Psychology Course Book PDF

PSYCHOLOGY DLBSAPSY01_E PSYCHOLOGY MASTHEAD Publisher: IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH IU International University of Applied Sciences Juri-Gagarin-Ring 152 D-99084 Erfurt Mailing address: Albert-Proeller-Straße 15-19 D-86675 Buchdorf [email protected] www.iu.de DLBSAPSY01_E Version No.: 001-2023-...

PSYCHOLOGY DLBSAPSY01_E PSYCHOLOGY MASTHEAD Publisher: IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH IU International University of Applied Sciences Juri-Gagarin-Ring 152 D-99084 Erfurt Mailing address: Albert-Proeller-Straße 15-19 D-86675 Buchdorf [email protected] www.iu.de DLBSAPSY01_E Version No.: 001-2023-0726 Concept: IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH Author: Katrin Dudgeon Content review: Evangelos Zois © 2023 IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH This course book is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. This course book may not be reproduced and/or electronically edited, duplicated, or distributed in any kind of form without written permission by the IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH (hereinafter referred to as IU). The authors/publishers have identified the authors and sources of all graphics to the best of their abilities. However, if any erroneous information has been provided, please notify us accordingly. 2 PROF. DR. EVANGELOS ZOIS Mr. Zois is a professor of psychology at IU International University of Applied Sciences. For his doctoral studies, Mr. Zois explored irrationality, brain function, and structure in gambling addiction with and without depression comorbidity. He followed a similar line of research during his postdoctoral work integrating genetics to the study of alcohol dependency. Mr. Zois has gained valuable experience in the fields of psychology, psychiatry, and addiction, working as an assistant (clinical) psychologist and research assistant in several renowned research and clinical settings and (neuro-) rehabilitation services in Greece, the UK, and Germany. He has also managed and coordinated several addiction-related projects (alcohol, opioids, and cannabis) at the Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London. His research interests are in alcohol dependence, gambling addiction, compulsive sexual behavior, mobile-use addiction, addiction comorbidity, gender and sexuality in relation to addiction, as well as psychological interventions in addiction. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS PSYCHOLOGY Module Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Introduction Signposts Throughout the Course Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Unit 1 The Science of Psychology 13 1.1 History of Psychology and Psychological Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.2 Psychology as an Empirical Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Unit 2 Psychobiological Fundamentals 29 2.1 Structure of Nerve Cells and Transmission of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.2 Nervous System and Structure of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Unit 3 Sensation and Perception 47 3.1 Basic Principles of Sensation and Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.2 Social Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Unit 4 Cognitive Processes 69 4.1 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.2 Judgement and Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.3 Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Unit 5 Learning and Memory 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 4 87 Classical and Operant Conditioning (Associative Learning) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Non-Associative Learning: Habituation and Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Cognition, Interaction, and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Retaining What is Learned: Memory Systems and Knowledge Organization . . . . . . . . 94 Unit 6 Motivation and Emotion 103 6.1 Motivation Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 6.2 Emotion Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Unit 7 Theories of Personality 117 7.1 Theories of Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 7.2 Developmental Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Unit 8 Social Psychology 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Group Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Stereotypes and Prejudice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Aggressive Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Prosocial Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Unit 9 Psychotherapeutic Methods and Approaches 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 133 151 Psychodynamic Psychotherapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Humanistic Conversational Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Systemic Psychotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Comparison of Psychotherapies and General Principles of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Appendix List of References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 List of Tables and Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5 INTRODUCTION WELCOME SIGNPOSTS THROUGHOUT THE COURSE BOOK This course book contains the core content for this course. Additional learning materials can be found on the learning platform, but this course book should form the basis for your learning. The content of this course book is divided into units, which are divided further into sections. Each section contains only one new key concept to allow you to quickly and efficiently add new learning material to your existing knowledge. At the end of each section of the digital course book, you will find self-check questions. These questions are designed to help you check whether you have understood the concepts in each section. For all modules with a final exam, you must complete the knowledge tests on the learning platform. You will pass the knowledge test for each unit when you answer at least 80 percent of the questions correctly. When you have passed the knowledge tests for all the units, the course is considered finished and you will be able to register for the final assessment. Please ensure that you complete the evaluation prior to registering for the assessment. Good luck! 8 SUGGESTED READINGS Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 142–175. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh. de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsbas&AN=edsbas.49618319&site=eds-live&sco pe=site Cattell, R. B., & Krug, S. E. (1986). The number of factors in the 16PF: A review of the evidence with special emphasis on methodological problems. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 46(3), 509–522. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/l ogin.aspx?direct=true&db=edo&AN=ejs47449314&site=eds-live&scope=site Cherry, E. C. (1953). Some experiments on the recognition of speech, with one and with two ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 25, 975–979. (available on the Internet) Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal behavior, 11, 671–684. http://search.eb scohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsbas&AN=edsbas.205D6 226&site=eds-live&scope=site Eichenbaum, H. (2000). A cortical hippocampal system for declarative memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1, 41–50. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.a spx?direct=true&db=pbh&AN=11359831&site=eds-live&scope=site Malone, J. C. (2014). Did John B. Watson really “found” behaviorism? Behavior Analyst, 37, 1–12. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e dssjs&AN=edssjs.14014AE9&site=eds-live&scope=site Moors, A., Ellsworth, P. C., Scherer, K. R., & Frijda, N. H. (2013). Appraisal theories of emotion: State of the art and future development. Emotion Review, 5(2), 119–124. http://se arch.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsbas&AN=edsbas .6E506F0E&site=eds-live&scope=site Moscovici, S., & Lage, E. (1976). Studies in social influence III: Majority versus minority influence in a group. European Journal of Social Psychology, 6(2), 149–174. http://searc h.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pbh&AN=12272168&si te=eds-live&scope=site Sternberg, R. J. (1997). The concept of intelligence and its role in lifelong learning and success. American Psychologist, 52(10), 1030. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:80 80/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsbas&AN=edsbas.FA6D8D68&site=eds-live&scope=si te 9 Wampold, B. E., Mondin, G. W., Moody, M., Stich, F., Benson, K., & Ahn, H. N. (1997). A metaanalysis of outcome studies comparing bona fide psychotherapies: Empirically, “all must have prizes.” Psychological Bulletin, 122(3), 203. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz .iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsbas&AN=edsbas.2F010B43&site=eds-liv e&scope=site 10 LEARNING OBJECTIVES The course Psychology will provide an overview of the subdisciplines of psychology and some of its applied areas. It covers the historical development of psychology and how different schools of thought shaped psychology as we know it today. The various subdisciplines approach human behavior from characteristic perspectives, determining the focus and methods of investigating human behavior. Psychology and its standing as a science will be reviewed, including central aspects of conceptual issues. The course covers psychobiological fundamentals. It provides an overview of the nervous system and structures of the brain, as well as sensation and perception. The unit on cognitive psychology offers an overview of human thinking, judgement, problem-solving and decision-making processes, as well as how we learn, store, and retrieve information. Additionally, the introduced theories of motivation and emotion will broaden the student's understanding of what motivates human behavior and how we experience emotion. Approaches to studying personality, personality development, and aspects of individual differences will also be reviewed. The unit on social psychology highlights how human behavior and thinking are influenced by the actual or imagined presence of others. Social psychological concepts and research on group behavior, prejudice, stereotypes, aggression and prosocial behavior are included in this unit. The application of psychological knowledge in various therapeutic settings forms the final unit. 11 UNIT 1 THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY STUDY GOALS On completion of this unit, you will be able to – describe the historical development of psychology. – understand the main contemporary schools of thought, approaches, and subdisciplines of psychology. – identify key concepts and questions that are being investigated by psychology. – assess why the use of common sense is flawed when explaining human behavior and how systematic methods in psychology have advanced the understanding of human behavior and psychological processes. – understand the main philosophical perspectives on the philosophy of science. 1. THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Introduction The study of psychology as we know it today is a vast field, and to fully appreciate and understand its diversity, one needs to explore its history in some detail. Psychology has been defined as the science of behavior and the mind (Gray & Bjorklund, 2014, p. 3). Psychology later developed subdisciplines investigating human behavior and mental processes, ranging from the experience of emotion, lifelong development, and cultural experiences, to name a few. In addition, the number of methods employed to investigate psychological phenomena has risen considerably over time. Due to technological advances, we can gain new insights into how the brain functions and the effect this has on human behavior. 1.1 History of Psychology and Psychological Perspectives The history of psychology dates back to ancient Greece but psychology only became an independent discipline when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. Ancient Greek and Philosophical Roots Dualism This is the view that the body and the mind are distinct entities, differentiating between the physical and the mental. Nature versus nurture Nature argues for human behavior and mental processes to be inborn – contrary to nurture that claims all human behavior derives from environmental stimuli. 14 Before the emergence of psychology as a separate and distinct discipline, philosophers in ancient Greece were already dealing with questions concerning human behavior and the roots of mental processes. Early scholars, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, raised crucial questions that are still fiercely debated today – for example, the question of whether the body and the mind are two distinct entities. This debate eventually became known as dualism in psychology (see Gray & Bjorklund, 2014). Another question seeks to ascertain whether humans are born with all necessary mental functions or if external influences, such as environmental stimuli, cause human behavior. This paved the way for psychology’s nature versus nurture debate (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2009). Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1823–1920) is regarded as the father of modern psychology and has been associated with the separation of psychology from philosophy and physiology. He marked the emergence of psychology as a separate and distinct discipline with the opening of the first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt employed a method known as introspection to study inner processes, particularly reaction time (see NolenHoeksema et al., 2009). From Wundt’s early studies and experiments, the movement of structuralism as the first school of thought in psychology was developed by Edward Titchener (1867–1927). Titchener was an Englishman and a student of Wundt. He later went to the United States and contributed to the US taking a leading role in developing psychology as a scientific discipline. His name is associated with suggesting a structure of the mind, known as structuralism. According to structuralism, investigating the mind’s smallest components and then putting them together can provide insights into more complex mental processes. An example of structuralism could be the description of a tree: It is tall, green, and has a stem and roots, branches, and leaves. The discontentment with structuralism, studying covert and not observable or quantifiable phenomena, led to the development of functionalism (Martin et al., 2007). Introspection This technique was used by Wundt in his early psychology experiments. It required participants to attend to their own feelings and inner thought processes. Functionalism The idea of functionalism emerged in the US during the late 19th century and took a point of view which differed from structuralism. Functionalism assumed that introspection and inner processes could not be studied appropriately and most certainly could not be broken down into their smallest parts. Instead, William James (18420–1910) claimed that human behavior was primarily based on neural activity. Our environment has influenced it to foster survival. His view was based very much on Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) theory of natural selection (Martin et al., 2007, pp. 27–28). John Dewey (1859–1952), US-American philosopher and psychologist, can be credited as the founder of functionalism (Backe, 2001). He based functionalism on the idea that all behavior had a specific function or goal and was subject to constant change and development. Edward Thorndike (1874–1949), another US-American psychologist, marked the turn from functionalism to behaviorism. From his experiments with animals, he triggered a movement away from studying consciousness to learning. Thorndike claimed that animals and humans learn in similar ways. He described learning as a process and not a sudden emergence. He put forward the “law of effect,” stating that if behavior following exposure to a particular stimulus provides satisfaction or is rewarded, then it is likely to reoccur. Conversely, behavior which is experienced as unpleasant or not rewarded is less likely to reoccur (Chance, 1999; Martin et al., 2007). Theory of natural selection Organisms change and develop depending on their environmental surroundings. The organisms that do this most successfully can pass their genes to the next generation. Figure 1: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box Source: Katrin Dudgeon (2023), based on Thorndike (1898, p. 8), cited in Chance (1999). 15 Behaviorism In the first half of the 20th century, the behaviorist approach emerged. According to behaviorism, all behavior is caused by conditioning. During conditioning, external and environmental stimuli cause a specific behavior. Behaviorists argued that only directly observable and overt behavior should be the focus of an investigation. They rejected the existence of innate or inborn foundations of behavior. John B. Watson (1878–1959) published the influential article “Psychology and how the Behaviorist views it.” Since then, Watson has been associated with the foundation of behaviorism (Martin et al., 2007). At the time, he conducted experiments with children. His most famous is known as the “The Little Albert Experiment.” Watson invited the toddler Little Albert into his lab, where a rat ran around freely. Initially, Albert was not frightened by the rat. In the next stage, Watson introduced a loud noise every time the rat was introduced into the laboratory. This loud noise frightened Albert, and it did not take him long to become fearful of the rat. Little Albert became conditioned to experience fear of rats and later developed a fear of all furry animals and items (Gray & Bjorklund, 2014, p. 110). During the conditioning phase, the previously neutral stimulus (NS) “rat” was paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCR) “loud noise,” producing a natural reflex response of fear. After conditioning, the loud noise became the conditioned stimulus (CS), having a conditioned response (CR): fear of the rat. Figure 2: Watson’s Little Albert Experiment Source: Katrin Dudgeon (2023), based on Watson (1920). 16 Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) introduced the classical conditioning theory. When investigating salivation in dogs, he discovered that dogs would already salivate when caretaker approached the laboratory and not when the food was put in front of them. He conducted several experiments in which he rang a bell before giving food to the dogs and examined saliva production. The dogs quickly began to associate the bell’s ringing with food, and produced saliva just with the sound of the bell – even when there was no food. Pavlov transformed a natural reflex (producing saliva with the presence of food) into classical conditioning (producing saliva with the sound of a bell). An unconditioned stimulus UCS (food) and unconditioned response UCR (salivation) became a conditioned stimulus CS (bell ringing) and a conditioned response CR (salivation). The dogs began to associate the sound of the bell with food (Gray & Bjorklund, 2014, pp. 106–109). Figure 3: Classical Conditioning Source: Katrin Dudgeon (2023), based on Elmer (2020). Based on the work of Watson and Pavlov, the US-American psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) developed the concept of operant conditioning and the reinforcement theory. He argued that the development of a particular behavior depends on the associated consequences. For example, if a specific behavior is rewarded, it will likely reoccur in the future. Conversely, if a behavior has adverse effects, like being punished, it is likely not to reoccur in the future. Skinner arrived at his theory by conducting research with animals and the now famous “Skinner box.”His work still finds application in therapeutic or educational settings as behavior modification or shaping technique (Newell, 1996). 17 Figure 4: Negative and Positive Reinforcement Source: Katrin Dudgeon (2023), based on Skinner (1999, p. 630). Gestalt Psychology With behaviorism flourishing in the United States, another school of thought emerged in Germany around 1920. Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) were primarily interested in perception and argued that not only initial stimuli were crucial to perception, but also the background, context, and pattern of stimuli influence it. They put forward the Gestalt laws, one of them being the law of closure (Martin et al., 2007). When looking at the picture below, most people see a panda, yet it is just some black areas on white ground. Missing information is provided by our prior experience. Gestalt psychology also influenced contemporary social psychology, particularly social perception (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2009). 18 Figure 5: Example of Gestalt Law of Closure Source: WWF, 2023. Psychodynamic Approach Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) coined the term psychoanalysis, the underlying concept of which very much opposes the behaviorist view. Freud believed that human behavior emerges from unconscious states that are repressed. Through hypnosis, a person can access these hidden unconscious states. Freud claimed that this is essentially a cathartic process by which mental dysfunctions can be improved. Freud based psychoanalytic therapy on his psychodynamic theory. According to the latter, the self comprises three components: the ego, the id, and the super-ego. The ego is what we consciously know about ourselves; it is also the part of us that we display in public. The id, instead, is unconscious and governed by instinctual drives. The super-ego keeps the id in control by applying moral standards. These components often conflict with each other, which can cause inner mental conflicts. According to Freud, personality develops in stages, and early childhood experiences significantly impact its development (see Gray & Bjorklund, 2014). Freud's work greatly influenced psychology and made a considerable contribution to psychotherapy. Many followers, such as Anna Freud and Alfred Adler, borrowed aspects of his theory and developed it further. Psychoanalysis Psychological dysfunctions develop in the unconscious that cannot easily be accessed. Repressed unconscious thoughts, memories, and emotions need to be accessed and made conscious to improve psychological well-being. Humanistic Psychology A new approach emerged in the mid-1950s, one that rejected the mostly deterministic views of the behaviorist and the psychodynamic approach. According to humanistic psychology, our behavior is determined neither by external stimuli nor our unconscious innate drives. Instead, the individual is seen as an active agent, taking an active part, and striving to lead a fulfilling life. Humanist psychologists such as Carl Rogers (1902–1987) emphasized the role of the self-concept and free will. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) highlighted the motivation of humans to self-actualize and put forward the concept of a hierarchy of needs. Humanistic psychology provides a much more positive and holistic view of each individual person than any other school of thought discussed above (Martin et al, 2007; DeRobertis & McIntyre, 2016). Self-concept This is the way we think about and perceive ourselves. Our self-concept combines everything we assume to know about ourselves, our abilities as well as our psychological and physical characteristics. 19 Free will The idea of free will encompasses the notion that humans are capable of consciously deciding on their actions regardless of any prior experience. Cognitive map A cognitive map is a mental understanding of an environment, formed through trial and error as well as observation. The concept is based on the assumption that an individual seeks and collects contextual clues, such as environmental relationships, rather than acting as a passive receptor of information needed to achieve a goal. Human beings and other animals have well-developed cognitive maps that contain spatial information enabling them to orient themselves and to find their way in the real world. Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology rose in the mid-1950s with the cognitive revolution (Martin et al., 2007, p. 33). As a result, cognitive psychologists returned with great interest to studying internal mental processes that are not overtly observable. For example, cognitive psychologists tried to establish analogies between information processors, such as computers and human mental processes. Ulric Neisser coined the term “cognitive psychology” in 1967, and with the rise of cognitive psychology, concepts such as encoding, storage, and retrieval of information became the focus of enquiry. In the early hours of cognitive psychology, Tolman (1948) contributed to studying cognitive thinking processes with his animal experiments. In his research with rats, he established the use of cognitive maps. He observed rats mastering a maze and concluded that humans also form mental representations of their physical environment. Information is stored systematically, organized in the brain, and impacts future behavior. Similarly, Jean Piaget (1952) argued that we form schemas to contain information about our environment, events, people, and even ourselves. Piaget thought of these schemas as being organized hierarchically and linked to each other where relevant. Recurring Questions in Psychology Having reviewed the historical development and covered the main schools of thought that dominated psychology over time, some main questions remain at the center of attention even today. Is behavior caused by nature or nurture? The question remains whether human behavior and mental processes are inherited and based on biological processes or if environmental factors cause human behavior. The call for nature has been associated with Charles Darwin and Francis Galton (Darwin, 1859 and Galton, 1869, cited inMartin et al., 2007). However, this was not a novel argument, as Hippocrates, in 400 BC, already claimed that different bile colors would relate to different temperaments in humans (Jouanna, 2012). However, very much opposed to this claim, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1787), John Locke (1632–1704), and behaviorists such as Watson argued that humans come into this world as a “tabula rasa” (blank slate), claiming that only external events would shape behavior (see Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2009). The mind-body problem Despite many centuries of inquiry, dating back to the times of Plato and Aristotle, the question of whether the human mind is distinct from the body remains. Moreover, if the body and the mind are separate entities, how do they interact? René Descartes (1596– 1650), a French philosopher and mathematician, commented on the idea of dualism, with the mind and body forming separate entities. The physical part of the body can be investigated and measured, but the mind and its associated mental process are impossible to measure. However, he still believed that both could influence each other (Martin et al., 2007). 20 Do we have control over our behavior? Another ongoing debate relates to whether human behavior is predictable and determined or of free will. Behaviorists such as Watson would claim that external stimuli determine behavior. However, Galton and Darwin stressed the biological and innate foundation of behavior. Freud argued that unconscious drives and desires determine human behavior. Contrary to these claims, humanistic psychologists such as Rogers and Maslow defended the idea of free will, claiming that humans are free of determined processes and forces and can decide consciously and actively about their behavior (see Weiten, 2004). Contemporary Psychological Approaches From the historical schools of thought, psychology has continued to broaden our understanding of human behavior and mental processes. However, the influences of some of the early schools of thought are reflected in contemporary approaches to psychology and its applied subdisciplines. Bernstein et al. (1991, pp. 6–9) discuss the following contemporary approaches to psychology. Biological approach Biological psychology investigates how biological, physiological, or genetic processes influence human behavior. Other terms describing this field are psychobiology, physiological psychology, or behavioral neuroscience. The areas of investigation relate, for example, to sensation and perception or motivation. Psychodynamic approach Based on Freud’s original assumptions of his psychodynamic theory, the role of the unconscious and repressed desires and drives are the focus of this approach in psychology. The psychodynamic approach is still applied in therapeutic settings as unresolved conflicts can potentially affect psychological well-being. Behavioral approach The role of learning and how external stimuli impact behavior are investigated. Although few psychologists today would classify themselves as strict behaviorists, the role of learning and stimulus-response theory is still considered when explaining human behavior. Humanistic approach Human beings are regarded as conscious and active agents with the innate power to grow and become fulfilled individuals. Humanist psychologists reject the assumption that human behavior is caused by instincts, biological functions, rewards, and punishment. 21 Cognitive approach This approach continues to draw analogies to information processing systems and takes great interest in how we gain, store, and retrieve information. Mental processes such as memory, motivation, decision-making, and problem-solving are investigated here. Psychology has also developed numerous applied subdisciplines. Some of the most important ones are outlined in the following paragraphs (Martin et al., 2007, pp. 9–19). Educational psychology This subdiscipline of psychology explores aspects of learning and operates mainly in the educational setting. Educational psychology puts the learner in focus and assists individuals with learning difficulties. Other factors relevant to schooling, such as behavioral problems at school, can also be assisted by educational psychologists. Health psychology When suffering from chronic illness, patients can significantly benefit from health psychology. It explores models of health and illness, as well as coping with illness. Health psychology also offers interventions that facilitate healthier lifestyles. Clinical psychology Clinical psychology assists people suffering from mental disorders, such as phobias, anxiety, depression, or those that struggle with family and relationship problems. Clinical psychologists work in clinics and aim to restore an individual’s psychological well-being. Organizational or occupational psychology Occupational psychology explores the relationships between employees and the workplace. It seeks to enhance worker productivity and employee satisfaction. It also assists with personnel selection and professional development. Forensic psychology This applied subdiscipline of psychology investigates the reasons for criminal behavior and aims at a reduction of repeat offences. Sports and exercise psychology Sports psychology aims to enhance athletes’ performance and to provide solutions to problems hindering performance. Most professional sports teams nowadays employ sports psychologists. Exercise psychology explores the benefits of exercise on psychological well-being and how it can be implemented into everyday life. 22 Neuropsychology Neuropsychology explores how the brain and the nervous system impact our emotional and cognitive processes. It aims to establish how the different parts of the brain function. Through various assessment methods, normal and abnormal functions can be identified and subsequently aid the treatment and rehabilitation of clients with neurological or psychological impairments. Although this might appear to still be a very divisive field of psychology, there is some unity in that all approaches and subdivisions are interested in human behavior and mental processes and systematically investigate these. Moreover, each approach and subdivision informs and enriches the other to broaden our understanding of human behavior and mental processes. 1.2 Psychology as an Empirical Science The review of the history of psychology reflects on how different psychologists had different perspectives on what should be investigated when it comes to broadening our understanding of human behavior and what methods should be used to gain this knowledge. Unfortunately, there was little to no agreement between the different schools of thought on these issues. The question of whether psychology can be regarded as a science is therefore closely linked to the assumptions of its subdisciplines. With this in mind, the question whether psychology is a science is essentially a philosophical question and not easy to answer. The stance should be considered accordingly. Intuition or the Issues with Common Sense Everyone makes inferences about their own and other people’s behavior using common sense knowledge. Considering this, is an actual science of behavior and mental processes needed? Common sense could be described as knowledge that is shared by the general population. For example, it is commonly assumed that other people’s behavior can be attributed to their personality or traits. However, this common assumption has no quality assurance, nor do we have guidelines on how to check for its accuracy. As a result, we could be very wrong with our beliefs and predictions. Through daily interactions, we assume that we know why other people behave in a specific way and can predict their behavior. Psychological research, however, has discovered that our common sense assumptions are generally wrong and that we can be very biased while making these assumptions (see Gross, 1992). For example, employing the scientific method, social psychologists Jones and Harris (1967) discovered that we tend to attribute other people’s behaviors to their character or personality traits, but we attribute our own behavior to external contexts – especially when things go wrong. For example, when failing an exam, we are more likely to blame the noise of the nearby building site during the exam rather than our lack of revision or ability. Conversely, if a fellow student tells us that they failed the exam, we would most likely think they are lazy or not very competent. This is an example of a cognitive bias. Ross 23 Cognitive bias People commit systematic errors when arriving at judgements about other people’s behavior or their own behavior and tend to create subjective realities in this way. (1977) named this bias “fundamental attribution error,” also sometimes referred to as “attribution bias.” Since then, many cognitive biases have been identified. These findings stress the need for a systematic study of human behavior. Psychology and Philosophy When considering whether psychology is a science, the philosophical perspectives on what constitutes a science need to be explored. For this coursebook, some of the most influential perspectives are presented below to provide at least a glimpse at this far-reaching philosophical debate. Empiricism Induction For induction, an observation is made, and a pattern is assumed. This will lead to the formulation of a hypothesis which is finalized in a theory. Vienna Circle A group of philosophers and scientists taking an interest in the philosophy of science met in Vienna under the lead of Moritz Schlick (1882–1936). Reductionism This philosophical perspective aims at accounting for complex phenomena in the simplest possible way. Deduction A theory is developed from which a hypothesis can be formulated, tested, confirmed, or falsified. According to empiricism, knowledge acquisition can only happen through sensory experiences. Philosophers John Locke (1632–1704), David Hume (1711–1776), and George Berkley (1685–1753) are associated with this philosophical approach. Empiricists and their followers, such as behaviorists, subscribed to the idea of the “tabula rasa,” with humans being born as a “blank slate,” meaning their behavior develops through interactions with the environment. Empiricists reject the idea of behavior being innate or inborn. Knowledge, according to empiricists, is gained by induction through observations made by our senses (Martin et al., 2007). Positivism Based on the ideas of empiricism and the importance of sensory experience, Auguste Comte (1798–1875) developed the philosophy of positivism. He argued that the received sensory information needs to be explained using the language of the natural sciences and must also be investigated with methods of natural sciences. This included human behavior and societies. Comte’s ideas were picked up in 1942 by the Vienna Circle, founded by several philosophers who continued to develop the concept of positivism. In its extreme form, positivism leads to reductionism, which aims to explain phenomena or events in their most basic form or smallest unit. For example, reductionism would explain human behavior in terms of physics (Garnham, 1991). Rationalism Opposite to empiricism and positivism, stressing the importance of sensory information, René Descartes (1596–1650) argued that reason (i.e., rational arguments and logic) can provide knowledge. Knowledge is innate and can be gained only by deduction. Deduction means using thought and reason, as well as our prior experience, to formulate a theory or opinion. Critical rationalism Criticizing the classical scientific method advocated by empiricists, particularly the idea that knowledge is being derived only by induction, Karl Popper (1972) argued that even observations are always tainted and influenced by our understanding and prior knowledge. He called for the falsification of theories to be the quest for knowledge. Further- 24 more, all knowledge we gain is only temporary. According to Popper, then, theories need to be falsifiable, put to the test, and possibly refuted to be scientific. Only by continuously putting a theory to the test is knowledge gained (see Davey et al., 2004). Scientific pluralism As a movement away from a unitary conceptual framework, scientific pluralism proposed models that would foster a co-existence of competing concepts of science. Various perspectives might be needed when explaining complex phenomena in psychology. For example, Winther (2020) wrote about the analogy of science to maps, each one being within their own right, but with their totality providing more satisfying answers to a phenomenon or event than single ones. Therefore, an appreciation of different lenses or levels may be warranted. The Subject Matter At the beginning of this section, it became clear that different schools of thought had differing ideas of what psychology should investigate. A single agreed-upon subject matter (the focus of investigation) did not seem to exist, and therefore no common method existed either. One could argue that psychology is not a single discipline but several distinct disciplines. According to Kuhn (1962), this would reflect separate disciplines as there appears to be a lack of a common paradigm. A paradigm should clearly state a common theory, concepts, ways of thinking, and methods that all researchers in that field apply. Kuhn put forward three historical stages of science development (Kuhn, 1962). First, if there is no agreement and there are different schools of thought, then no common paradigm has been agreed upon, and the field is at the pre-science stage. The field operates as science if scholars agree and gather knowledge under the agreed paradigm. Disagreements can be solved within the agreed paradigm, but when the disputes become too overwhelming, a paradigm shift occurs, and a new paradigm emerges. Palermo (1971) argued that psychology has developed through several paradigm shifts from structuralism over behaviorism to cognitive psychology, and can therefore be classified as a science. The Importance of Theory Development There are nine criteria that should be considered when developing a theory: 1. Falsification: A theory must be repeatedly tested to examine if it can be falsified (i.e., proven to be wrong). Falsification is crucial as it allows for theory development. Continually putting a theory to the test and imagining ways or aspects that could falsify it can strengthen the theory. It broadens our understanding as we can take new evidence to provide a better theory. Popper (1972) made falsification the hallmark of a good theory. 2. Truth value: A good theory should have truth value, which means it should precisely explain the phenomenon under investigation as it happens. Competing theories often reflect parts of what could be considered correct. 3. Easily understandable: The theory should be formulated in simple terms. It should be easy to follow and not too wordy or complex. 25 4. Predict future events: Ideally, a good theory moves beyond explaining things that happened in the past. It also predicts events in the future. 5. Internally consistent: A theory ought to be a consistent explanation of events. It should not contain contradictions, but provide a coherent and logical explanation. 6. Economical: It makes sense to consider a theory “good” if it explains a phenomenon in its most straightforward way. If a theory is too complex, it becomes too difficult to test. For example, behaviorists put forward a very parsimonious theory of a stimulus and response relationship. However, today, it is widely agreed that it was too simplistic to explain more complex human behavior. Contrary to this, Freud’s psychodynamic theory became too complex and thus impossible to test. 7. Fertility criterion: For science to progress, a theory should provide guidance and suggestions for future research. 8. Self-satisfying: This criterion can be very subjective and difficult to assess. The theory should intuitively feel right and provide an appealing explanation of an event or behavior. 9. Practical guidance to solve everyday problems: Relating to the aims of science, a good theory should apply to everyday life, help with decision-making and provide solutions to everyday problems. The Aims of Science Based on the above excursion to the philosophical discussion and highlighting the importance of theory, the aims of science today can be summed up under the following three points (see Weiten, 2004). Measurement and description This stage requires an operational definition that specifies how behavior or characteristic is measured. For example, we suppose the concept of aggression is to be investigated. In that case, it needs to be clearly stated how aggression should be defined. Is it physical aggression or verbal aggression? Also, how is aggression to be measured? This measurement could happen in several ways. For example, one could count the number of criminal convictions for grievous bodily harm. The researcher could also observe people’s behavior in a specific setting, such as a bar or a sports pitch. Often, researchers in psychology use paper and pencil questionnaires or psychological instruments. Understanding and prediction The aim of science is not just to describe a particular phenomenon, but to explain it. Once there is an explanation, scientists can attempt to comment on the causes. In psychology, if a specific behavior can be explained and the reasons for it are known, psychologists can predict future behavior. Application and Control If the causes of a phenomenon are known and understood, it provides the opportunity to apply this knowledge. In psychology, insights into human behavior assist with decisionmaking and improving physical and psychological well-being. 26 Scientific Investigation To achieve the aims of science as outlined above, the stages of a scientific investigation follow a set sequence (Martin et al., 2007): 1. Formulation of a testable hypothesis: From an idea, a statement or proposition is derived. This statement is called a“hypothesis.” This hypothesis is formulated to be tested and usually includes variables. Variables refer to a measurable event or characteristic, for example, the number of words remembered in a memory test. 2. Decision on the research method: If an experimental design is selected, variables are usually tested for the formulated hypothesis. The experimenter manipulates the independent variable, and the outcome, the dependent variable, is being measured. The researcher should control other influences, or extraneous variables, on the dependent variable. However, many aspects are difficult but not impossible to be controlled when conducting research with humans. For example, experimenters can control the influence of the time of day, surroundings, gender, or the age of the participants in an experiment to some extent. However, other factors cannot be controlled, such as past experiences of research participants. Experimenters would want to draw cause-effect inferences when conducting experiments. 3. Conducting the experiment and gathering data: This step of scientific investigation often happens in a laboratory setting as it allows best for controlling the variables. Participants should be randomly assigned to either the experimental or control groups. For example, when testing for the influence of a drug, only the experimental groups should be administered the drug. The researcher should be objective and not influence data collection. Further, the findings need to be replicable. That means the results should be the same if a different experimenter or lab repeated the experiment following the same conditions. 4. Analysis of data and drawing conclusions: Data from an experiment need to be analyzed to assess if the hypothesis has been confirmed. This involves the use of descriptive and inferential statistics. 5. Report the findings: Findings from an experiment also need to be communicated to the wider scientific community. A scientific review of an experiment follows a specific structure and is submitted to a scientific journal for publication. However, for the review to be accepted for publication, other scientists check it for its accuracy and rigor. Independent variable The independent variable is being manipulated by the experimenter and assumed to be cause of a change of the dependent variable. Dependent variable The dependent variable is being measured by the experimenter and assumed to be the effect. SUMMARY Psychology is the science of the mind and behavior. Since the end of the 19th century, several different schools of thought have developed, some of which are still reflected in the contemporary approaches to psychology – namely the behaviorist, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, humanist, and cognitive. These approaches and applied subdisciplines in psychology aim to broaden our understanding of human behavior. Psychology employs the scientific method: It seeks to describe, explain, predict, and even change mental processes and behavior. 27 Contrary to common sense assumptions of human behavior, psychology seeks to develop theories that can be tested. The development of a good theory is an essential part of psychological research. A good theory needs to be falsifiable, have a truth value, be coherent, predict future events, be internally consistent as well as economical, stimulate new research, and be self-satisfying as well as applicable by offering solutions to everyday problems. Scientific investigations follow a specific order of steps. First, theories are generated based on observations, leading to the formulation of testable hypotheses. Empirical methods of inquiry are used to gather data that can be analyzed. Finally, the results of these empirical investigations are published, and can be discussed. 28 UNIT 2 PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS STUDY GOALS On completion of this unit, you will be able to – – – – describe the structure and function of nerve cells. understand how sensory information is transmitted. describe the main neurotransmitters and their functions. distinguish between the central and peripheral nervous system and their functions. 2. PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS Introduction Knowing about the body’s biology can inform psychologists about the way its biological foundations influence some aspects of human behavior. For example, activations of the nervous system through the five senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch) provide humans with crucial information about the outside world. The nervous system comprises between 10 and 12 billion nerve cells (neurons), most of which are in the brain. There are two parts to the nervous system: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The PNS radiates from the spinal cord to all parts of the body. As all aspects of the nervous system involve the body’s sensing, perceiving, and reacting to sensory information from the outside world, the nervous system is essentially an information processing system (Gray & Bjorklund, 2014). 2.1 Structure of Nerve Cells and Transmission of Information The structure of nerve cells and the transmission of information are important to understand to form a basis for further knowledge. The Structure and Function of the Nerve Cell Axon terminal At the end of the axon is the axon terminal, a part of the synapsis. 30 Nerve cells are called “neurons” and can be considered the smallest part of the nervous system. The neuron itself is made up of three parts as can be seen in the figure below. The main feature is the cell body (or soma) which, like any other cell in the human body, contains a cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus, and the mitochondria. The neurons have dendrites, which look like branches and receive impulses from other neurons. The neuron also has a long extension, called the axon, which transports signals from the cell body to the axon terminal and can be very long. The impulse travels chemically across the synaptic cleft at the axon terminal to another neuron. Some neurons are surrounded and insulated by a myelin sheath. An electrical action potential travels along the axon, the myelin sheath then isolates the axon from the surrounding tissue and speeds up the transmission of electrical impulses. The myelin is produced by the Schwann cells for peripheral neurons. If a myelin sheath insulates the axons, they have gaps called nodes of Ranvier. When the impulse travels down the axon, it can jump quickly from node to node via the myelin sheath. Impulses travel significantly slower if the axon has no myelin sheath (Gray & Bjorklund, 2014). There are also nerve cells called glia, which support the neurons in their structure (He & Sun, 2007; Martin et al., 2007). Figure 6: The Neuron Source: Katrin Dudgeon (2023). Transmission of Information Neurons communicate with each other and impact on skeletal muscles through action potentials. Synaptic transmissions happen between neurons with the help of neurotransmitters. Action potentials When the sensory system becomes stimulated by an external stimulus, this sensation is passed on as an electric impulse, called the action potential. It travels along the neuron’s axon to the end terminal. The base of action potentials are ions, as can be seen in the following figure. Specifically, the membrane of a nerve cell can change its electrical charge through ions, such as potassium (K+) and sodium (N+), permeating through the ion channels. Once the electrical charge of membranes changes, the electrical impulse can move along the axon quickly. When there are no action potentials travelling along an axon, the neuron is in its resting phase (Gray & Bjorklund, 2014, pp. 151–154). Neurotransmitters These are chemical substances that are released by vesicles in the presynaptic membrane to transmit across the synapsis, where the neurotransmitter then binds to the next neuron via the postsynaptic membrane. 31 Figure 7: The Action Potential Source: Katrin Dudgeon (2023). Chemical transmission Once an action potential has arrived at the axon terminal, the electrical impulse is transformed into a chemical process. This transformation is called conduction. The chemical substances responsible for the chemical transmission are neurotransmitters, enabling the sensory information to be passed on from one neuron to the other. The figure below shows a synapsis and how information can be transmitted across it. The part at the end of the axon terminal is the presynaptic membrane, and the small inherent presynaptic vesicles release the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters then bind to the postsynaptic receptors in the postsynaptic membrane of the other neuron. Once it has arrived at the next neuron, the neuron becomes stimulated and transports the activation again as an action potential, either to the next neuron or an organ. Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory synapses increase the firing of a neuron by causing action potentials, and inhibitory synapses reduce the likelihood of the neuron firing action potentials (Gray & Bjorklund, 2014). 32 Figure 8: The Synapse Source: Katrin Dudgeon (2023). Neurotransmitters Interaction between neurons occurs through neurotransmitters being released from the vesicles of the presynaptic membrane into the synaptic cleft. On the other side of the synapsis, the post-synaptic membrane makes specific receptors available for a particular neurotransmitter that can dock to these receptors. This works like a lock and key system. Neurotransmitters are chemically signaling substances. To this day, more than 100 neurotransmitters have been identified, and a selection of the most important neurotransmitters is discussed below. Noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin are monoamines. GABA and glutamate are amino acids. Neurotransmitters can influence a neuron to become active, have an excitatory effect on the neuron and make it fire – or they can have a calming influence and be inhibitory. Acetylcholine Acetylcholine can be found in both parts of the nervous system: the peripheral and the central nervous system. Acetylcholine affects the skeletal muscles when it is active in the PNS. It aids contractions of the muscles, so it is related to movement (Kandel & Siegel- Monoamines Neurotransmitters that contain one amino group that is connected to an aromatic ring by two carbon chains are called monoamines. Amino acids compounds that form proteins 33 baum, 2000). It is also very active in the CNS. Eichenbaum (2000) argued that acetylcholine is associated with the formation of new memories. A degeneration of the acetylcholine producing neurons is associated with Alzheimer’s disease (Perry, 1988). Noradrenaline This neurotransmitter can also be found in both the CSN and the PNS. It has mainly an excitatory effect, meaning it initiates the neurons to fire. Neurons receptive to noradrenaline can be found in most parts of the body, influencing a range of physical and psychological processes. Activity in the PNS impacts many organs, affects blood pressure and heart rate. For example, noradrenaline is active when we are preparing for a flight or fight action or dealing with stress. In the CNS, fluctuations of the noradrenaline levels are associated with mood changes (Crow et al., 1984; Gold et al., 1988). A heightened concentration of noradrenalin can be found in the hindbrain. Dopamine Dopamine is associated mainly with movement and emotional arousal. Degeneration of the substantia nigra and its dopamine-producing cells is associated with Parkinson’s disease, which significantly impairs movement (De Long, 2000). There are also dopaminergic neural connections from the midbrain to the forebrain. When stimulated, we experience reward, pleasure, and motivation. These reward pathways have been described by Di Chiara and North (1992) and play an important role in addiction processes. Serotonin High serotonin concentrations have been found in the brain stem. The serotonergic branches spread throughout the forebrain, including the hypothalamus, the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex. Serotonin regulates sleep and wakefulness. Serotonin also plays a part in mood regulation. Mood disorders are often treated using selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs; Kessler et al., 2003). GABA Huntington’s disease This illness is a hereditary neuromotor disease. Its symptoms include problems with mobility, involuntary movement, and loss of cognitive abilities. Schizophrenia This is a mental illness characterized by psychotic episodes. It can cause hallucinations, delusions, difficulties with speech, and impaired thinking. 34 Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) primarily inhibits the firing of an action potential of the postsynaptic neuron. GABA is used throughout the CNS. During sleep, neurons using GABA become active. It is assumed that malfunctions of the system using GABA are associated with Huntington’s disease, and changes in GABA levels have also been thought to play a role in schizophrenia (de Jonge et al., 2017). In addition, medication to treat anxiety, such as benzodiazepine, enhances the effects of GABA as an inhibitor. Glutamate Glutamate is found in the CNS and has an excitatory function. Many neurons in the CNS use it. It is related to learning and memory as it strengthens synaptic connections in the brain. Overactivity of glutamate synapses can cause neurons to die (excitotoxicity). Over- excitement can happen during brain trauma or lack of oxygen. Administering a blocker (antagonist) of glutamate can potentially help to avoid ischemic brain damage (Faden et al., 1989). Endorphins When researchers investigated the effect of opiate drugs such as morphine and heroin, knowledge was gained about endorphins. New b