Personality Development PDF

CHAPTER 1: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT OVERVIEW Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction of temperament, character, and environment. Personality development is...

CHAPTER 1: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT OVERVIEW Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction of temperament, character, and environment. Personality development is a systematic and continuous attempt to create and promote key work-related personality traits within you so that you become an effective and efficient university administrative officer. Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable soon after birth. A child's personality has several components: temperament, environment, and character. Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child's approach to the world and how the child learns about the world. There are no genes that specify personality traits, but some genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn controls behavior. A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child's specific environment. Most psychologists agree that these two factors-temperament and environment- influence the development of a person's personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence on genetic factors, is sometimes referred to as "nature," while the environmental factors are called "nurture." Finally, the third component of personality is character-the set of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. A person's character continues to evolve throughout life, although much depends on inborn traits and early experiences. Character is also dependent on a person's moral development. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Infancy- During the first two years of life, an infant goes through the first stage: Learning Basic Trust or Mistrust (Hope). Well-nurtured and loved, the infant develops trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, the infant becomes insecure and learns "basic mistrust." Toddlerhood- The second stage occurs during early childhood, between about 18 months to two years and three to four years of age. It deals with Learning Autonomy or Shame (Will). Well-parented, the child emerges from this stage with self-confidence, elated with his or her newly found control. The early part of this stage can also include stormy tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism, depending on the child’s temperament. Preschool- The third stage occurs during the “play age”, or the later preschool years from about three to entry into formal school. The developing child goes through Learning Initiative or Guilt (Purpose). The child learns to use imagination; to broaden skills through active play and fantasy; to cooperate with others; and to lead as well as to follow. If unsuccessful, the child becomes fearful, is unable to join groups, and harbors guilty feelings. The child depends excessively on adults and is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination. School age- The fourth stage, Learning industry or Inferiority (Competence), occurs during school age, up to and possibly including junior high school. The child learns to master more formal skills: relating with peers according to rules progressing from free play to play that is structured by rules and requires teamwork (team sports) learning basic intellectual skills (reading, arithmetic) At this stage, the need for self-discipline increases every year. The child who, because of his or her successful passage through earlier stages, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative, will quickly learn to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future and will feel inferior. Adolescence- The fifth stage, Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion (Fidelity), occurs during adolescence from age 13 or 14. Maturity starts developing during this time; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-doubt and experiments with different constructive roles rather than adopting a negative identity, such as delinquency. The well-adjusted adolescent actually looks forward to achievement, and, in later adolescence, clear sexual identity is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him or her), and gradually develops a set of ideals to live by. Another environmental factor of importance is culture. Researchers comparing cultural groups for specific personality types have found some important differences. For example, Northern European countries and the United States have individualistic cultures that put more emphasis on individual needs and accomplishments. In contrast, Asian, African, Central American, and South American countries are characterized more by community-centered cultures that focus on belonging to a larger group, such as a family, or nation. In these cultures, cooperation is considered a more important value than competitiveness, which will necessarily affect personality development. Common problems Infants who are just a few weeks old display differences between each other in how active they are, how responsive they are to change, and how irritable they are. Some infants cry constantly while others seem happy and stay fairly quiet. Child development researchers has identified nine temperamental traits that may contribute to a child's personality development being challenging or difficult: activity level (how active the child is generally) distractibility (degree of concentration and paying attention when the child is not particularly interested) intensity (how loud the child is) regularity (the predictability of biological functions like appetite and sleep) sensory threshold (how sensitive the child is to physical stimuli: touch, taste, smell, sound, light) approach/withdrawal (characteristic responses of a child to a new situation or to strangers) adaptability (how easily the child adapts to transitions and changes such as switching to a new activity) persistence (stubbornness, inability to give up) mood (tendency to react to the world primarily in a positive or negative way) Parental concerns Most children experience healthy personality development. However, some parents worry as to whether their infant, child, or teenager has a personality disorder. Parents are usually the first to recognize that their child has a problem with emotions or behaviors that may point to a personality disorder. Children with personality disorders have great difficulty dealing with other people. They tend to be inflexible, rigid, and unable to respond to the changes and normal stresses of life and find it very difficult to participate in social activities. CHAPTER 3: Factors Affecting the Development of Personality Nature VS. Nurture The nature versus nurture debate is about the relative influence of an individual's innate attributes as opposed to the experiences from the environment one is brought up in, in determining individual differences in physical and behavioral traits. The philosophy that humans acquire all or most of their behavioral traits from "nurture" is known as tabula rasa ("blank slate"). In recent years, both types of factors have come to be recognized as playing interacting roles in development. Comparison chart Nature Nurture In the "nature vs nurture" In the "nature vs nurture" debate, nature refers to an debate, nurture refers to What is it? individual's innate qualities personal experiences (L.e. (nativism). empiricism or behaviorism). Nature is your genes. The Nurture refers to your childhood, physical and personality traits or how you were brought up. determined by your genes stay Someone could be born with the same irrespective of where genes to give them a normal you were born and raised. height, but be malnourished in childhood, resulting in stunted Example growth and a failure to develop as expected. Factors Biological and family factors Social and environmental factors Factors Affecting Development of Personality Genetic: The resultant fertilized nucleus-cell is divided into two rod-like or threadlike structures, each such a pair is called a chromosome; the process of breaking down continues till the number of chromosomes grows to 23 pairs. These chromosomes contain genes; and genes are the carriers of heredity. Aristotle classified personality into three types:  1. Endomorph: Short, fat-built persons fall into this category. 2. Ectomorph: Those having long and thin physique have been put in this category. 3. Mesomorph: To this third category belong the persons who are muscular and have a well. proportioned body structure. This classification is based on the apparent condition of the physique of a person. The condition of physique is mainly the result of heredity; it, generally, depends on genes To what they have reached, may be put in brief as under: 1. Genetic factors determine both the physical attributes and the other personality characteristics. 2. The individual's physical characteristics may affect his temperament and behavior. 3. A thin, non-muscular, and poorly coordinated person in motor development, is less likely to achieve success in physical tasks; or, in athletic games-the activities that the school boys value highly; with the result that he cannot enjoy popularity with his peers. Non-Genetic: The physique of a person is dependent not only on the genetic factor, but there is one more prenatal factor which affects it. It may be called non-genetic or biological factor. When the embryo/fetus is in the womb of its mother, it is hardly affected by the external environment. It is fed through the umbilical cord, and its feeding depends upon the food of the mother. The malnutrition of the mother, would affect the physique of the unborn baby; and not only its physique but the temperamental or emotional build-up of the child is also affected by it. The mental condition of the mother, though cannot directly affect the emotional conditions of the child yet indirectly it does. The ailment of parent and the home environment of the prospective mother also have their effect on the physique and emotional build- up of the child to be born. This nature, through genetic and non-genetic factors, affects the physique which led Aristotle to classify personality into three categories: 1. Endomorph; 2. Ectomorph and 3. Mesomorph; And also classify temperamentally or emotionally into: Active-Lively, talkative, playful, creative, good physical co-ordination with greater strength and energy. Inactive-Sluggish, passive and poorly coordinated. Timid-Physically small in status, poorly coordinated, relatively weak and apathetic, shy, fearful, depending more on others, such a child would remain more absent from his school than others Nurture: All the factors that make the environment, and, affect the development of an individual into a personality, may be put under the heading Nurture, Nurture includes all that are there in the environment, both physical and social. At the first level is the "microsystem"-it is related to the individual experiences of the young child that he has: In the home environment, living with his parents and siblings; and In the school environment, living with his teachers and peers. At the second level is the "meso-system"-it refers to the links amongst settings where the individual child directly participates in. For example, the home and the school are such settings, and the quality of the home environment may affect the child's performance in the school, and his adjustment with the peers. The third level is the "Ecosystem"-this refers to the settings where the child does not directly participate in; the father's or the mother's work environment is the example in which there is no direct participation of the child but their work environment does affect the child-care that the parents take. The fourth and the final level is the "macro- system" it refers to the general pattern of ideology and organization of the different social and the sub-cultural institutions. For example, the parents' stress at work is affected by the number of working hours, rates of emoluments, perks provided, holidays and leave entitlement, occupational status, or the view of the society regarding different occupations and others. Social: In comparison to an ectomorph, the mesomorph and also endomorph would be more social. These latter types would be more acceptable by other members of the group, and they, too, would be more self. confident, and would develop higher self-esteem in due course. As mentioned above, their physique is such that they would be more inclined towards games, sports and other physical activities; and would be able to perform there better. These abilities or skills of theirs would make them more popular with their peers and others, and, they would grow more and more social. Family: In a family, the greatest impact exerted is that of the mother, the loving care or the affectionate nurturance of the mother goes a long way in building up, especially, the emotional aspect of personality. Whether the child grows into a healthy adolescent or into aggressive ar neurotic or otherwise a problematic one, to a great extent, depends upon the treatment that he, as a child, has got at the hands of his mother. Now, the important thing to see is how the two different types of home environments, effect the development of two different categories of personalities: Home Environment and Personality Children from democratic home Children from controlled home 1. Active only as per direction 1. Active with initiation 2. Content 2. Competitive 3. Shy 3. Outgoing 4. Less of originality 4. Having qualities of leadership 5. submissive 5. Assertive School: School provides a very important landmark in the process of the development of personality. Suddenly, the child is shifted to an environment where he gets to see almost all faces to be new. The homely affectionate environment is not there. Peer-Group: Generally, initiation has to be taken by the newcomer as he knows that now he will have to live with the group. He has to learn the cues and the responses which are likely to be rewarded by his peers. The process of integration progresses only slowly because the peer-group is not exactly consisted of members of the same type; and the socioeconomic status of their families also happen to be different, and then each happens to be having its own "center of gravity" or "central core" because of their having had different prenatal impacts besides having heterogeneous family backgrounds. Factors which affect following are the factors which affect peer acceptance: 1. Those who are bodily well-built and strong, are liked by their peers, 2. Those who are good looking, they become popular among the peer group. 3. Children better in physical activities or sports, win more friends. 4. Habits of tidy-living are also liked by the members of the group. 5. A happy child, friendly in nature, would naturally win more friends. The frequent laughter is a sign of friendly invitation. 6. Those who are good at studies, may attract some for friendship with them while at the same time some may become envious of their class-achievements. 7. Rough and tumble, and having some aggressiveness also get favorable attention from many. 8. During the middle childhood, such children are befriended who are skilled and competent in the work befitting their age and sex. Patterson et al, through a diagram have shown how the rejection by peers and failure in academic work has its cause in the nature of family care Profession: Personality is related to the whole life of a person even though its development is very rapid during childhood. Personality, almost in its full bloom, is a subject related to adulthood. None the less, we have included the topic in reference to child development because the personality is mainly the resultant of factors which are most effective in childhood. Community: Community is a very wide term which may be made up of many social groups. Many entities, like a family, and agencies like a school may be operative therein to bring about a collective and cumulative impact on the individuals belonging to the community. Culture: Culture represents the best product of human mind in the fields of arts and intellects. It is the result of the cultivated human mind which has been making constant efforts for achieving perfection. The stage up to which a particular community has reached by dint of its efforts, can be known through the works of that community in the fields of architecture, fine arts, dance, music, different literary forms, styles of living and values of life, consumer items that make life more comfortable, more secure; sanitary care (including ways of disposing wastes), means of recreation and so on. CHAPTER 4: HOW DO PERSONALITIES DEVELOP? Multiple Theories in Psychology There are three main influences on personality development that we are going to look at in this lesson. Those are heredity, environment, and situation. Heredity: This refers to the influences on your personality that you are born with. They are in your genes and there is not much you can do to change these traits. They can include your temperament, which helps to determine how you react to situations and how easygoing you are. Environment: Our environment is the nurturing aspect of our lives. It is the type of environment in which we live and grow up. Environment would include home, school, work, or other places that you spend a lot of time. Environmental factors also include such things as languages, religion, etc. Situations: These are the experiences that each individual person goes through. The various things that people experience will leave imprints on and help to develop his or her personality. Everything from divorce, death, trauma, and even happy times fit into the "situations" category of shaping one's personality. Genes or Experiences? Many people wonder if one's personality primarily comes down to nature versus nurture. This is a debate that has waged for quite some time. The Developing Personality As you can see, how one's personality develops is not as simple as just saying that it is one thing; however, there is one thing that most researchers seem to agree on: one's childhood lays the foundation for the personality that one will have as an adult. Stages of Development While there are quite a few theories regarding development, some of them are more popularly known than others, such as the Freudian stages of development, as well as Erik Erikson's stages of development. Here, we will look at both of these different theories. Sigmund Freud’s Stages of Development Stage Age Erogenous Zone/ Activites Oral 0 to 18 months Mouth/sucking, biting, chewing Anal 18 to 36 months Anus/bowel and bladder control Phallic 3 to 6 years Genitals/masturbation Latency 6 years to puberty -/ repression of sexual feelings Genital Puberty+ Maturation of sexual orientation Freud's theory of personality development was that it was a result of a series of stages during childhood. He believed that the development process involved a pleasure-seeking source that revolved around psychosexual energy. His stages of development include: Oral stage. This is the first stage, which begins at birth. Calling it the "oral stage" makes sense because it is often oral fixation that soothes babies; e.g., bottle, nipple, pacifier. The child seeks oral gratification in order to gain pleasure. During this stage, if a child does not have its oral needs met, for example, not being fed when crying, he or she learns to not trust. If children have those needs met, they learn to trust those around them. Anal stage. This is the next stage in Freud's theory of child development. It focuses on learning to control bowel movements and maintain bladder control. When children gain this ability, they feel independent and a sense of accomplishment. This stage is affected by how parents approach potty training. If they punish and ridicule or are very strict, the child can go on to be anal-retentive and have such personality traits as being obsessive, rigid, etc. This stage lasts up until the child is around 3 years old. Phallic stage. During this stage the focus is on the genitals. This is when males and females realize there is a difference. Freud believed that the girls suffered from "penis envy" because they were not males and that boys were in competition with their fathers to get their mothers' attention. This stage lasts until the child is around 5. Latent period. This was believed to be an important period in personality development, when children focus on relationships with their peers, finding hobbies they enjoy, and pursuing interests. This stage takes place from age 6 to about 12. Genital stage. This final stage starts when the child is about 12 years old. It is the period that children go through puberty and start gaining sexual interest. In this stage, the child begins to establish an interest in other people and, in turn, become well-balanced. A Freudian slip is a slip of the tongue that is motivated by and reveals some unconscious aspect of the mind, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary. Erik Erikson's Stages of Development Another popular psychologist in the field was Erik Erikson. His stages of development focused on trying to provide a theory on social development. He was influenced by Sigmund Freud. Erikson's stages of development did not stop when a child turned 18. He believed that the person continued to develop and have personality outcomes into adulthood as well. Stage Age Psychosocial Relational Central Question: Associated Virtue Issue Focus How can I… Infancy 0-1 TRUST-Mistrust Mother & other Be secure? Hope: Trust & caregiver (s) Optimism Early Childhood 2-3 AUTONOMY- Parents Be independent? Will: Use & exercise Doubt, Shame freedom & self- restraint Childhood 4-6 INITIATIVE- Guilt Basic Family Be powerful? Purpose & Direction: (play) Ability to initiative own activities; pursue goals Childhood 7-12 INDUSTRY- Neighborhood; Be good? Competence in (school) Inferiority school intellectual, social & physical skills Adolescence 3-19 IDENTITY- Role Peer groups Fit into the adult Fidelity & an Confusion world? Who am I? integrated image of oneself as a unique person Young 19-35 INTIMACY- Partners in Love? Love: Mutuality, Adulthood Isolation friendship; the finding & losing self in other the other, career commitments Adulthood 35-55 GENERATIVITY- Divided labor Fashion a “gift”? Care: Solicitude, Stagnation & shared guidance & teaching a household new generation Maturity 55+ ECO INTEGRITY- “Humankind” Receive a “gift”? Wisdom: Sense of Despair fulfillment & satisfaction with one’s life Infancy. In this stage, the focus is trust versus mistrust. Hope is the virtue that comes out of this stage, as the child learns to trust or mistrust his caretakers. 18 months to 3 years. In this autonomy versus shame stage, the virtues gained are self-control and courage. It is the stage in which we learn to walk, talk, eat, and gain small motor control, as well as learning toilet training. This is a vulnerable stage. If parents are harsh, especially during potty training, it may create a child with low self-esteem. 3 to 5 years. This is the initiative versus guilt stage, in which children copy the adults around them. They also take the initiative to play on their own. Children learn to do some things on their own, such as get dressed. If children feel guilty about doing these things, they will have difficulties later. 6 to 12 years. This is the industry versus inferiority stage, and the virtues gained are method and Competence. Children in this stage compare their own worth to those around them and may feel inferior if they do not measure up. 12 to 18 years. identity versus role confusion is the outcome of this stage, with the virtues being devotion and fidelity. At this stage, peer relationships are most important and these teens question themselves. As they are trying to figure out who they are and what their plans are, they can experience role confusion if their parents are pushing a different version of themselves than they may feel. 18 to 35 years. The development outcome in this stage is intimacy and solidarity versus isolation. The basic strengths are love and affiliation. It is the stage that we seek out a satisfying relationship and start a family. If someone is not successful in this quest, he or she may turn to isolation. 35 to 55 years or so. This is the stage that people often feel they have a "mid-life crisis." It is the generativity versus self- absorption or stagnation stage. This is the stage in which people often size up all they have done thus far and measure to see if they feel they have accomplished enough. 55 or so until death. The basic strength in this stage is wisdom, and the ego outcome is integrity versus despair. At this stage, if people look back upon their lives and experiences and are pleased, they feel integrity, while those who are not feel despair. Needs vs. Wants When it comes to determining what needs are, it is important to distinguish them from wants. Needs are those things that are necessities to someone, while wants are those things that people can do without, but they just have a strong desire to have. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. To help put this all together we need to take a look at Abraham Maslow's famous Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow was a psychologist who in 1943 proposed his idea of the hierarchy of needs and how it affects who we are. The Hierarchy of Needs is in a triangle shape, with the most important things being at the bottom and then it works its way up, with needs narrowing as you go along. Here are the layers of the hierarchy: Physiological: These are the most important needs that must be met. They include food, water, breathing, excretion, sleep, sex, etc. Safety: Once your basic needs have been met, the next most important thing is safety. In this layer, you will need security, employment, family, property, health, morality, etc. Love and belonging: This layer in the hierarchy is smaller but still important. It includes the love and social relationships we have with people, including friends, family, and lovers. Esteem: This is the layer that deals with your confidence. What matters here is that people respect you, your self-esteem is high, you respect other people, experience personal growth and accomplishment, etc. Self-actualization: This is the need at the top of the triangle. It represents the idea that people are self- aware. The idea is that people focus on fulfilling their own potential and no longer worry so much about what others think. At this point, people are concerned with their own personal growth. Chapter 5: Personality Typing "Personality distinguishes you from other people and defines your general nature. Your overall personality is composed of a collection of psychological characteristics or traits which determines your personal preferences and individual style of behavior." Mathis and Jackson define "Personality is a unique blend of individual characteristics that affect interaction with the environment and help define a person". It is personality that defines a person. It is likely that personality of a person differs from that of other persons. Parkinson defines "Personality as the characteristic way in which someone responds to situations, or their preferred way of behaving towards particular circumstances and other people." Further, according to him, personality stems from person as an individual; it predicts his/her behavior over a range of situations; it does not alter dramatically over time; and it distinguishes one person in meaningful ways from other people. The fourfold functions of the mind The human mind has four basic functions. This can be illustrated by an example: suppose I meet a person whom I had met somewhere, say, about ten years before. Memory: The storehouse of memory and impressions of our past experiences presents various possibilities before the mind. This storehouse is called chitta. It is in this storehouse that the impressions of our thoughts and actions- good and bad-are stored. The sum total of these impressions determines our character. This chitta, again, is what is known as our subconscious mind. Deliberation and Conceptualization: Not yet sure, the mind examines the many options presented before it. It deliberates on several things. This faculty of the mind is called manas. Imagination and formation of concepts are also functions of the manas. Determination and Decision-making: Buddhi is the faculty responsible for decision-making. It has the capacity to judge the pros and cons of things and find what is more desirable. It is also the discriminative faculty in a person, which enables him to discriminate between the real and the unreal, between what is to be done and what is to be avoided, what is morally right and what is wrong. It is also the seat of will- power so essential for personality development and hence this aspect of the mind concerns us the most. ‘I’ Consciousness: Appropriating to oneself all physical and mental activities e.g. ‘I eat, ‘I see', ‘I talk’, ‘I hear’, ‘I think’, ‘I am confused’, etc., is called ahamkara or 'I' consciousness. As long as the 'I' identifies itself with the undisciplined body-mind complex, human life is dictated by events and circumstances of the world, we become happy with pleasurable events, and miserable with adverse circumstances. Determinants of personality are factors which contribute to form personality of individuals. Two major factors which influence personality are heredity and environment. Personality Traits Locus of Control An individual's generalized belief about internal (self) versus external (situation or others) control is called locus of control. It is the extent to which an individual believes that his or her actions determine his or her outcomes (success, job performance, achievement of a qualification, getting promoted etc) obtained in life. It is possible to classify individuals into two main categories, i.e., internals (individuals with internal locus of control) and externals (individuals with external locus of control). Internal locus of control is possessed by an individual who believes that he or she controls his or her destiny (what happens to him or her in life). External locus of control is possessed by an individual who believes that other factors (other people, situations, luck etc.) determine his or her destiny. If you believe that your behavior determines everything that happens to you, you are an internal. If you believe that my behavior has no impact on what happens to me but other people and luck determine your fate, you are an external. Type A and Type B Personalities Type A personality is a personality trait that involves working competitively under pressure. Type B personality is a personality trait that involves working calmly without pressure. A Type A personality works aggressively under pressure at an intense level with an impatient and competitive approach to others; and Type B personality chooses and prefers a low-pressure life and is a more relaxed, easy- going sociable person. Type As are less effective performers in policy-making top management positions which have long-term planning as a major component. Surveys reveal that most top executives are Type Bs rather than Type As because of the reasons that Type As simply do not last long enough to rise to the highest management levels (due to high stress and deteriorated health); the irritability or hostility often shown by Type As has negative effects on their careers preventing them from rising to the top of their organizations; and impatience is often incompatible with the deliberate, carefully considered decisions required of top-level managers). Self-Esteem Self-esteem is a personality trait that is concerned with the extent to which one has a feeling of self-worth it is an individual's general feeling of self-worth, You are a human being and you have a relatively stable perception about you. Who are you? Your view about yourself can be called self- concept Your self-concept reflects how you view yourself. What is your evaluation about your self- concept? Your evaluation about your self-concept can be called your self-esteem. A person with a high self-esteem exhibits the following characteristics: 1. Has a positive feeling about self. 2. Understands that there are self-strengths and self-weaknesses. 3. Believes to have a higher number of strengths than a number of weaknesses. 4. Believes that strengths are more important than weaknesses. 5. Believes that he or she is an important person. 6. Seeks responsibility. 7. Inspires others to have confidence in him or her. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is defined by Bandura as an individual's beliefs and expectations about his or her ability to accomplish a specific task effectively. It is the degree to which you believe that you can perform a certain task successfully. A person with a high self-efficacy exhibits the following characteristics: 1. Has a belief that he or she possesses the knowledge and skills needed to get the things done successfully. 2. Has the capability to exert the needed effort to accomplish the task. 3. Can overcome any obstacles which may arise in achieving successful performance. 4. Has no doubt about reaching success on the task. 5. Has self-esteem. As a matter of fact, some employees have more self-efficacy than others in organizations. Below are several sources which can shape self-efficacy: 1. Past mastery experience 2. Observation (vicarious experience) 3. Persuasion 4. Assessment 5. Availability of help Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring is a personality trait that has a great potential to affect behavior of a person at work. It is defined as the process of observing and controlling how we are perceived by others. It is the extent to which an individual adjusts his or her behavior according to signals or hints from other people or situations. It is the tendency of a person to do modifying his or her behavior to the requirements of demands of specific situations so that others will have a good impression about him or her. Positive/Negative Affect Positive affect is an individual tendency to accentuate the positive aspects of himself or herself, other people, and the world in general and Negative affect is an individual's tendency to accentuate the negative aspects of himself or herself, other people, and the world in general (Nelson and Quick, 1997) Alternatively, positive affect is called positive affectivity and negative affect is called negative affectivity. If you have positive affect, you emphasize or make positive aspects of yourself, people and the world noticeable. You have the tendency of experiencing positive moods in a wide range of situations and under different conditions. Your dominant psychological inclination or persistent mood disposition is being optimistic. A person who is high in negative affect tends to have an overall sense of ill-being, considers people and events in a pessimistic light, and tends to experience negative emotional states. Negators have certain common characteristics: 1. They usually keep to themselves having no want to participate in group activities. 2. They often act selfishly. 3. They never think a project will succeed, even if they are in charge. 4. They have an "I can't" attitude instead of an "I can" attitude.. 5. They spend much of their time for criticizing their employer and every business decision made.  6. They might have a dysfunctional personal life and prefer that co-workers are miserable along with them. 7. They shy away from taking risks. 7. They focus on the negatives, when everyone else looks on the bright side. 8. They seek out 'lose-lose' situations, instead of 'win-win' situations. 9. They tend to be secretive and avoid communicating with people whenever they can. Machiavellianism Machiavellianism is a personality characteristic which determines the degree to which a person focuses on obtaining and using power to further his or her own ends, regardless of the impact on others (Dunham, 1984). It is a personality trait that involves willingness to manipulate others for one's own purposes. UNIT II: INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 6: MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES Theory of Multiple Intelligences The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q, testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are: Linguistic intelligence ("word smart") Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart") Spatial intelligence ("picture smart") Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart") Musical intelligence ("music smart") Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart") Intrapersonal intelligence ("self-smart") Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart") Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic and logical- mathematical intelligence. We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture. However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don't receive much reinforcement for them in school. Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled "learning disabled," "ADD (attention deficit disorder," or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of thinking and learning aren't addressed by a heavily linguistic or logical- mathematical classroom. This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book "Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences," where he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences." Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as "existentialist intelligence." Criticism Gardner's theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics argue that Gardner's definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different "intelligences" simply represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner's theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research. 1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence Strengths: Visual and spatial judgment People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.3 Characteristics of visual-spatial intelligence include: ✓ Enjoys reading and writing ✓ Good at putting puzzles together ✓ Good at interpreting pictures, graphs, and charts ✓ Enjoys drawing, painting, and the visual arts ✓ Recognizes patterns easily ✓ Potential Career Choices If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are: ✓ Architect ✓ Artist ✓ Engineer 2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence Strengths: Words, language, and writing People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and reading. Characteristics of linguistic-verbal intelligence include: ✓ Good at remembering written and spoken information ✓ Enjoys reading and writing ✓ Good at debating or giving persuasive speeches ✓ Able to explain things well ✓ Often uses humor when telling stories ✓ Potential Career Choices If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are: Writer/journalist, Lawyer, Teacher 3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Strengths: Analyzing problems and mathematical operations People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.4 Characteristics of logical-mathematical intelligence include: ✓ Excellent problem-solving skills ✓ Enjoys thinking about abstract ideas ✓ Likes conducting scientific experiments ✓ Good at solving complex computations ✓ Potential Career Choices If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are: Scientist, Mathematician, Computer programmer, Engineer, Accountant 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Strengths: Physical movement, motor control Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.4 Characteristics of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include: ✓ Good at dancing and sports ✓ Enjoys creating things with his or her hands ✓ Excellent physical coordination ✓ Tends to remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing ✓ Potential Career Choices If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are: Dancer, Builder, Sculptor, Actor 5. Musical Intelligence Strengths: Rhythm and music People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.5 Characteristics of musical intelligence include: ✓ Enjoys singing and playing musical instruments ✓ Recognizes musical patterns and tones easily ✓ Good at remembering songs and melodies ✓ Rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes ✓ Potential Career Choices 6. Interpersonal Intelligence Strengths: Understanding and relating to other people Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them.5 Characteristics of interpersonal intelligence include: ✓ Good at communicating verbally ✓ Skilled at nonverbal communication ✓ Sees situations from different perspectives ✓ Creates positive relationships with others ✓ Good at resolving conflict in groups ✓ Potential Career Choices If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are: Psychologist, Philosopher, Counselor, Salesperson, Politician 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence Strengths: Introspection and self-reflection Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.5 Characteristics of intrapersonal intelligence include: ✓ Good at analyzing his or her strengths and weaknesses ✓ Enjoys analyzing theories and ideas ✓ Excellent self-awareness ✓ Clearly understands the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings w ✓ Potential Career Choices If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:, Philosopher, Writer, Theorist, Scientist 8. Naturalistic Intelligence Strengths: Finding patterns and relationships to nature Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner's theory and has been met with more resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments. Characteristics of naturalistic intelligence include:  ✓ Interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology ✓ Good at categorizing and cataloging information easily ✓ May enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors ✓ Doesn't enjoy learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature ✓ Potential Career Choices If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are: Biologist, Conservationist, Gardener, Farmer Intelligence Skills and Career Preferences Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Skills - Listening, speaking, writing, teaching Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to Careers - Poet, journalist, writer, teacher, the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words lawyer) politician, translator Mathematical- Logical Intelligence Skills - Problem solving (logical & math), performing experiments Ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns Careers – Scientists, engineers, accountants, mathematicians Musical Intelligence Skills - Singing, playing instruments, composing music Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber Careers - Musician, disc jockey, singer, composer Visual-Spatial Intelligence Skills - puzzle building, painting, constructing, fixing designing objects Capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly Careers - Sculptor, artist, inventor, architect, mechanic, engineer Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Skills - Dancing, sports, hands on experiments, acting Ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully Careers - Athlete, PE teacher, dancer, actor, firefight Interpersonal Intelligence Skills - Seeing from other perspectives, empathy counseling, co-operating Capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of Careers - Counselor, salesperson, politician, others business person, minister Intrapersonal Intelligence Skills - Recognize one's S/W, reflective, aware of inner feelings Capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking Careers - Researchers, theorists, processes philosophers Naturalistic Intelligence Skills - Recognize one's connection to nature, apply science theory to life Ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature  Existential Intelligence Skills - Reflective and deep thinking, design abstract theories Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the Careers - Scientist, philosopher, theologian meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here Chapter 7: Learning skills and Learning Styles We tend to believe that once we are done with our schooling, the learning process will stop. We won't be able to acquire any new knowledge, or more importantly we won't have to acquire any new knowledge. But this frame of thought could not be any more wrong. The process of learning is not restricted to a particular age or a particular grade. We are learning something new constantly, sometimes without even realizing. You may not attend any college once you are done with your high school but still the learning process never stops. Some tend to join a college or a university or a night school to enhance your skills while some other attend some seminars or lectures or read some books for the same purpose. So basically, the process of learning can never stop. Even at the age of 60, people tend to learn new things about the changing society scenario or just life in general. Learning process is not only restricted to the subjects that you studied but the things that you observe during your day to day life. Sometimes the learning process is not just limited to passing your exams or getting good grades in some test, sometimes the process is much more than that. And more importantly, the things that you learn today are not just for the retention purposes. The knowledge that you gain today is going to help you in your career tomorrow, help you at the time of parenting or even business or relationships or even sometimes as simple as getting ahead of someone at a particular task. The knowledge that you gain today is always going to come in handy sometime. So why not make sure that the knowledge that you gain stays in your mind. So here are some pointers that you can keep in mind while working on your learning skills. 1. Keep yourself prepared. When you are going to attend the class, try and do some study before so that you have a fair idea of what to expect from the class and what will be taught in the class. Also, if already have an idea about the curriculum of the lecture then it would help you understand the lecture better and hence help you retain the knowledge better and also you will be able to ask various queries about the topic at the same time and resolve them immediately. 2. Be organized. Keep your notes organized and well divided. Create separate folders for the various notes taken down by you in your computer or keep your notes in the separate files and folders. 3. Be punctual. Being punctual never cost anybody anything. It only helps you be ready for the class that you are about to take. Reach for the class five minutes early and try and keep everything that you need for the class ready. 4. Keep a notebook handy. Take notes of the things being taught in the class. Taking notes can be quite helpful. Try and be multitasking but if you can't then listen carefully during the class and take the notes later on. If the class is recorded then you can re-view the class and make notes at that time. 5. Establish your learning style. Everybody has a particular learning style so recognize your learning style and take the classes accordingly. If you are able to better understand and learnt he things just listening then you can purchase the audio CD of your class and listen to them while being stuck in a traffic jam, or you can keep in a notebook handy so that you can take notes and review them whenever you find some free time.  6. Clear your doubts is a good learning skill. If you have some questions in your mind regarding any of the topics being taught then write down the questions and make sure that you clarify all your doubts, A doubtful mind cannot grasp all the knowledge that is being given to him and he will in turn get confused, so in order to be able to understand and learn properly, make sure that all your queries are answered properly. 7. Complete the assignments. Make sure you always complete your assignments. They can provide you with the extra help that you might need. If you are preparing from a self-help book, then make sure that you complete all the assignment given in that book. This will help you test your knowledge and will help you determine your success and how well you have learnt. 8. Create a perfect study place. Create a work station for yourself where you can dump all your study material and just get started with the learning process. Keep all the books and the things that you might need, handy. Choose the place where you want to study, carefully. 9. Develop a schedule. Develop a schedule for yourself and decide how you want to study, when you want to study and where you want to study. Preparing a schedule for oneself is often not given due Importance in the larger scheme of things. We often are of the opinion that having a schedule is not going to be of much help but it can be exactly the thing that you need. 10. Start with the harder things. When you are caught up in a dilemma of choosing between the easier task and the harder task, always go for the harder one because putting off the harder task for the last minute will reduce your efficiency to half and you will not be able to produce the best results. What are learning styles? Learning styles are theories describing individual preferences for how we like to learn and how we best retain new information. Why identify your learning style? Identifying your learning style involves understanding how you tend to learn best. You can use this information to your advantage when you study by using learning approaches that work well for you, such as writing out notes, creating mind-maps, using models or reciting out loud. This can assist you with in-class learning and with examination revision. The different learning styles There are many different learning style models that attempt to explain differences in learning between individuals. One of the most widely known is the VARK model, which includes the Visual, Auditory, Read/write and Kinesthetic learning styles-these are detailed below. Reflect on which activities you tend to prefer when studying to determine which learning style you tend to use. Note that you may utilize more than one learning style. tend to use. Visual Visual learners learn by sight. These learners benefit from: Images and diagrams Graphics and visuals Charts Maps Mind-maps Flash cards AUDITORY Auditory learners learn by hearing. These learners benefit from: Listening Speaking Group discussions Verbal repetition Sound recordings Mnemonic devices Read/Write Read/write learners learn by reading and writing. These learners benefit from: Reading Writing Making detailed notes Re-writing notes to revise Viewing information in word form Kinesthetic Kinesthetic learners learn by touch. These learners benefit from: Movement Tactile representations Models and materials Physical interactions Hands-on approaches Experience and practice