COG PSY Quiz Lessons 4-6 PDF

Attention and Consciousness Lesson 4 - COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY By: Krisette E. Romero, MPsy, RPm  Learning Objectives Define the nature of attention and consciousness and clearly articulate the fundamental principles in cognitive psychology. Recognize the hindrances to attent...

Attention and Consciousness Lesson 4 - COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY By: Krisette E. Romero, MPsy, RPm  Learning Objectives Define the nature of attention and consciousness and clearly articulate the fundamental principles in cognitive psychology. Recognize the hindrances to attention and identify the factors that can disrupt or impair attentional processes. Understand the automatic and controlled processes of attention and distinguish between automatic and controlled processes and their implications for cognitive functioning. Describe the consciousness of mental processes and explain how consciousness affects our awareness and processing of mental activities. Introduction Attention and consciousness are fundamental concepts in cognitive psychology, playing crucial roles in how we perceive, process, and interact with the world around us. Attention is the cognitive mechanism that allows us to selectively focus on certain stimuli while ignoring others. It is vital for managing the vast amount of information we encounter daily, enabling us to concentrate on what is relevant and important. Consciousness involves our awareness of ourselves and our surroundings. It encompasses our perceptions, thoughts, and feelings, allowing us to reflect on our experiences and make informed decisions. Understanding attention and consciousness provides insights into various psychological phenomena, such as multitasking, cognitive overload, and the impact of distractions. Nature of Attention Attention is a cognitive process that involves selectively concentrating on one aspect of information while ignoring other stimuli. This selective focus is crucial because our cognitive resources are limited; thus, attention acts as a filter that prioritizes relevant information and tasks Types of Attention: Selective Attention - This type of attention allows us to focus on a specific stimulus or task while excluding other irrelevant stimuli. Divided Attention - Also known as multitasking, this involves managing multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously. While divided attention allows us to perform several tasks at once, it often leads to reduced performance in each task due to cognitive load. Sustained Attention - This type of attention is required to maintain focus over a prolonged period. It is essential for tasks such as studying for exams or monitoring a lengthy process, where constant vigilance is necessary.  Hindrances to Attention Cognitive Load Distractions and Multitasking Interruptions High cognitive load can impair While multitasking can appear attention by overwhelming working External stimuli such as efficient, it often leads to memory. When too much noise, visual distractions, or decreased performance due to information is processed interruptions can divert the divided allocation of simultaneously, the ability to focus attention away from the cognitive resources. Studies have on relevant tasks diminishes. primary task. shown that multitasking can result in lower accuracy and slower task completion times.  Automatic vs. Controlled Processes of Attention Automatic Processes Automatic processes are characterized by their speed and lack of conscious effort. They occur without deliberate thought and often involve well-learned tasks or stimuli. For example, recognizing a familiar face in a crowd or responding to a frequently encountered In sports, an athlete may perform complex movements automatically after extensive practice, allowing them to sound involves automatic processing. focus on strategy and decision-making. Controlled Processes Controlled processes require deliberate effort and conscious attention. They are slower and involve tasks that are novel or require significant cognitive resources. For example, learning a new language or solving complex math problems involves controlled processes In a learning environment, a student tackling a challenging (Cowan, 2023). new topic may rely on controlled processes to understand and apply new concepts. Nature of Consciousness Consciousness allows us to reflect on our experiences, make decisions, and engage in complex problem-solving. It enables us to plan and execute actions based on our awareness and understanding of our mental states. In social interactions, consciousness enables us to be aware of our body language and tone of voice, allowing us to adapt our communication based on the reactions of others. This awareness is crucial for effective interpersonal communication and empathy. Levels of Consciousness Consciousness encompasses our awareness of our internal states and external environment. It is a multifaceted construct that includes various levels of awareness: Conscious: This level involves immediate awareness of thoughts, sensations, and perceptions. For instance, being aware of the taste of coffee while drinking it is a conscious experience Preconscious: This refers to information that is not currently in our awareness but can be easily brought to consciousness. An example is remembering someone's name when prompted. Unconscious: This level includes mental processes that are not accessible to our direct awareness, such as repressed memories or automatic responses. For example, an individual might have an automatic fear response to snakes without being consciously aware of the underlying cause (Kihlstrom, 2023) Consciousness of Mental Processes Awareness of Mental States Consciousness allows individuals to be aware of their cognitive processes, suchas thinking, problem-solving, and emotional responses. This awareness enablesself-reflection and the ability For example, a person experiencing anxiety before to adjust one’s behavior based on internal states(Dennett,2022). a public speaking event canusetheir awareness to employ relaxation techniques and adjust their mindset. Meta-Cognition Meta-cognition refers to the awareness and regulation of one’scognitiveprocesses. It involves evaluating one’s thought processes, understandinghowonelearns best, and making adjustments to improve learning and problem- solvingstrategies(Flavell, 2020) Students can use meta-cognitive strategies to monitor their understandingofmaterial and adjust, such as seeking clarification or changing study methods, toenhance their learning outcomes. Memory Lesson 5 - COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY By: Krisette E. Romero, MPsy, RPm Learning Objectives 1. Explain the tasks used for measuring memory and describe various methods used to assess memory in cognitive psychology. 2. Understand different theoretical models of memory and how they apply in real-world contexts. 3. Explain the processes involved in encoding, transferring, and retrieving information from memory. 4. Analyze the factors leading to forgetting and how memories can become distorted over time.  Memory Memory is a fundamental cognitive process that involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Memory allows us to retain past experiences, use learned information, and plan for the future. Memory is not a singular entity but a complex system involving different types and processes. From short-term to long-term memory, each type plays a unique role in how we handle information. Studying memory can improve educational methods, therapeutic approaches, and technological innovations designed to support cognitive functioning. Cognitive psychology provides valuable insights into the mechanisms of memory and the factors that influence its effectiveness. Tasks used for measuring Memory Memory measurement tasks are designed to assess various aspects of memory, including encoding, storage, and retrieval. These tasks help researchers and clinicians understand how memory functions and identify areas of strength and weakness in individuals. Common Memory Measurement Tasks: Recall Tasks Participants are asked to retrieve information without cues. This can be free recall, where they list as many items as possible from memory, or cued recall, where prompts aid in retrieval. Example: A typical classroom test where students recall information without prompts tests long-term memory and the effectiveness of study techniques. Application: Used in educational assessments and cognitive rehabilitation to gauge the ability to retrieve learned information. Tasks used for measuring Memory Common Memory Measurement Tasks: Recognition Tasks Participants must identify previously encountered items from a list that includes distractors. This task measures recognition memory. Example: Multiple-choice tests in academic settings assess recognition memory, as students identify correct answers from a set of options. Application: Used in forensic psychology to evaluate witness memory and in marketing to test brand recognition. Tasks used for measuring Memory Common Memory Measurement Tasks: Working Memory Tasks These tasks assess the ability to hold and manipulate information temporarily. Example: The digit span task requires participants to recall a sequence of numbers, testing their short- term memory capacity. Application: Important in educational contexts to identify students who may need interventions for working memory deficits, influencing teaching strategies. Implicit Memory Tasks These assess unconscious memory processes. Example: Word fragment completion tasks where individuals complete words without conscious recollection demonstrate implicit memory. Application: Used in advertising to measure brand imprinting and consumer behavior without conscious awareness. Models of Memory Multi-Store Model The multi-store model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), suggests that memory consists of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Models of Memory Multi-Store Model The multi-store model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), suggests that memory consists of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory Memory: Holds sensory information briefly. Example: When a person sees a flash of lightning, the visual impression remains for a brief moment even after the flash is gone. Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds information temporarily for analysis and transfer to LTM. Example: Remembering a phone number long enough to dial it demonstrates STM's limited capacity. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information indefinitely. Example: Recalling your childhood home’s address showcases LTM's ability to store personal and factual information over long periods. Models of Memory Working Memory Model The working memory model, developed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974),expands on STM, emphasizing its role in active information processing. Models of Memory Working Memory Model The working memory model, developed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974),expands on STM, emphasizing its role in active information processing. Central Executive: Oversees attentional control and task management. Example: Switching attention between driving and conversing demonstrates the central executive's role in managing cognitive resources. Phonological Loop: Processes verbal and auditory information. Example: Repeating a new vocabulary word to memorize it highlights the phonological loop's function Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information indefinitely. Example: Recalling your childhood home’s address showcases LTM's ability to store personal and factual information over long periods Models of Memory Levels of Processing Model The levels of processing model, proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972), suggests that memory retention is influenced by the depth of processing. Models of Memory Levels of Processing Model The levels of processing model, proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972), suggests that memory retention is influenced by the depth of processing. Shallow Processing: Focuses on surface characteristics. Example: Memorizing a word's appearance rather than its meaning results in poorer retention. Deep Processing: Involves semantic analysis. Example: Understanding and applying a concept in various contexts enhances memory retention through deep processing. Encoding, Transfer, and Retrieval Encoding - the process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory. Visual Encoding: Involves converting images into memory. Acoustic Encoding: Involves processing auditory information. Semantic Encoding: Involves understanding the meaning of information. Transfer - the movement of information from one memory store to another, such as from STM to LTM. Rehearsal: Repeating information helps transfer content from STM to LTM. Elaboration: Creating associations or mental connections between new information and existing knowledge enhances transfer. Encoding, Transfer, and Retrieval Retrieval - accessing stored information for use Recall: Retrieving information without cues. Recognition: Identifying previously encountered information. Semantic Encoding: Involves understanding the meaning of information. Forgetting and Memory Distortion Forgetting -occurs when information cannot be retrieved frommemory. It canresult from several factors Decay Theory: Memory traces fade over time if not accessed. Example: Forgetting details of a book read years ago because it hasn't been revisited. Interference Theory: Other memories interfere with retrieval. Proactive Interference: Old information hinders new information recall. Example: Struggling to remember a new phone number due to interference from an old one. Retroactive Interference: New information affects the recall of old information. Example: Difficulty recalling an old address after moving. Retrieval Failure: Inability to access stored information. Example: The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Forgetting and Memory Distortion Memory Distortion - occurs when memories are altered or influenced by external factors. Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into memory Example: Witnesses altering their memory of an event after discussing it with others. False Memories: Recollection of events that never occurred. Example: Recalling an event from childhood that never happened, often influenced by suggestion or imagination. Source Amnesia: Forgetting the origin of a memory Example: Remembering a fact but not knowing whether it came from a conversation or a book. The Landscape of Memory: Mental Images, Maps, & Proportions Lesson 6 - COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY By: Krisette E. Romero, MPsy, RPm Learning Objectives 01 Understand the mental representation of knowledge. 02 Describe the mental manipulations of images. 03 identify the process of synthesizing images and proposition. Landscape of Memory The Landscape of Memory is a unique and captivating topic that explores the complex and multifaceted nature of human memory. Mental images refer to the visual representations that our brains create to store memories. These images can be vivid and detailed, evoking a sense of presence and recall, or they can be vague and fuzzy, leaving us wondering what really happened. Maps are another essential component of the Landscape of Memory. In this context, maps refer to the cognitive frameworks that our brains use to organize and structure our memories. Proportions play a crucial role in the Landscape of Memory as they help us understand the relationships between different memories and events. Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval Cognitive psychologists generally refer to the main processes of memory as comprising three common operations: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Each one represents a stage in memory processing: Encoding refers to how you transform a physical, sensory input into a kind of representation that can be placed into memory. Storage refers to how you retain encoded information in memory. Retrieval refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory. Encoding, storage, and retrieval often are viewed as sequential stages. You first take in information. Then you hold it for a while. Later you pull it out. However, the processes interact with each other and are interdependent. Encoding and Transfer of Information Before information can be stored in memory, it first needs to be encoded for storage. In order to remember events and facts over a long period of time, we need to encode and subsequently transfer them from short-term to long-term storage. Forms of Encoding Short-Term Storage Conrad and colleagues (1964) set out to discover with an experiment. Participants were visually presented with several series of six letters at the rate of 0.75 seconds per letter. The letters used in the various lists were B, C, F, M, N, P, S, T, V, and X. There were no vowels included in order to ensure that letter combinations did not result in any words or pronounceable combinations that could be memorized more easily. Despite the fact that letters were presented visually, errors tended to be based on acoustic confusability. In other words, instead of recalling the letters they were supposed to recall, participants substituted letters that sounded like the correct letters. Thus, they were likely to confuse F for S, B for V, P for B, and so on. Forms of Encoding Short-Term Storage Conrad and colleagues (1964) set out to discover with an experiment. Another group of participants simply listened to single letters in a setting that had noise in the background. They then immediately reported each letter as they heard it. Participants showed the same pattern of confusability in the listening task as in the visual memory task (Conrad, 1964). Thus, we seem to encode visually presented letters by how they sound, not by how they look. The Conrad experiment shows the importance in short-term memory of an acoustic code rather than a visual code. Forms of Encoding Short-Term Storage Baddeley (1966) argued that short-term memory relies primarily on an acoustic rather than a semantic code. He compared recall performance for lists of acoustically confusable words—such as map, cab, mad, man, and cap— with lists of acoustically distinct words—such as cow, pit, day, rig, and bun. He found that performance was much worse for the visual presentation of acoustically similar words. He also compared performance for lists of semantically similar words—such as big, long, large, wide, and broad— with performance for lists of semantically dissimilar words— such as old, foul, late, hot, and strong. Forms of Encoding Short-Term Storage Baddeley (1966) argued that short-term memory relies primarily on an acoustic rather than a semantic code. The performance for the semantically similar words was only slightly worse than that for the semantically dissimilar words, meaning that semantics did not matter much for processing. Subsequent work investigating how information is encoded in short-term memory has shown clear evidence, however, of at least some semantic encoding in short-term memory (Shulman, 1970; Wickens, Dalezman, & Eggemeier, 1976). The encoding in short-term memory appears to be primarily acoustic, but other forms of encoding may be used under some circumstances. Forms of Encoding Long-Term Storage Most information stored in long-term memory is primarily semantically encoded. In other words, it is encoded by the meanings of words. Consider some relevant evidence. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies have found that the brain areas that are involved in encoding can be, but do not necessarily have to be involved in retrieval. With respect to faces, the anterior medial prefrontal cortex and the right fusiform face area play an important role both in encoding and retrieval, whereas the left fusiform face area contributes mostly to encoding processes. (Prince et al., 2009). Forms of Encoding Long-Term Storage Most information stored in long-term memory is primarily semantically encoded. In other words, it is encoded by the meanings of words. Consider some relevant evidence. In addition to semantic and visual information, acoustic information can be coded in long-term memory (Nelson & Rothbart, 1972). Thus, there is considerable flexibility in the way we store information that we retain for long periods. Those who seek to know the single correct way we encode information are seeking an answer to the wrong question. There is no one correct way. Transfer of Information from STM to LTM Interference and Decay - two main issues that occur when we move information from short-term memory to long-term memory. Interference - happens when competing information interferes with our storing information. Decay - happens when we forget facts just because time passes. Processes of entrance of information to the long-term memory: One method of accomplishing this goal is by deliberately attending to information to comprehend it. Consolidation - when we make connections by integrating the new data into our existing schemas of stored information. In humans, the process of consolidating declarative information into memory can continue for many years after the initial experience (Squire, 1986). Transfer of Information from STM to LTM Meta memory techniques - include focusing on our own memory mechanisms in order to strengthen our memories. These techniques are especially relevant when we are passing fresh knowledge to long-term memory by rehearsing it. Rehearsal - the repeated recitation of an item. Elaborative Rehearsal - the individual somehow elaborates the items to be remembered, such rehearsal makes the things either more meaningfully blended into what a person already understands and thus more unforgettable. Maintenance Rehearsal - the individual simply repetitiously rehearses the items to be repeated. Such rehearsal temporarily maintains information in short-term memory without transferring the information to long-term memory. Transfer of Information from STM to LTM Sleep and Memory Consolidation Of particular importance to memory - the amount of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, a particular stage of sleep and is characterized by dreaming and increased brainwave activity (Karni et al., 1994), a person receives. Neuroscience and Memory Consolidation - In- creased hippocampal activity was seen during sleep after the person had learned the spatial information. In the people with the most hippocampal activation, there was also an improvement in performance when they needed to recall the routes (Peigneux et al., 2004). Organization of Information Stored memories are organized. Free recall - the researchers gives a list of unrelated words to recall in any order. Participants have multiple trials during which to learn to recall a list of unrelated words in any order they choose. Remember that if sets of test words can be divided into categories (e.g., names of fruits or of furniture), participants spontaneously will cluster their recall output by these categories. They do so even if the order of presentation is random (Bousfield, 1953). Mnemonic devices - are specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words (Best, 2003). Essentially, such devices add meaning to otherwise meaningless or arbitrary lists of items. Even music can be used as a mnemonic device when a well-known or easy melody is used and connected with the material that needs to be learned. Retrieval from Short-Term Memory In one study on memory scanning, Saul Sternberg presented participants with a short list including from one to six digits (Sternberg, 1966). They were expected to hold the list in short-term memory. After a brief pause, a test digit was flashed on a screen. Participants had to say whether this digit appeared in the set that they had been asked to memorize. Thus, if the list comprised the digits 4, 1, 9, 3, and the digit 9flashed on the screen, the correct response would be “yes.” If, instead, the test digit was 7, the correct response would be “no.” The digits that were presented are termed the positive set. Those that were not presented are termed the negative set.