Preparing MP1867 FINAL TEST.pdf

PREPARING MP1867 FINAL TEST O. Martí [email protected] DEPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY ABOUT MP1867 FINAL TEST MP1867 TRUE/FALSE TEST only includes 15 items. The first 5 items belong to UNIT 1. The last 10 items pertain to UNIT 2. What follows is a number of slides with the main concepts and/or contents...

PREPARING MP1867 FINAL TEST O. Martí [email protected] DEPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY ABOUT MP1867 FINAL TEST MP1867 TRUE/FALSE TEST only includes 15 items. The first 5 items belong to UNIT 1. The last 10 items pertain to UNIT 2. What follows is a number of slides with the main concepts and/or contents saw in class that you need to revise. After the slides, you will find some statements that MIGHT or MIGHT not appear in the FINAL WRITTEN TEST you will have to sit for this academic year. UNIT 1: CONCEPT 1 According to Larsen-Freeman, the evolution of ELT methods allows us to (re-) think the role of LANGUAGE LEARNERS and our understanding of them as: AUDIOLINGUALISM, ALM (1950) LEARNERS as IMITATORS THE SILENT WAY (1960s) Ls as COGNITIVE beings Ls as AFFECTIVE beings CLL, SUGGESTOPEDIA (1960s) CLT (from 1980s onwards) Ls as SOCIAL beings Freire’s CRITICAL PEDAGOGY Ls as POLITICAL beings CMC/COMPUTER-MEDIATED Ls as CREATORS UNIT 1: CONCEPT 1 Possible statements about concept 1: 1.1. According to social beings. TRUE or FALSE? 1.2. According to social beings. TRUE or FALSE? 1.3. According to affective beings. TRUE or FALSE? 1.4. According to cognitive beings. TRUE or FALSE? Larsen-Freeman, CLL sees learners as Larsen-Freeman, CLT sees learners as Larsen-Freeman, CLL sees learners as Larsen-Freeman, CLT sees learners as UNIT 1: CONCEPT 2 TPR and THE NATURAL APPROACH COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING Based on FLA=SLA. Language connects with physical action. Comprehension-based approach. Partial view of communication. Functionalist view of language and experiential learning. Production-based and skill-focused teaching. Communicative competence (CC) construct founded on SLA. GOALS Receptive skills: listening and reading. 5 skills. Attention to fluency (SV) plus formal correctness and appropriateness (WV). ROLES OF Ts & Ss T-directed and Ss in a responding role. T-supported with Ss in an active role. Imperative commands given to learners. Ss respond with actions. No attention to grammar is given. Correction is absent. Communicative tasks and authentic materials develop real-life interactions. Form-focused feedback given and attention to grammar & vocabulary in WV. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS TYPICAL ACTIVITIES STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Low-anxiety situations. Community From native-like mastery to CC. building. Comprehensible input is key. Fluency-based communicative activities. Easy adaptation to different SS and contexts. “Silent period”à output & feedback, neglected. Overemphasis on physical actions and Ts’ imperatives. Method for beginnersà repetitive and tedious. Lack of concretion à survival of PPP and text-book defined practice. The fluency first of the SW discouraged low proficient Ts and textbook writers and left grammar and pragmatics unattended. CLT: THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE STRONG VERSION Language as a SKILL. Exclusive focus on language functions. Communication mostly understood as FLUENCY. WEAK VERSION Language as a SKILL plus as a SYSTEM (Thornbury, 2017, p. 63). Focus on functions plus FORM (NOT forms in the plural as in traditional methods approaching phonemes, words or grammatical items of the TL in isolation). Communication understood as FLUENCY plus ACCURACY and APPROPRIATENESS. CLT: GOALS STRONG VERSION COMMUNICATION as the integration of ALL language skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking and interacting). COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE as distinct from LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE. FLUENCY comes first!!!! WEAK VERSION C O M M U N I C AT I O N a s t h e integration of ALL language skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking and interacting). LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE as PA RT o f C O M M U N I C AT I V E COMPETENCE. “It is impossible to conceive a person being communicatively competent without b e i n g l i n g u i s t i c a l l y competent.” (Faerch et al., 1984, p. 168). FORMAL correctness also matters. UNIT 1: CONCEPT 2 Possible statements about concept 2: 2.1. Unlike The Natural Approach, CLT is a teacherdirected approach that positions students in a responding role. TRUE or FALSE? 2.2. Contrary to CLT, The Natural Approach is focused on developing students’ receptive skills. TRUE or FALSE? 2.3. In the weak version of CLT, fluency comes first. TRUE or FALSE? 2.4. In the strong version of CLT, fluency is as important as accuracy and appropriateness. TRUE or FALSE? THREE MODELS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN Please, find below, a summary of Professor Jack C. Richards’ (2013) alternative to the linear way of understanding curriculum design represented by the forward design: THE FORWARD DESIGN THE CENTRAL DESIGN content content process process outcomes outcomes THE BACKWARD DESIGN content outcomes process SUMMARY: THE 3 APPROACHES COMPARED Forward-design Central-design Backward-design SUMMARY: THE 3 APPROACHES COMPARED Forward-design Central-design Backward-design UNIT 1: CONCEPT 3 Possible statements about concept 3: 3.1. In the context of curriculum design, input stands for learning outcomes, process is a synonym of methodology; and, outputs refer to which contents will be taught. TRUE or FALSE? 3.2. Research has proven that most teachers follow a waterfall model of curriculum design where what matters is the selection of activities and methods. TRUE or FALSE? 3.3. Stenhouse believes that learning outcomes do need to be anticipated or specified in detail and, hence, he is in favour of backward-designed curricula. TRUE or FALSE? 3.4. The curriculum model where students can negotiate the syllabus is the central-designed one. TRUE or FALSE? FORWARD DESIGN Because in forward designs no specific teaching methods are prescribed. In theory, then, a syllabus does not necessarily imply a particular methodology. What matters in forward designs is choosing syllabus items (selection) and criteria for their sequencing (gradation). More specifically, Clark (1987) claims that the communicative approach (CLT) follows the same assumptions as audiolingualism (ALM). Both ELT methods start with a model of language in the case of ALM or a model of communicative competence in CLT that is “broken down into smaller units –elements of knowledge and part-skills. These are then sequenced from simple to more complex and build towards the desired learning outcomes” (Richards, 2013, p. 11). Hence, syllabus items or contents differ depending on how the primary components of language in ALM or of communicative competence in CLT are interpreted as lists of grammar points, lexis (i.e. words, phrases, multiword units or collocations), notions, functions, text-types (i.e. genres) or tasktypes. PRODUCT-ORIENTED SYLLABUSES (Finnochiaro & Brumfit, 1983, pp. 90-94) STRUCTURAL-BASED SYLLABUS (ALM) A i m : s t u d e n t ’s L I N G U I S T I C COMPETENCE. Organized around grammatical, lexical & phonetic items. Based on the structural paradigm: sentences are the basic units for learning. Influenced by behaviourist theories of learning (stimulus, response, reinforcement like in Pavlov’s dog). Places more emphasis on accuracy than fluency. Contents are carefully graded. COMMUNICATIVE SYLLABUS (CLT) Aim: ss’s COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE. Organized around notional & functional items. Based on the discourse paradigm: discourse, (written and oral) texts are the basis for learning. Influenced by cognitive theories and theories of communication (speech acts, communicative functions, etc.). Places more on emphasis on fluency than accuracy. Gradation is not so rigid. PRODUCT-ORIENTED SYLLABUSES (Madrid & McLaren, 1995, pp. 12-13) STRUCTURAL-GRAMMATICAL SYLLABUS (ALM) UNIT GRAMMAR VOCABULARY PHONETICS 1 -Nouns and articles: a desk, the door -The classroom -/o/ /o:/ -Intonation of statements 2 -Possessive: Whose is this? It’s… -Toys -/w/ /v/ -Diphthongs 3 -Verb “to be” -Adjectives of -Pronouns n a t i o n a l i t y ( e. g. -Intonation of question tags -Questions “tags”: You’re English, S p a n i s h , E n g l i s h , aren’t you? French, Italian, etc.) NOTIONAL-FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUS (CLT) UNIT NOTIONS AND FUNCTIONS EXPONENTS 1 -Introducing my family -This is my… -What’s your father’s name? -My father’s name is… -Expressing possession 2 -Expressing existence -Counting -What is there in your bag? -There’s a…/There are… -Numbers: 1-20 UNIT 1: CONCEPT 4 Possible statements about concept 4: 5.1. A communicative syllabus does not specify what the English language teacher should teach. TRUE or FALSE? 4.2. In forward designs, methodology is not open to interpretation but determined by syllabus selection and gradation. TRUE or FALSE? 4.3. Central-designed curricula are the ones including ELT product- oriented syllabuses with a clear concern for learners’ affective factors and learning styles. TRUE or FALSE? 5.4. The Natural Way, The Silent Way and CLT are examples of central-designed ELT methods with emergent process-based syllabi. TRUE or FALSE? CLT: TYPICAL ACTIVITIES STRONG VERSION Harmer’s (1982) definition of communicative activities. The main features of COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES are: 1) A communicative purpose, 2) A desire to communicate, 3) Focus on content (=message) not form, 4) Use of a variety of language, 5) No teacher intervention (e.g. correction), 6) No materials control. WEAK VERSION H a r m e r ’s ( 2 0 2 2 ) d e f i n i t i o n o f communicative activities include the following characteristics: 1) Involve learners in deep processing, 2) Provoke purposeful repetition, 3) Encourage learners to process language for meaning, not just form; 4) Provoke learners to give attention to, and make connections between the language they encounter and the context/discourse where it occurs; 5) Provoke interaction between the learners’ language processing and the texts and stories they are engaged with; and 6) Provoke communication between learners and promote group cohesion. UNIT 1: CONCEPT 5 Possible statements about concept 5: 5.1. In the weak version of CLT, communicative activities focus on the content of what is said (i.e. the message) rather than how it is said (i.e. the form). TRUE or FALSE? 5.2. The communicative language teacher in its strong version never corrects students’ formal mistakes. TRUE or FALSE? 5.3. In the weak version of CLT, activities involve learners in deep processing. TRUE or FALSE? 5.4. Same as in ALM (i.e. audiolingualism), communicative activities are based on mechanical repetition of language forms. TRUE or FALSE? 1. versus -UP LISTENING While in top-down listening, schematic or background knowledge is used in order to make sense of what we are hearing, bottom-up listening has to do with linguistic knowledge, for example, that phonetic knowledge that allows us to distinguish between a minimal pair like ship (=the vessel) and sheep (=the animal). BOTTOM-UP UNIT 2: CONCEPT 6 Possible statements about concept 6: 6.1. Bottom-up listening has not to do with schematic knowledge but with linguistic one. TRUE or FALSE? 6.2. Top-down listening has not to do with linguistic knowledge but with schematic one. TRUE or FALSE? 6.3. Bottom-up listening has to do with linguistic knowledge rather than with schematic one. TRUE or FALSE? 6.4. Top-down listening has to do with schematic knowledge rather than with linguistic one. TRUE or FALSE? 2. ORAL STORIES: SOME BENEFITS In sum, the earlier the better principle only works when learning conditions are good enough to cater for children’s needs. It is clear that the learning conditions in our schools and in a country where English is not that present cannot be equated to a naturalistic context where children are immersed in the TL. All in all, according to Janice Bland (2015, p. 184), “We know that children need rich high-quality language input, which well-told stories can offer, for second language (L2) teaching to play to their strengths –particularly their aural perception and their ability to learn implicitly.” Despite this, storytelling in language teaching is still largely IGNORED (Garton, Copland & Burns, 2011). UNIT 2: CONCEPT 7 Possible statements about concept 7: 7.1. In Janice Bland’s (2015) view, well-told stories are beneficial in the EYL class because they cater for children’s ability to learn English explicitly. TRUE or FALSE? 7.2. One of the main benefits of listening to stories in the EYL class is that storytelling provides young learners with high-quality language input. TRUE or FALSE? 7.3. In Janice Bland’s (2015) view, well-told stories are beneficial in the EYL class because they cater for children’s ability to learn English implicitly. TRUE or FALSE? 7.4. One of the main benefits of listening to stories in the EYL class is that storytelling provides young learners with high-quality language output. TRUE or FALSE? 2. A USAGE-BASED APPROACH TO INTERACTION Hence, as a strong point, we have children’s tendency to interact, that is, to use the language without worrying about formal accuracy. Instead, as a weak point we find younger pupils’ limitations for grammar teaching under the age of 10. BUT is the latter a weak point? YES! B e c a u s e, f r o m a s t r u c t u r a l approach to language learning, a language is an object made up of sounds, words and grammar rules. All these linguistic structures need to be explicitly studied and mastered with a cognitive maturity that most Primary students don’t have yet. Not at all! If we adopt a usage-based approach, in which a language is a tool for communication that can be learnt implicitly, children’s limitations for explicit/deductive grammar learning should not be regarded as a problem. In a usage-based approach, then, what matters is: first, rich-quality INPUT, and second, creating situations where children “need” to communicate. Thus, in a usage-based approach; “using language is learning language”. Or as Machado would say: “caminante, no hay camino, se hace camino al andar.” REMINDER: What we are trying to do at CEIP Castàlia This SL project is N O T about: FORMAL INSTRUCTION based on: gap-fill texts or worksheets, decontextualized word or sentence repetition, teaching vocabulary in isolation, singing songs or playing games just to entertain children, ‘stories’ labelled as such which are situational sequences for practising words or sentences for the sake of practice. This SL project is about: AN U S A G E -B A S E D A P P R O A C H , which aims at teaching through: (1) rich exposure to the target language (TL) by means of: 1.1. teacher talk including formulaic sequences and ‘chunks’ present in procedural directives and classroom language. 1.2. repeated paNerns appearing in picturebooks and traditional oral stories. (2) opportunities for natural interacOon and meaningful repeOOon in pre-, while- and post-listening activities. UNIT 2: CONCEPT 8 Possible statements about concept 8: 8.1. From a structural approach to language learning, children’s limitations to learn grammar explicitly are not a problem. TRUE or FALSE? 9.2. From a usage-based approach to language learning, children’s limitations to learn grammar explicitly are not a problem. TRUE or FALSE? 9.3. From a structural approach to language learning, children’s limitations to learn grammar explicitly are a problem. TRUE or FALSE? 9.4. From a usage-based approach to language learning, children’s limitations to learn grammar explicitly are a problem. TRUE or FALSE? ORAL PRODUCTION TASKS FOR THE EYL CLASS David Nunan (2011, p. 68) draws a distinction between: REPRODUCTIVE TASKS: versus The lear ner re produces language models provided by the teacher, the textbook or other audio-visual sources. (i) children’s songs and rhymes. (ii) tongue-twisters, (iii) mini-dialogues, (iv) language games, (v) role-plays, or (vi) drama. CREATIVE TASKS: Creative tasks are those in which Primary students “have the freedom to use whatever language they have at their disposal to get their message across” (Nunan, 2011, p. 68). (i) information-gap tasks, (ii) self-recording, and (iii) interviews. Besides, creative tasks also include less guided versions of activities usually considered as reproductive such as role-plays or drama. UNIT 2: CONCEPT 9 Possible statements about concept 9: 9.1. Self-recording belongs to what Nunan (2011) considers as reproductive oral production tasks. TRUE or FALSE? 9.2. Language games are part of Nunan’s (2011) creative oral production tasks because they promote younger learners’ creativity. TRUE or FALSE? 9.3. Self-recording belongs to what Nunan (2011) considers as creative oral production tasks. TRUE or FALSE? 9.4. Language games are part of Nunan’s (2011) reproductive oral production tasks because they do not necessarily promote younger learners’ creativity. TRUE or FALSE? 1.2. INTENSIVE READING (IR) versus EXTENSIVE (ER) In INTENSIVE READING –henceforth, IR–, students work with short texts under the teacher’s close guidance. The aim of intensive reading is to help students to obtain DETAILED meaning from the text and to develop reading skills such as identifying main ideas or recognizing text connectors. IMPORTANT CAVEAT: IR should not be an excuse to enhance knowledge. Moreover, IR and ER should not be seen as being in opposition. They serve According to Dr Richard Day, INTENSIVE READING consists in “reading to learn and its main aim is ”, while EXTENSIVE READING has to do with “learning to read and its main focus is on ”. or but complementary purposes. Ø As an OPTIONAL TASK, please, watch a 44-minute lecture delivered by Dr. Richard Day in 2012 where he explains the difference between ER and IR, among other important concepts: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSW7gmvDLag&list=PLorzpsdvdLhhXbuHjM9jC3jZlxuY3bsGe REFRESHING THE NOTIONS OF INTENSIVE READING (IR) versus EXTENSIVE READING (ER) In INTENSIVE READING –henceforth, IR–, students work with short texts under the teacher’s close guidance. The aim of intensive reading is to help students to obtain DETAILED meaning from the text and to develop reading skills such as identifying main ideas or recognizing text connectors. IMPORTANT CAVEAT: IR should not be an excuse to enhance or knowledge. According to Dr Richard Day, INTENSIVE READING consists in “reading to learn and its main aim is ”, while EXTENSIVE READING has to do with “learning to read and its main focus is on ”. According to Dr Richard Day, INTENSIVE READING (i.e. IR) and EXTENSIVE READING –henceforth, ER– should NOT be seen as being in opposition. They serve but complementary purposes because is the bases of. Ø You might like to watch, once again, the 44-minute lecture delivered by Dr. Richard Day in 2012 where he explains the difference between ER and IR: h t t p s : / / w w w. y o u t u b e. c o m / w a t c h ? v=DSW7gmvDLag&list=PLorzpsdvdLhhXbuHjM9jC3jZlxuY3bsGe UNIT 2: CONCEPT 10 Possible statements about concept 10: 10.1. Dr Richard Day defines IR as learning to read. TRUE or FALSE? 10.2. Dr Richard Day defines ER as learning to read. TRUE or FALSE? 10.3. Dr Richard Day defines IR as reading to learn. TRUE or FALSE? 10.4. Dr Richard Day defines ER as reading to learn. TRUE or FALSE? 1.3. DEEP READING DEEP READING is “reading as an intellectual an aesthetic activity” (Nikolajeva, 2014, p. 1) DEEP READING –henceforth, DR– of MULTIMODAL narrative texts like picturebooks involves: Creating a mental model of the full ICONOTEXT (written text + images and typography) while reading –a creative process of seeing, hearing, feeling, and acting out the storyworld in one’s mind (Bland, 2022, p. 125). Reading between the lines: inferring, guessing, predicting (same as in IR) and Reading beyond the lines: engaging critically with the text and its connections to the world. In sum, DEEP READING promotes the development of the Four Cs of twenty-first century education, which according to Barnett (2010) are: Communication, Collaboration, Critical Thinking and Creativity. Ø BOTTOM LINE: In addition to the practice of the five language skills, DL embraces WIDER EDUCATIONAL GOALS such as “multiple literacy, interculturality and diversity competence, metacognition, learner autonomy, critical thinking and creative problem solving, empathy, creativity as well as engaging in cross-curricular topics and global issues (Bland, 2023, pp. 24-25). UNIT 2: CONCEPT 11 Possible statements about concept 11: 11.1. The aesthetic component of iconotexts is absent from DR. TRUE or FALSE? 11.2. DR and IR coincide in reading between the lines. TRUE or FALSE? 11.3. Unlike ER with focus on long written texts, DP is linked to multimodal narrative texts like picturebooks where images and typography are as important as the written text. TRUE or FALSE? 11.4. The four Cs of Deep Reading are Communication, Content, Critical Thinking and Culture. TRUE or FALSE? 2. SKIMMING versus SCANNING Let’s come back for a moment to professor Nunan’s reflection about the reading tasks he carried out over 24 hours. At a given point, he writes: I skimmed to get a general idea of the information contained in some of the texts, and I scanned other texts for specific information” (Nunan, 1999, pp. 136-137). Both skimming and scanning allow us to read very fast. Yet, while SKIMMING is fast reading for GIST (=getting some general idea). SCANNING is fast reading for finding specific data or details. For more info to discriminate between skimming and scanning, you m i g h t l i k e t o w a t c h https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F1wPYHa5nUg Ø For a quick summary of the main concepts dealt with in the first point of today’s agenda, you are strongly advised to access the following video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5yJRAOlA1U UNIT 2: CONCEPT 12 Possible statements about concept 12: 12.1. Skimming is slow reading for gist. TRUE or FALSE? 12.2. Scanning is fast reading for finding specific data. TRUE or FALSE? 12.3. Skimming is fast reading for gist. TRUE or FALSE? 12.4. Skimming is slow reading for finding specific data. TRUE or FALSE? 6.1. ON THE READING PROCESS THUS, there are TWO ways of approaching reading. A) As we have seen with the examples of “flying a kite” and the fairy tale about prince Charles, using a top-down processing model means interpreting a text according to: A.1. networks of prior interpretation or (=general knowledge based on live experience and previous learning) or/and A.2. our cultural expectations and knowledge of the language and content used in a particular situation or (e.g. the by means of which the text is constructed). B) Using a processing model, where understanding a text ultimately depends on the reader’s knowledge of vocabulary and syntax. Instead of working from meaning to text (top-down), the reader works from text to meaning −with a focus on DECODING words and sentences. According to Stanovich’s (1980) interactive processing model, both approaches occur simultaneously: when reading a text we use the AND the text for meaning making. 6.1. ON THE READING PROCESS Reading SHOULD BE SEEN as an interaction between bottom-up models (Farrell, 2009, p. 19). (the brain) BOTTOM-UP and 6.2. DEFINING READING In comparison with fluent readers, beginning ELL readers are MUCH more focused on individual words, namely, on the bottom-up approach (Grabe, 1986). But the reading teacher should provide training in the top-down and the bottom-up approach, according to his/her students’ needs. As we will see when enlisting some practical principles to introduce reading in the EYL class –the seventh point in today’s agenda–, teaching reading strategies are KEY to enhance young learners’ top-down processing. An example of this would be preparing schemata activation exercises (e.g. prediction activities). 2. A. DESIGNING INTENSIVE READING TASKS FOR OLDER STUDENTS (a) Supplement textbook materials for INTENSIVE READING (=IR) with Farrell’s (2000, 2006) before-, while- and after- reading activities we ALREADY saw in ppt. 3.5. Becoming readers is PARAMOUNT here. 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES: THE IMPORTANCE OF ANCHORING READING An anchor (=àncora in Catalan) can be defined, according to the WIKIPEDIA, as “a device, normally made of metal, used to connect a vessel to the bed of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current”. ANCHORING is one of the scaffolding strategies we saw in MP1863 course, of which brainstorming is a clear example. ANCHORING means activating our pupils’ previous knowledge by FOCUSING their minds. 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES What follows is a number of suggestions to implement strategic reading instruction before reading, during reading and after reading. A) BEFORE READING (Farrell, 2000, 2006) A.1. Word Association. Students respond (orally at first) to a key word or phrase such as “Sport is good for you”. Next, the students write down as many words or phrases as possible in three minutes that relate to this key phrase (e.g. healthy, expensive, fun, hard work, cheap, lose weight). The teacher then writes the students’ suggestions on the board. Alternatively, the students can be asked to free write on the topic. 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES A) BEFORE READING (Farrell, 2000, 2006) A.2. Direct Experience or Hands-on learning. For this didactic proposal, students are required to get up from their seats and participating directly in some activity. The rationale for this method is that students build on their background knowledge through first-hand experiences with concepts and vocabulary important to the lesson. This method is very effective, especially with younger language learners, because they are and kinaesthetic and, hence, learn holistically. 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES The following steps should be observed: Step 1: Identify concepts important to the lesson (e.g. equality in sports). Step 2: Identify vocabulary that names those concepts (e.g. excellence, pride, satisfaction, discipline, enjoyment). Step 3: Prepare a lesson that requires the students to directly participate in an activity that develops the concepts and uses the vocabulary. New sport: tae kwon do. All students should stand up and stretch their arms and legs. Then, they are taken through various routines that are associated with tae kwon do. Thus, they get first-hand experience in a sport new to them. Afterwards, it is easier to keep their attention focused. 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES A) BEFORE READING (Farrell, 2000, 2006) A.3. Cinquain. A cinquain is a five-line poem that reflects affective and cognitive responses to a concept (Shrum & Glisan, 1994). It helps to develop students prior knowledge in a poetic fashion. The teacher should ensure the students write the five lines of the cinquain in this order: Line 1: one-word title Line 2: two words that describe the title Line 3: three words, each expressing an action L i n e 4 : f o u r wo r d s, e a c h expressing a feeling Line 5: a different word for the title. The cinquain proposed by Farrell (2009, p. 39) for the topic of sport would be: Sport Have fun Running, jumping, sliding Laughing, shouting, crying, alive Living 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES Example of prediction grid to be filled in class: PRE-READING PHASE: ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: READING PHASE: What we know What we don’t know What we predict What we found out Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES B) DURING READING. B.2. Questioning. To escape the so called “ ”, Farrell (2009, p. 43) suggests to avoid using the type of comprehension questions that TEST rather than teach reading. According to him, during the reading stage it is the teacher but the students the ones who should be asking questions to understand a given text. Then, the teacher should ask students to come up with 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES Divide the class into groups. Ask each group to compose different types of questions about a passage: opinion questions. factual questions, and inferential questions. Have each group write possible answers for their questions. Ask the groups to exchange the questions ONLY (not the answers as well) and have another group come up with possible answers. Have the groups compare their answers at the end. Students can also attempt to PREDICT what questions the teacher could ask on a quiz related to a text they are reading. 7. TEACHING READING STRATEGIES C) AFTER READING. At this post-reading stage, the students are in a position where they can confirm (or adjust) their initial predictions, or they can see where they may have been taken by surprise by what they have read. In this way, before, during and after reading activities are together to give a coherent understanding of the text as a whole. In addition, students can be asked to re-present the content of the text in an interesting and meaningful way. For example, if the text is one that tells a story, they can represent the story through: drawings, or through listing the events of the story by means of a story-map. UNIT 2: CONCEPT 13 Possible statements about concept 13: 13.1. As anchoring activities, direct experience belongs to the while-reading stage. TRUE or FALSE? 13.2. As anchoring activities, hands-on learning belongs to the pre-reading stage. TRUE or FALSE? 13.3. As anchoring activities, word-association belongs to the pre-reading stage. TRUE or FALSE? 13.4. As anchoring activities, cinquains belong to the while-reading stage. TRUE or FALSE? THE PROBLEM: WRITING is… First, perceived by most English Language Learners (henceforth, ELLs): as an artificial, m e c h a n i c o r uninteresting skill, as an INDIVIDUAL task usually carried out as HOMEWORK, as a requirement to pass exams. Second, acknowledged by some scholars as a real challenge, because in a foreign language instructional context like ours, “developing the ability to produce a fluent, coherent, extended piece of writing takes considerable application and p r a c t i c e o v e r m a n y years” (Nunan, 2011, p. 95), and because students lack fluency, accuracy and complexity, cultural knowledge and, more importantly, confidence to do so (Ferris, 2018); THE PROBLEM Last but not least, WRITING is presented in most textbooks as: (i) isolated from the other four linguistic skills, (ii) with little connection to “writing in the world or to the personal purposes of the writer” (Anderson, 2014, p. 91), and, (iii) used as “a mere ‘backup’ for grammar teaching” (Harmer, 2004, p. 31) or as a mere excuse to learn more vocabulary; THE PROBLEM In sum, then, WRITING is TESTED rather than TAUGHT. YET, teaching the writing skill cannot be neglected. Why? Because the spread of English as a Lingua Franca (i.e. ELF) has increased the need to use this international language also in the written mode and on a regular basis. THE SOLUTION (?) THREE are the current PEDAGOGIES to teaching writing: 1) The PRODUCT writing approach, 2) The PROCESS writing approach, 3) The GENRE writing approach. THE SOLUTION (?) PRODUCT writing is part of what Nunan (2011, p. 97) calls reproductive language work in which the learner “imitates, copies and transforms model sentences, paragraphs, and texts provided by the teacher or the textbook”. Thus, PRODUCT writing is still the one that predominates in both textbooks and in most EFL classrooms. Actually, creative writing courses are only found at tertiary education levels because “the university context is almost exclusively where genre and process approaches are generally being implemented” (Paran, 2012, p. 452). Let’s consider, then, the PROS and CONS of PRODUCT writing. PRODUCT WRITING or “the arrow model” FOCUS: the final PRODUCT AIM: reproducing (mimicking) a MODEL by following 4 prescriptive and linear stages: (i) planning, (ii) drafting, (iii) revising, and (iv) editing. PROS writing difficulties are minimized because students start writing from a very controlled basis. ideas are clearly organized and a wider use of linking words is encouraged. effortless implementation in large multilevel classes. easy grading because the model to be assessed is constant and fixed. no time consuming as the teacher only responds to the final product. CONS (A) with no difficulties in the search for meaning, there are no real learning gains. As Britton put it (1972, p. 41) “the most fundamental and universal kind of learning for human beings is learning from experience”. Hence, learning by writing is possible and advisable. (B) clarity in the organization of the ideas was more important than the ideas themselves. (C) the imitation of a given model text prevents students from developing their autonomy as writers, from finding their own voice. In brief, both CRITICAL and CREATIVE thinking are discouraged in PRODUCT WRITING (see Badger & White, 2000). CONCLUDING REMARKS: Process-writing (i.e. “writing-tolearn”) and genre-based writing (i.e. “learning-to-write”) should not be seen in opposition but as complementary approaches. As suggested by Villas Boas (2018, p. 237), “a process approach is still advocated, but without losing sight of the final product”. BEWARE! Even if Villas Boas talks about “the final product”, genre-based approach has nothing to do with mechanical exercises or unauthentic activities typical of the traditional product approach. CONCLUDING REMARKS: Hence, the process approach is ideal for the steps learners follow in order to produce a text and for the provision of feedback. In turn, the genre approach ensures the quality of the final text, increases language awareness (one of the main goals of ELF) and is very much linked to content writing instruction in CLIL instructional contexts –see Llinares et al., 2012). Therefore, the objective of teaching writing can be twofold: First, helping our students to discover themselves through expressive writing or writing-to-learn, and, Second, introducing them into the genres that make effective academic writing possible.  UNIT 2: CONCEPT 14 Possible statements about concept 14: 14.1. Most ELT textbooks do not include product writing. TRUE or FALSE? 14.2. The writing pedagogy with a closer relation to CLIL is process writing. TRUE or FALSE? 14.3. Most ELT textbooks do not include expressive writing. TRUE or FALSE? 14.4. The writing pedagogy with a closer relation to CLIL is genre-based writing TRUE or FALSE? WRITING TASKS FOR THE EYL CLASS: 1. INITIAL WRITING 2. ONGOING WRITING (i) Tracing and copying. (ii) Word-level writing through games. (iii) Finger writing. (iv) Guided activities to practise writing at word and at a sentence level. (v) Using frameworks or written scaffolds to introduce the idea of writing for an audience by means of some text genres such as cards, invitations, letters, stories or posters. (a) Reinforcing practice with wordand sentence-level writing and spelling is still necessary. (b) Using frameworks or written scaffolds as a step towards freer writing and other text genres such as recipes, instructions, simple diaries or blogs, etc. (c) Encouraging written communication with real people by means of e-Twinning projects. (d) Promoting cooperation among peers in interactive writing tasks. (e) Introducing poetry. 1. DESIGNING TASKS FOR INITIAL WRITING: (iii) Finger writing activities are also very useful to offer practice in word-level writing. Finger writing takes into account children’s developmental stages and their holistic and kinaesthetic learning styles. In Pinter’s words (2017, p. 87), finger writing “follows a multisensory approach [that] involves writing on different surfaces, which requires children to get up from their chairs and move around. Using their fingers, children can write in the air, on each other’s backs, or in the sand outside, and they can either simply copy words or write creatively.” WRITING TASKS FOR THE EYL CLASS: 1. INITIAL WRITING 2. ONGOING WRITING (i) Tracing and copying. (ii) Word-level writing through games. (iii) Finger writing. (iv) Guided activities to practise writing at word and at a sentence level. (v) Using frameworks or written scaffolds to introduce the idea of writing for an audience by means of some text genres such as cards, invitations, letters, stories or posters. (a) Reinforcing practice with wordand sentence-level writing and spelling is still necessary. (b) Using frameworks or written scaffolds as a step towards freer writing and other text genres such as recipes, instructions, simple diaries or blogs, etc. (c) Encouraging written communication with real people by means of e-Twinning projects. (d) Promoting cooperation among peers in interactive writing tasks. (e) Introducing poetry. 2. DESIGNING ONGOING WRITING TASKS FOR OLDER STUDENTS (a) Older learners still have to practise with word- and sentence-level writing and spelling. Yet, they are also ready for freer writing. To Pinter (2017, p. 89), a combination of both needs can be accomplished by means of activities like “filling in captions and speech bubbles in cartoons stories”. We saw that when working on the storytelling The Three Billy Goats Gruff. Actually, the first figure below shows the lines Julia, a German seven-year-old Primary student, gave the troll in The Three Billy Goats Gruff story. The other figure on the right is taken from ‘Sleeping Beauty’ (Bland, 2008). I’m a terrible troll I’m hungry I like billy goats Come here! 2. DESIGNING ONGOING WRITING TASKS FOR OLDER STUDENTS (e) Don’t forget to introduce poetry. Children enjoy writing poetry. As we saw in class, poetry is for everybody since it can be as short and simple as you like. Besides, in Pinter’s words (2017, p. 92), “poems are always unique and personal, and there is no right way of writing them, and this may liberate children from the need to always write to meet set criteria”. Additionally, making poetry also liberates children from writing only to pass exams. UNIT 2: CONCEPT 15 Possible statements about concept 15: 15.1.Finger writing activities promote initial writing. TRUE or FALSE? 15.2. Using frameworks or written scaffolds to introduce text genres such as cards, invitations, letters, stories or posters does not belong to initial writing because these genres are too difficult for younger English language learners. TRUE or FALSE? 15.3. Using frameworks or written scaffolds to produce text genres such as recipes, instructions, simple diaries or blogs does promote ongoing writing with older students. TRUE or FALSE? 15.4. Poetry is part of ongoing writing tasks which are more appropriate for older students. TRUE or FALSE?