "foreign." Protective School Factors Greater ethnic diversity in schools may promote tolerance and lessen discrimination. School environments that celebrate different cultures and encourage interracial friendships can help reduce discrimination. Classroom Climate  A positive classroom climate, with supportive and demanding teachers, is crucial for student achievement. Cooperation, positive teacher-student relationships, and moderate structure contribute to better learning environments. Bullying Bullying is more common in schools with disorderly climates and unsupportive teachers. LGBTQ-focused policies are important to address bullying of sexual minority students. Teacher Expectations There is a strong correlation between teacher expectations and student performance, with about 80% of this due to accurate reflections of student ability. However, 20% of the effect comes from self-fulfilling prophecies, where teacher expectations shape student outcomes. Teachers may unconsciously base expectations on socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds, giving unfair advantages or disadvantages to certain groups. October 10th Student Engagement & Motivation Importance: Teachers and students influence each other. Engaged students motivate teachers, and effective teachers engage students. Student Engagement: The extent to which students are psychologically committed to learning (not just completing work). o Types of Engagement: ▪ Affective: Enjoyment ▪ Behavioral: Effort ▪ Cognitive: Seeing value in the work o Examples: ▪ Purposefully Engaged: Values material but doesn't enjoy the work. ▪ Fully Engaged: Enjoys and values the work. ▪ Rationally Engaged: Sees value but lacks effort due to boredom.  ▪ Busily Engaged: Puts in effort but doesn't care about the material. Boredom in School Students, especially high schoolers, often feel bored. o Causes: Routine structure, teacher lectures over student discussions. o Solutions: Engaging students by showing the relevance of work, fostering a sense of belonging. Out of School Influences Peers: Students with academically supportive peers are more engaged. Parents: Parental involvement and authoritative parenting practices correlate with better academic performance. School Violence Prevalence: 1 in 4 students experience violence at or around school. Responses: o Zero Tolerance Policies: Ineffective, often lead to more trouble. o Better Approaches: Define infractions carefully, use preventive measures, create positive school climates. Lethal School Violence Rare but widely publicized. Effective policies: Limit access to guns, treat mental health issues, foster a community where students feel responsible for each other. College Bound vs. Non-College Bound College Enrollment: 70% of high school graduates enroll in college.  Non-College Bound: One-third of students don't attend college, often underprepared for work. Higher rates of depression in this group. Characteristics of Good Schools Emphasize intellectual activities. Employ committed teachers. Foster student participation. Have teachers specifically trained to teach adolescents. Effects of School on Adolescent Development Positive: School positively affects earnings and intellectual growth. Unclear: Impact on psychosocial development is less certain. Varied Experiences: Based on track, peer group, and extracurricular activities. Academic Achievement Motivation: o Mastery Motivation: Intrinsic, best performers in school. o Performance Motivation: Extrinsic, can stem from incentives. Fear of Failure: Leads to anxiety. Self-Handicapping: Behaving in ways that lead to failure (e.g., procrastination). Student Incentives Example Studies: o DC Middle School: Rewards improved behavior and attendance, but no effect on math or reading scores. o NYC 7th Graders: Paid for test score improvements but no effect on math or reading scores. Conclusions: o Input incentives (behavior/attendance) work better than output (test scores). o Align incentives with students' goals and values. October 10th Importance Students and teachers influence each other: Engaged students can motivate teachers to be more effective, and vice versa. Student engagement: Refers to the psychological commitment to learning and mastering material rather than just completing tasks. Disengagement: Can manifest behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively. Types of Engagement Purposefully engaged: Doesn't enjoy the task but sees its value and puts in effort (e.g., studying for a calculus test to achieve future goals). Fully engaged: Enjoys the task, sees value, and puts in effort (e.g., working on a meaningful documentary project). Rationally engaged: Understands the value but doesn’t enjoy the task or exert much effort (e.g., a student in a boring lecture on global warming). Busily engaged: Puts in effort but doesn’t enjoy or see value in the task (e.g., completing monotonous worksheets). Pleasurably engaged: Enjoys the task but doesn’t put in effort or see value (e.g., listening to a teacher's story but not taking notes). Mentally engaged: Enjoys and values the task but doesn’t put in effort (e.g., working on an art project without much care before a break). Recreationally engaged: Enjoys and puts in effort, but doesn’t see value (e.g., competing in a class game without connecting it to larger goals). Boring Classes & Bored Students Causes of boredom: Rigid structures, make-work, lack of student engagement in discussions. Common in high school, but present even in high-achieving schools. Engagement strategies: Authentic assignments, student competence, and a sense of belonging can increase engagement. Out of School Influences Peer groups and family involvement significantly affect student engagement and success. Adolescents with friends who support academic achievement and involved parents tend to perform better. School Violence Prevalence: 1 in 4 students has experienced violence in or around school. Responses: Zero tolerance policies are controversial and disproportionately affect Black students. Effective strategies include staff training and climate improvement. Lethal violence: Rare but highly publicized. Best policies include gun control and mental health support. College Bound 70% of high school graduates enroll in college, though only 60% finish in 6 years. Postsecondary education in the U.S. is accessible and diverse. Non-College Bound Schools often fail to prepare non-college-bound students for work, leading to higher rates of depression and underemployment. Characteristics of Good Schools Focus on intellectual activities. Employ dedicated, well-trained teachers. Create active, student-centered classrooms. Integration with communities. Achievement & Motivation Puberty and social changes impact achievement motivation. Self-control: Linked to better performance. Fear of failure: Can lead to self-handicapping behaviors (e.g., deliberately causing failure to protect self-esteem). Achievement Motivation Mastery motivation: Intrinsic, leads to better performance. Performance motivation: Extrinsic, motivated by rewards. Student Incentives & Outcomes Input incentives: Rewards based on effort, behavior, and attendance can improve these areas but might not affect test scores. o Example: DC middle schoolers improved on behavioral metrics but not reading or math. Output incentives: Rewards for test scores showed no significant improvements (e.g., NYC 7th graders). Conclusion: Incentives impact actions but do not fundamentally change attitudes or behaviors long-term. October 15th Peer Groups and Their Evolution Definition: Peer groups are individuals of similar age. Historical Context: o Emerged with free public education, which grouped students by age (age grading). o Peer groups based on school friendships became common in the 20th century. Baby Boom Impact: o Post-WWII baby boom led to an "adolescent boom" in the 1960s and 1970s, nearly doubling the teenage population. o A second rise occurred in the 1990s as baby boomers had children. Peer Groups in Modern Society Margaret Mead's Theories:  o Postfigurative cultures: Socialization by adults (traditional societies). o Configurative cultures: Young people socialized by adults and peers (modern societies). o Prefigurative cultures: Adults are sometimes socialized by young people (rapidly changing societies). Changes in Peer Groups Adolescents spend more time with peers, increasingly in mixed-gender groups without adult supervision. Cliques vs. Crowds: o Cliques: Small, tight-knit groups, often same-sex. o Crowds: Larger, reputation-based groups helping shape identity. o As adolescents grow, they shift from same-sex cliques to mixed-gender cliques, with crowds disintegrating in late adolescence. Romantic Relationships & Peer Dynamics Puberty and cognitive development lead to a deeper understanding of social relationships and romantic interests, driving changes in peer groups. Social Structure and Identity Crowd Structure: Becomes more fluid and less hierarchical over time, allowing more freedom. Crowds as Reference Groups: Act as identity markers, influencing behavior, self- esteem, and status. Peer influence and crowd membership are particularly strong in early high school but decline by 12th grade as personal identity develops. Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, & Peer Groups In multiethnic schools, adolescents often divide along ethnic lines first, then form crowds within those groups. Crowd membership and the associated values differ across ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Measuring Peer Status Sociometric methods measure how well-liked (social preference) or socially impactful (perceived popularity) someone is. Factors affecting peer status include social skills (friendliness, humor) and status markers like attractiveness and athleticism. Impact of Peer Relationships Quality friendships boost self-esteem, lower loneliness, and reduce depression. Poor peer relationships are linked to low achievement, dropout rates, delinquency, and emotional problems. October 17th Factors Influencing Clique Membership: 1. Orientation toward school: Similar attitudes about school and academic goals bond friends. 2. Orientation toward teen culture: Adolescents gravitate towards peers with shared cultural interests. 3. Involvement in antisocial activity: Adolescents engaging in deviant behavior form deviant peer groups like gangs, increasing their risk for various psychological and social issues. Role of Parents and Peers: Parent-Child Relationships: Problematic parent-child dynamics can foster antisocial behavior, but parents can still monitor and manage friendships, although excessive control may have negative effects. Peer Influence: Adults worry about peer influence leading to delinquency or substance use, raising the question of Selection vs. Socialization: Do friends influence behavior, or do similar individuals simply gravitate towards one another? Friendship Stability: Friendships, especially cliques, show moderate stability over a school year, with more stability in later high school years. Boys' friendships tend to be more stable than girls', and common causes of friendship breakdowns include: o Jealousy: Often due to romantic rivalries. o Incompatibility: Arising from personality clashes or different interests. o Intimacy-rule violations: Breach of trust or personal boundaries. o Aggression: Conflicts escalating into rumors or fights. Popularity and Rejection: Popular Adolescents: Generally more socially skilled, they benefit from close friendships, active social lives, and higher self-esteem. However, popularity comes with risks, such as becoming the target of others' jealousy or hostility. o Proactive aggression: Planned aggressive behavior. o Reactive aggression: Impulsive aggression. Rejected Adolescents: Three types of rejected adolescents are: o Aggressive: Difficulty controlling aggression. o Withdrawn: Shy, anxious, and inhibited. o Aggressive-withdrawn: A combination of aggression and withdrawal. o Rejection has negative effects on mental health, leading to depression, behavioral issues, and academic struggles. Some rejected adolescents display hostile attribution bias, interpreting ambiguous interactions as hostile. Helping Unpopular Adolescents: Strategies for supporting unpopular teens include social skills training (self- expression, leadership, conversation skills), encouraging participation in group activities, and combining behavioral and cognitive interventions. Five Categories of Social Status in Peer Groups: 1. Popular (20%): a. Characteristics: Cooperative, friendly, sociable, attractive, sensitive. 2. Rejected (22%):  a. Characteristics: Disruptive, aggressive (both physical and verbal), submissive, socially wary, and immature. 3. Neglected (23%): a. Characteristics: Avoids aggressive interchanges, low disruptiveness, may have few social interactions, but are not necessarily anxious about them. This is the least stable category. 4. Controversial (12%): a. Characteristics: May have traits of both popularity and rejection. They can be helpful and leaders but also aggressive. This subgroup has the least amount of research or information available. 5. Average (remaining percentage not specified here, but presumably those who don't fit into any extreme category). Popularity and Friendship: Popularity is not the same as friendship, as popularity may involve hierarchical rankings within a group. Some individuals receive more attention or social emotions, which doesn’t always equate to quality friendships. Popularity can be measured by clusters (shared preferences) and self-concept— which is influenced by how others treat and perceive an individual. SBP (Sociometer Theory) suggests self-esteem can predict social inclusion, as high self-esteem may lead to interpreting social signals more favorably and boosting popularity. Cyberbullying vs. Traditional Bullying: Cyberbullying has increased significantly over time, from 18% in 2007 to 34% in 2016. Differences from traditional bullying: o Requires more planning and is less reactive. o Easier for the bully to manipulate social status and reputation. o Cyberbullies tend to be more popular and better adjusted socially compared to traditional bullies. o Cyberbullying is often anonymous, which can make it harder for the victim to identify and report. Gender Differences in bullying: o Girls tend to use indirect means like gossip or humor. o Boys often resort to direct insults.  o Effects: Girls are more likely to suffer from emotional problems like depression and anxiety, while boys may show behavioral problems like fighting. Roles in Bullying: Assistant: Joins the bullying but doesn’t initiate it. Reinforcer: Encourages the bully but doesn’t actively participate. Defender: Stands up for the victim. Bystander: Watches but does not intervene or take a stand. The Bystander Effect: The more people present, the less likely any one person feels responsible for intervening. In a 2013 study, less than 20% of bystanders intervened in bullying incidents, though bystander intervention is one of the most effective ways to reduce bullying. Bystander Decision Factors: Fear of becoming another victim. Thinking the situation isn’t severe. Feeling powerless or not knowing what to do. Believing that telling adults won’t help or will make it worse. Normalization of bullying behavior. Outcomes of Bullying: Victims: Experience emotional, academic, social, and physical health issues. Bullies: Are at increased risk for future antisocial behavior, struggle with healthy relationships, and may face legal consequences. Bystanders: May experience emotional distress and inadvertently reinforce negative behaviors. Schools: Increased classroom disruption, feelings of injustice, and students believing the school is unfair, which can lead to more school problems. These notes give a comprehensive overview of how social dynamics, particularly in the context of popularity and bullying, impact individuals and school environments. They also emphasize October 22nd Changes in Family Dynamics: Adolescence brings shifts in family systems, with peak periods of conflict for boys around age 13-14 and for girls around 11-12. Midlife crises for parents often coincide with adolescence, adding tension. Familial Conflicts: These are often about mundane issues and not necessarily indicative of deeper rebellious behavior. Conflict increases during early adolescence but rarely escalates into full rebellion. Parenting Styles: Four distinct styles are identified—authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and indifferent—with authoritative parenting producing the best outcomes in terms of maturity, responsibility, and psychological health. Sibling Relationships: Sibling conflict tends to increase during adolescence but later becomes more equal and less intense. The quality of sibling relationships is influenced by the parent-child dynamic. Genetic & Environmental Factors: Both shared and nonshared environmental influences, along with genetics, play crucial roles in shaping adolescent behavior. The diathesis-stress model and differential susceptibility theory explain how genetic predispositions and environmental factors interact to influence mental health.