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University of San Agustin College of Pharmacy and Medical Technology Department of Pharmacy PBSCI1a:...

University of San Agustin College of Pharmacy and Medical Technology Department of Pharmacy PBSCI1a: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy (Laboratory) PRELIM NOTES 2024-2025 MODULE 1-3 MODULE 1- MICROSOPY o TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE- uses high voltage electron beam emitted by MICROSCOPE- mikros "small" + skopein "to examine" a cathode and formed by magnetic lenses. Using a very thin section of a specimen, this KINDS OF MICROSCOPE electron beam can carry and transmit LIGHT MICROSCOPE- employs the principles of information about the internal structure of a refracting and reflecting visible light to detect tiny sample. TEM could magnify the specimen up objects. to more or less 200,000x its original size. DISSECTING MICROSCOPE- permits the viewing of o SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE- utilize opaque objects up to 30x its original size. beam transmission. This type of electron microscope produces images by detecting COMPOUND MICROSCOPE- Materials examined in this secondary electrons which are emitted from type of microscope required to be thinly slice in order the surface due to excitations by the primary for light to pass through and magnify the specimen up electron beam. The surface of a specimen is to 1500x its original size. bombarded with electrons to produce a 3- MECHANICAL dimensional image of the specimen’s ✓ Base - supports the whole microscope surface. SEM could magnify 3000x to 10000x ✓ Arm - serves as a handle when carrying the original size. the microscope o SCANNING TRANSMISSION ELECTRON ✓ Stage -platform that holds the slide MICROSCOPE- a specific type of TEM in ✓ Pillar - area where the arm is attached which the electrons still pass through the ✓ Stage Clips- holds the slide containing specimen. the specimen firmly on the stage o SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE- is the ✓ Substage - holds the condenser above newest machine that can reveal individual and the diaphragm below atoms only 3 Angstrom across. It works on ✓ Body Tube- acts as the passage of light the principle of electron tunneling from objective to the eyepiece (tendency of electrons to jump between the ✓ Course Adjustment Knob - larger knobs tip of a fine metal needle and the surface to for the slow movement of the body be studied. STM can produce 3-dimensional tube when focusing under the low image by scanning the surface of the sample power objective (LPO) with a beam of electrons ✓ Fine Adjustment Knob -for the slow movement of the body when focusing under the high-power objective (HPO) and other high-power lenses ✓ Revolving Nose Piece - carries the objectives ✓ Draw Tube - smaller cylinder attached to the upper part of the body tube that holds the ocular MAGNIFYING ✓ Eyepiece/Ocular - detachable cylinder located at the upper end of the tube which may have a line inside that serves as a pointer and rotates as the ocular is rotated ✓ Objectives - has two or three objectives attached to the revolving nosepiece ✓ Scanner - used to observe much wider field of the object ✓ Low Power Objective (LPO) - used to observe the general outline and locate MODULE 2: PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL various parts of a specimen Cell ✓ High Power Objective (HPO) - used to study the detailed parts of a specimen building blocks of life ✓ Oil Immersion Objective- used to study basic structural and functional units of a details of specific parts of the living organism. specimen requires a small drop of oil in They are considered as the smallest unit of a order for the light passing through it is living organism which are mostly invisible to uniformly distributed or is dispersed. the naked eye. ILLUMINATING usually measured in microns ✓ Mirror - used to reflect light and lenses One micron= 0.001 millimeter. of the eye o concave side of the mirror is used for the natural light o flat side is used for artificial light ✓ Condenser- used to condense or concentrate the light reflected from the mirror to the object or specimen being examined ELECTRON MICROSCOPE- the cutting-edge type of light microscopy which can produced high resolution images. Instead of the principles of visible light, electron CELL WALL microscopes utilize beam of electron to produce a more detailed image of an object Provides mechanical support to the cell Surrounds the cell membrane ACOPIO | CORDERO | DAÑOCUP  University of San Agustin College of Pharmacy and Medical Technology Department of Pharmacy PBSCI1a: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy (Laboratory) PRELIM NOTES 2024-2025 MODULE 1-3 Maintains cellular pressure Cellulose ❖ contains large COMPONENTS OF CELL WALL amount of linear polysaccharide. Cellulose ❖ It is considered Microfibril as the most Hemicellulose abundant Pectin macromolecule Lignin on Earth. Soluble Proteins Lignin ✓ MIDDLE LAMELLA ❖ second most o first layer formed during cell division abundant o cements the cell wall of two adjoining natural polymer cell together in the world. o composed mainly of pectic substances ❖ It provides Pectin is a polysaccharide mechanical present in plant cell walls support for which contributes to the stems and leaves complex physiological and supplies the processes like cell growth strength and and cell differentiation. It rigidity of plant determines the integrity walls. and rigidity of plant tissue ❖ provides and plays an important role resistance to in the defense mechanisms diseases, against plant pathogens insects, cold and wounding temperatures, ✓ PRIMARY CELL WALL and other o thin, flexible and extensible stresses. layer formed after the middle lamella ❖ It also plays a while the cell is growing crucial part in o composed of pectin compounds, conducting hemicellulose, glycoprotein, cellulose, water in plant and microfibrils stem. HEMICELLULOSE- ❖ are produced in PLASMA MEMBRANE dictyosomes or golgi bodies and Also known as cell membrane or plasmalemma brought to the semi-permeable membrane composed of a wall by the phospholipid bi-layer and associated proteins. dictyosomes It serves as the border between the interior and exterior vesicles. of a cell. ❖ It functions as The chemical composition of the plasma membrane is supporting very important in the control of the transport processes materials in the of cellular substances in and out of the cell. cell wall GLYCOPROTEINS – COMPOSITION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE ❖ are proteins Phospholipids with a sugar o the main component attached to of the cell membrane them. and are composed of ❖ They provide glycerol, two fatty acid immunity, tail, and a phosphate- protection, and linked head group. communication o They are known to be between cells. amphipathic meaning, ❖ They also play an it possesses both important role in hydrophilic and reproduction. hydrophobic regions. CELLULOSE MICROFIBRILS Carbohydrates ❖ are bundles of o the third major aggregated component of plasma fibers packed membranes together by which are bound hemicellulose either to proteins (forming ✓ SECONDARY CELL WALL glycoproteins) or to o extremely rigid and provides strength lipids (forming only found in specific cell types thicker glycolipids) on the than the primary wall extracellular side of o composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, the membrane. and lignin Carbohydrate chains may consist of 2-60 monosaccharide units and can be either straight or branched. ACOPIO | CORDERO | DAÑOCUP  University of San Agustin College of Pharmacy and Medical Technology Department of Pharmacy PBSCI1a: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy (Laboratory) PRELIM NOTES 2024-2025 MODULE 1-3 Along with membrane minimize the effects of temperature on fluidity. proteins, these Cholesterol is usually tucked between the carbohydrates form hydrophobic tails of the membrane distinctive cellular phospholipids. markers, sort of like molecular ID badges, that allow cells to CELL ORGANELLES recognize each other. NUCLEUS Membrane Proteins o Nucleus, the largest of all organelles, acts as o Aside from the control center of all cellular functions. phospholipids, plasma o It houses all the genetic material of the cell membrane also and is also site of DNA replication contains proteins. and RNA synthesis There are two main PARTS OF THE NUCLEUS categories of ▪ NUCLEAR ENVELOPE membrane proteins - o is the outermost the integral and the covering of the peripheral proteins nucleus o Integral Proteins o composed of Integral or intrinsic membrane perforated proteins have at least by numerous pores one hydrophobic ▪ NUCLEAR PORE region that anchors o protein-lined channel them to the in the nuclear hydrophobic core of envelope that the phospholipid regulates the bilayer. These proteins transportation of are embedded in the molecules between phospholipid bilayer, the nucleus and the some may extend cytoplasm through the ▪ NUCLEOLUS phospholipid bilayer o the site of synthesis of (transmembrane rRNA, which combines proteins) while some with proteins to form may not. ribosomes when o Peripheral Proteins transported outside Peripheral or extrinsic the nucleus proteins are found on ▪ NUCLEOPLASM the outside and inside o Is the granular fluid surfaces of inside the nucleus membranes, attached ▪ CHROMATIN loosely either to o Is a darkly stained integral proteins or to bodies inside the phospholipids. These nucleus which contain types of membrane the genes that proteins are found on determine the the inner or outer inherited surface of the characteristics of the phospholipid bilayer, organism but not embedded in ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM its hydrophobic core o a system of narrow tubes and sheets of Cholesterol membrane forming a network throughout o Another lipid the cytoplasm composed of four ▪ Rough ER fused carbon rings found alongside embedded with phospholipids in the ribosomes and is in- core of the charge of protein membrane is synthesis Cholesterol. It is Smooth ER embedded among the not studded with phospholipids of the ribosomes. membrane, helps to It is responsible for minimize the effects the synthesis of lipids, of temperature on metabolism of fluidity. Cholesterol is carbohydrates, usually tucked regulation of calcium between the concentration, and hydrophobic drug detoxification. tails of the membrane GOLGI BODIES phospholipids. o Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex or Dictyosomes is named after Camillo Golgi. CYTOPLASM o It is consists of closely packed stacks of curved, membrane bound sacs which ✓ Another lipid composed of four fused carbon rings collects, modifies, packages and distributes found alongside phospholipids in the core of the proteins and lipids manufactured by ER. membrane is Cholesterol. It is embedded among o Golgi bodies are present in large numbers the phospholipids of the membrane, helps to and most highly developed in cells that ACOPIO | CORDERO | DAÑOCUP  University of San Agustin College of Pharmacy and Medical Technology Department of Pharmacy PBSCI1a: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy (Laboratory) PRELIM NOTES 2024-2025 MODULE 1-3 secrete proteins such as the cells of the PLASTIDS salivary glands or the pancreas. o Similar to mitochondria, they have inner and PARTS OF THE GOLGI BODIES outer membrane and an inner fluid called ▪ Cis face stroma. o Receiving side of the o They have ribosomes and a circular DNA that Golgi apparatus is not associated with histones. ▪ Trans face o It is divided into two groups o Shipping side of the ▪ Chromoplast- are colored Golgi apparatus plastids ▪ Transport vesicle from rough ER Ex: Carotene and ▪ Cristae chloroplasts ▪ New forming vesicles ▪ Leucoplasts- large unpigmented ▪ Secretory vesicles from trans face plastids ▪ Transport Vesicles from the Golgi Ex: roplastid and RIBOSOMES amyloplasts. o common structures found dispersed in the o All these pigments help in the process of cytoplasm or attached to the ER. photosynthesis o It is responsible for the protein synthesis in CHLOROPLASTS the cell. o major site of photosynthesis converting light o Animal cells synthesize more proteins and energy to chemical energy. Chlorophyll are richer in ribosomes, particularly those pigments present in the chloroplasts imparts found in the liver, compared to plants. the green color. MITOCHONDRIA o “power plant” or the powerhouse of the cell PARTS OF CHLOROPLAST o cellular respiration takes place. o Compounds (sugars, starches, amino acids) Outer Membrane are broken down and the energy release is Inner Membrane used to synthesize new compounds that are Thylakoid both highly energetic and very reactive (ATP- o Consist of flattened Adenosine Triphosphate). and closed vesicles o Aside from producing the cell's energy, arranges as mitochondria is also involved in a range of membranous network other processes such as signaling, cellular Stroma differentiation, cell death, control of the cell o Fills most of the cycle, and cell growth. volume of the chloroplasts and VACUOLES contains ribosomes o food storage and waste disposal of cells. and DNA o Large central vacuoles (water vacuoles) are Granum usually found in plants which are usually o Stack of thylakoids filled with a watery fluid called cell sap. within chloroplast of o Young plant cells always tend to have smaller plant cells vacuoles than the older cells which can CYTOSKELETON occupy until 90% or more of the cell volume. o Are networks of fiber consists of proteins LYSOSOMES that support the cell, hold organelles in o the suicide bags of the cell. place and enables the cell to change shape. o It is a membrane-bound vesicle formed from ▪ Microfilaments the Golgi Apparatus which contains variety Solid rods of globular of enzymes that functions as intracellular proteins call actin digestive systems and serve as the a waste ▪ Intermediate filaments disposal system of the cell. Coiled-coils of a- MICROBODIES helical and central rod o spherical bodies found in the cytoplasm. domains of fibrous They isolate reactions that either produce or proteins use the compound hydrogen peroxide and ▪ Macrofilaments contains the enzyme catalase which Hollow cylinders of detoxifies peroxides through chemical tubulin proteins reactions. ▪ PEROXISOMES It contains enzymes CILIA that break down fatty o Cilium, an eyelash acids, amino acids and o Project from the surface of cells and capable hydrogen peroxide to of moving Contains specialize microtubules water and oxygen. o Numerous on surface of respiratory tract It also detoxify some products of FLAGELLA photosynthesis o Flagellum, a whip ▪ GLYOXYSOMES o Have structure similar to cilia but much These are found only longer in plant cells. MICROVILLA It is involved in o Small, shaggy hair converting stored fats o Specialized extensions of the cell membrane into sugars in plants that are supported by microfilaments and is important in the o Do not actively move like cilia and flagella germination of oily seeds (sunflower, peanut, coconut) ACOPIO | CORDERO | DAÑOCUP  University of San Agustin College of Pharmacy and Medical Technology Department of Pharmacy PBSCI1a: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy (Laboratory) PRELIM NOTES 2024-2025 MODULE 1-3 ▪ Nuclear envelope breaks up ▪ Polar fibers reach the equator ▪ Kinetochore attaches to kinetochore fiber which then connects it to the Polar fiber ▪ Chromosomes begin to migrate toward the cell center Metaphase o Chromosomes align at the center MODULE 3- MITOSIS o YOUR NUCLEAR MEMBRANE DISAPPEARS COMPLETELY The Cell Cycle o CHROMOSOMES MOVE RANDOMLY UNTIL THEY ATTACH (AT THEIR KINETOCHORES) TO Interphase POLAR FIBERS FROM BOTH SIDES OF THEIR CENTROMERES G1 Phase (GAP 1 PHASE) o CHROMOSOMES ALIGN AT THE METAPHASE o Most variable phase PLATE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE SPINDLE o Almost absent in rapidly dividing cells POLES o Rapid growth and metabolic activity o CHROMOSOMES ARE HELD AT THE o Reactivation of slowed or arrested cellular METAPHASE PLATE BY THE EQUAL FORCES OF activities THE POLAR FIBERS PUSHING ON THE o Duplication of all organelles and cellular CENTROMERES OF THE CHROMOSOMES components including the separation of two Anaphase centrioles o Daughter chromosomes moves towards the S Phase (DNA SYNTHESIS) opposite pole o DNA and protein synthesis o The briefest phase o Self replication o Separation of sister chromatids at their o Enzymes involved in the DNA Synthesis centromeres ▪ Helicases o Moving of daughter chromosomes towards ▪ Unwinds the DNA the opposite poles through the shortening of double Helix fibers ▪ Single-strand binding proteins o Each pole will contain a complete ▪ Prevent re-fusion compilation of chromosomes as they also ▪ DNA Polymerase move further apart at the end of anaphase ▪ Aids in the addition of o Cytokinesis (the division of the original cell's new nucleotides to cytoplasm) begins and continues through form a new strand telophase ▪ Topoisomerase o ▪ Relieves the Telophase supercoiling o Daughter chromosomes reach towards the ▪ Replication fork ( opposite side of the pole process of unwinding o Each group of daughter chromosomes + separating) becomes surrounded by a reformed nuclear G2 Phase envelope o Preparation for cell division o Daughter chromosomes become longer and o Tubulins for mitotic microtubules thinner and finally become indistinguishable o Protein for processing chromosomes o Nuclei begin to form at opposite poles o Breaking down nuclear envelope o Nucleoli reappears and chromatin fibers of M Phase chromosomes uncoil many of the spindle Karyokinesis fibers disintegrate o Formation of Cell Plate is the process of nuclear division in a cell during mitosis o Genetic contents of one cell have been or meiosis. It involves the segregation of chromosomes divided equally into two into two daughter nuclei Cytokinesis ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical set o Division of the cell's cytoplasm of chromosomes from the parent cell, which is crucial o Begins prior to the end of anaphase and for maintaining genetic stability. completes shortly after telophase Prophase o Produce two genetically identical daughter o Chromosomes condense cells o Chromatin fibers coil and thickens to form chromosomes o Each chromosome have two chromatids joined by a centromere o Cytoskeleton dissembles as the spindle fibers begins to form o The two pair of centrioles (in animal cell) start move toward the opposite ends of the cell o Microtubules between the centrioles starts to lengthen ▪ LATE PROPHASE ACOPIO | CORDERO | DAÑOCUP  University of San Agustin College of Pharmacy and Medical Technology Department of Pharmacy PBSCI1a: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy (Laboratory) PRELIM NOTES 2024-2025 MODULE 1-3 CHECKPOINTS G1 CHECKPOINT G2 CHECKPOINT METAPHASE CHECKPOINT Checks for correct Checks for replication of DNA damaged DNA during S Checks for correct alignment of Makes sure the Makes sure the chromosomes for cell has all the cell has all the correct separation resources for DNA resources for synthesis Mitosis ACOPIO | CORDERO | DAÑOCUP