PHA611: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy PDF

PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) PLANT CYTOLOGY, CELLULAR TRANSPORT PROCESS, AND SPECIMENS VIEWED IN THE MICROSCOPE OUTLINE I. PLANT CYTOLOGY i. Cells ii. Plant Cells iii. Functions and Parts iv. Crystal Formation in Pla...

PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) PLANT CYTOLOGY, CELLULAR TRANSPORT PROCESS, AND SPECIMENS VIEWED IN THE MICROSCOPE OUTLINE I. PLANT CYTOLOGY i. Cells ii. Plant Cells iii. Functions and Parts iv. Crystal Formation in Plants II. CELLULAR TRANSPORT PROCESS i. Cellular Transport Process ii. Plant Cell Division iii. Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis iv. Plant Tissues v. Overview of Primary Meristem and Tissues vi. Arbitrary Classification III. SPECIMENS VIEWED IN THE MICROSCOPE CELLS    The smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Discovered by Robert Hooke through observing tiny compartments in a dead outer bark of an oak tree. The idea of the cell as the fundamental unit of life was the basic postulate of the cell theory proposed by Matthias Scheiden and Theodor Schwann in 1838. PLANT CELLS  Plant cells are eukaryotic cells composed of living and non-living components  Non-living component includes the cell wall and vacuole, while living components are the cytoplasm and the different suspended organelles  The rigid cell wall is chiefly composed of cellulose and minor component are lignin, cutin, and suberin  Cell walls of neighboring cells are cemented together by a non-living interconnected by fine holes on the wall called plasmodesmata, cluster appearing in a particular area of the wall are called primary pit field  The vacuole is a non-protoplasmic structure filled with fluid called cell sap or vascular sap  Suspended in the fluid are various dissolved substance such as anthocyanin (water-soluble pigments), metabolites (sugar, alkaloids, organic acid and inorganic salt)  Other substances which may be present are the waste products of metabolism in the form of crystals  Crystals occurs in various shapes and size. They are differentiated based on their composition and shape FUNCTIONS AND PARTS PLANT CELLS CELL WALL EUKARYOTIC     Cells with Nucleus and Membrane Bound Organelles Multicellular Its chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein, mainly histone e.g. Plant Cell, Animal Cell, Fungi     PROKARYOTIC     Cells without nucleus and Membrane Bound Organelles Unicellular Its chromosomes are made up of DNA only e.g. Bacteria, Archaebacteria REYES Can be found outside the cell membrane Acts as a filtering mechanism and structure that provides support and protection for cellular components The distinguishing feature of a plant cell Composed primarily of cellulose and may also contain lignin which adds rigidity, cutin and suberin for water loss PLASMODESMATA    Fine holes in the primary cell wall Interconnects plant cells Small channels that directly connect the cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells to each other PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH)   Establishes bridges between cells Allow certain molecules to pass directly which is important in cellular communication CELL MEMBRANE       Also called plasma membrane; Thin membrane that surrounds every living cell. Envelope that controls movement of the substances into and out of the cell This is the site for cell signaling Regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the cell Divides cell into compartments and acts as surface which holds enzymes Selectively permeable (allow only certain molecules to enter or exit the cell) CYTOPLASM         Fluid portion containing the nucleus and the rest of the organelles A viscous colloidal substance bounded by the plasma membrane Suspended in the cytoplasm are the organelles (double membrane or single membraned) and the nucleus Double membrane organelles are mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, dictyosome (Golgi bodies) and plastid. Single membrane organelles are called microbodies: peroxisome, glyoxysomes, lysosome and sphaerosome. Other suspended structure constitutes the cytoskeleton (microtubules, microfilaments and actin) Thick solution that fills each cells and is enclosed by the cell membrane Composed of water, salt and protein In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm includes all of the material inside the cell and outside of the nucleus NUCLEUS    Membrane Bound Organelle that contains the genetic material of eukaryotic organisms Its nuclear material is enclosed in a nuclear membrane The membrane contains numerous small holes, nuclear pores bordered by proteins. Contained within the membrane is the nucleoplasm REYES   composed of DNA, enzyme, histone protein, RNAs, water and other substances necessary for nuclear metabolism Area where genetic material is organized or expressed Type of protoplasm that is composed of thick fluid and constitutes chromatin fiber made up of DNA. It is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Fluid contains primarily water, salt ions and complex mixture of molecule ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM       Forms a series of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cell Important in the synthesize, folding, modification and transport of proteins Carries large molecule like protein System of narrow tubes and sheet of membrane which forms a network throughout the cytoplasm Rough ER i. Attached with ribosome ii. Site of protein synthesis, sorting and secretion Smooth ER i. Lipid synthesis, membrane assembly ii. Site of detoxification and lipid synthesis DICTYOSOME    Modifies material secreted by cell (protein modification) Stacks of flat membrane cavities that together comprise the golgi apparatus Within the dictyosomes proteins are stored, modified, sorted and stacked into vesicles for further transport MITOCHONDRION    Responsible for cell respiration ATP synthesis It is a Membrane Bound Organelle found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells CHLOROPLAST     Green plastid Captures light for photosynthesis Larger than the mitochondrion Organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH)  It absorbs sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide gas in order to produce food for the plant PEROXISOME     Produces and degrades hydrogen peroxide Small membrane enclosed organelles that contains enzymes involved in a variety of metabolic reaction It includes several aspects of energy metabolism Site of hydrogen peroxide or other harmful molecules are broken down amorgoso – like appearance RAPHIDES VACUOLE        Contains water and salt Maintains turgor pressure Storage area for nutrients Responsible for accumulation of toxic substance Storage bubbles found in cells, found in both animals and plant cells Store food or any variety of nutrients a cell might need to survive Site that provides storage and regulation of cell volume CRYSTAL FORMATION IN PLANTS  ROSETTE PRISMATIC A plant cell can store products such as sugar, lipids, and crystals. Crystal formation in plants plays an important function like tissue regulation, protection, and metal detoxification Composition Types of Crystals Calcium Oxalate (CaC2O4) Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) 1. Raphides - Fine, needle-like crystals occuring singly or in cluster, scattered or enclosed in a sac. 2. Rosette – Star like or rose like 3. Prismatic – Prism or diamond shape 4. Styloid – Knife like, tapering on both ends 5. Cystolith – Aggregation of granules on a cell wall extension to form a grape like or REYES STYLOID PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) CRYSTOLITH CHROMOPLAST WITH OIL GLOBULES PLASTIDS It is a double membrane organelle which is the main site for photosynthesis  Chloroplast is the green pigment which captures light for photosynthesis  Other types of plastids are: I. Chromoplastid - a fat soluble pigment responsible for giving red color to flowers II. Leucoplastids - colorless plastids i. Amyloplast - stores starch ii. Aleuroneplast - stores protein iii. Elaioplast - stores fats and oil  ELAIOPLAST CHROMOPLASTS CELLULAR TRANSPORT PROCESS CELLULAR TRANSPORT    Plants absorb water from soil through cellular transport processes Water is the most abundant inorganic compound. Water solution important in plant biology. If mixed with other molecules, it is called solution. Water is solvent, dissolved substance is solute Involves movement of solute throughout the cell, between cells and its environment DIFFUSION   REYES It is the movements of particles as a result of their kinetic energy Particles move from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) IMBIBITION    Passive transport. Occurs when substances cross the plasma membrane without input of energy from the cell No energy needed because the substance is moving from higher concentration to lower concentration Absorption and adsorption of H2O by insoluble, colloidal hydrophilic material and cell wall component i. Cellulose – polar ii. Water – polar iii. Kerosene – non-polar PLANT CELL DIVISION MITOSIS    Mechanism that allows the nuclei of cell to split and each daughter cell with a complete set of chromosome Process by which one nucleus will turn into two nuclei and each have the original genetic mutations Coupled with cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm, may start in either anaphase or telophase), occurs in all multicellular plants and animals to permit growth of the organism PHASES OF MITOSIS OSMOSIS Movements of water across a semi-permeable membrane between two solutions and the movement/direction is from higher to lower water potential  The roots keep a higher solute concentration inside its cells. This higher concentration is used to initiate absorption of water from the soil  Osmosis affect plant cells depending on the water concentration or solute inside and outside the cell membrane. Example: i. If there’s equal water concentration inside and outside of cell membrane therefore there will be equal exchange in water molecule in the solution thus characterizing it as placid cell ii. If low concentration outside the cell, the water molecules from inside the cell will flow out to the outside environment to reach equilibrium. If flows out, it will shrink and characterize as plasmolized cell iii. If higher concentration outside, the water will go inside the cell. This will make the cell swollen and hard and be called a turgid cell. Turgidity is important as it helps with maintenance of rigidity of plants  Cells must be alive in order for osmosis to happen  REYES INTERPHASE  Normal resting cell state  Chromatin is undifferentiated  Under interphase, there are three phases involved: G1 (Gap or growth phase 1) – cell is metabolically active, duplicate its organelles and cytosolic components ii. S (Synthesis) - Synthesis of s-phase, chromosome is duplicated and consist of 2 sister chromatids joined together by a specific DNA sequence known as centromere (specific sequence that combines the two sister chromatid) iii. G2 (Gap or growth phase 2) – enzyme and protein synthesis occurs. ATP produced is large amounts, centrioles replicate. Reorganization of contents for mitosis occurs PROPHASE  First phase of mitosis  Early prophase, chromosomes starts to condense  Late prophase, chromosomes are fully condensed and the nuclear membrane breakdown  Nuclear chromatin starts to become organized and condensed into thick strands that eventually become chromosome  Cytoskeleton (composed of cytoplasmic microtubules) begins to disassemble and the main component of the biotic apparatus, the i. PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) mitotic spindle begins to form outside the nucleus at opposite ends of the cell METAPHASE  Chromosomes attached to the kinetochore (specialized protein complex) microtubules, begin to align in one plane halfway between the spindle pole  Microtubules not attached to the centromere are called polar microtubules. Before anaphase, cells will undergo a checkpoint (spindle checkpoint) ensures that each chromosomes are at the metaphase plate  The kinetochore microtubules exert tension on the chromosome and the entire spindle chromosome complex is now ready for the next event ANAPHASE  The two halves of each chromosome are pulled part by the spindle apparatus and migrate to the opposite spindle post  The kinetochore microtubule shorten as the chromosome are pulled towards the poles while the pole microtubule elongates to assist in the separation  In the late anaphase, cytokinesis begins where the cytoplasmis divided by a cleavage TELOPHASE  The daughter chromosome arrives at the spindle pole and are eventually redistributed into chromatin  Cytokinesis, where the cytoplasm is divided by cleavage, also starts sometime in late anaphase and continues through telophase  After complete separation of the chromosome and their extrusion to the spindle pole, the nuclear membrane begins to reform around each group of chromosome  Cells are nearly done dividing and will start to reestablish its normal structure as cytokinesis takes place  Animal cells: formation of cleavage  Plant cells: cell plate formation and cells are separated by a new cell wall REYES COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS PROPERTY DNA Replication Number Divisions MITOSIS MEIOSIS Occurs during interphase before mitosis begins Occurs during interphase before meiosis begins of One (4 stages) Two (8 stages) Synapsis of Does not occur homologous chromosomes Occurs along with crossing over between non-sister chromatids in prophase 1 Number of daughter cells and genetic composition 4 haploid (n) daughter cells, each containing half as many chromosomes as the parent cell and each other; chromosome number are half in each daughter cell Two diploid (2n) daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell; chromosome numbers stay the same Role in the Produces cells Produces animal body for growth and gametes and repair assures genetic diversity in sexual production PLANT TISSUES TISSUES   Group of cells that perform specific function Vascular plant tissue are ultimately derived from the products of fertilized egg (zygote) that has undergone repeated cells division. They can be classified based on the stage of development or based on its composition PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) CLASSIFICATION  Based on position in the plant body (location) i. Apical – found within the root tips ii. Intercalary – associated with growth in length and elongation. Capable of rapid growth or regrowth iii. Lateral – grow in diameter. Increase the girth or thickness. Two types: vascular cambium and core cambium  Based on function i. Protoderm (dermatogen) – epidermis (dermal tissue system) ii. Procambium (plerome) - primary xylem and primary phloem (vascular tissue system) iii. Fundamental or ground (periblem) – parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma (ground tissues system) Based on stage of development Embryonic or meristematic - tissue made out of undifferentiated cells Permanent – made out of matured differentiated cells  Based on composition Simple – made out of single or one type of cell Complex – multiple cells  MERISTEMATIC   Tissues where the cells are in mitotic state They may further be classified based on the initiating cell, position or function CLASSIFICATION   Tissues where the cells are in mitotic state Based on initiating cells (origin) i. Primary meristem (Apical Meristem) – first derivative of promeristem. Situated at the tips of roots, stems and appendages ii. Secondary meristem – lateral and intercalary meristem anti-vascular and core cambium iii. Promeristem (Primordial meristem) – group of young meristematic cells of a growing organ. Tip of the stem and root REYES OVERVIEW OF PRIMARY MERISTEM AND TISSUES PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) PERMANENT  Those that are stable and no longer undergoes cell division. They may be simple permanent or complex permanent SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE  Composed of one type of cell  Differentiates into dermal or protective and ground or fundamental  Classified based on the nature of cell wall COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE  Composed of different kinds of cells but perform similar function SIMPLE GROUND TISSUES CHLORENCHYMA CELLS  Elongated cylindrical cells with long axis at the right angle to the surface of the organ. They are specialized for photosynthesis due to the presence of chloroplast  The thinnest of the wall allows light and carbon dioxide to pass through the chloroplasts TRANSFER CELLS  Mediate the short-distance transport of material by means of a large, extensive plasma membrane capable of holding numerous molecular pumps SIMPLE PERMANENT GROUND TISSUES PARENCHYMA TISSUE  A mass of parenchyma cells; most common types of tissue constituting all soft parts of a plant  Parenchyma cells i. Most common type of cells ii. Has thin primary walls; large vacuole iii. Active metabolically and alive at maturity iv. Numerous subtypes are specialized for particular tasks v. Main function: storage vi. Observed below we could see that the cells are enlarged and the nucleus can be found at the sides or on the peripheries of the cells meaning that the vacuoles are enlarged. Many materials are stores in vacuole, thus the organelles are being pushed towards the sides of the cell REYES GLANDULAR CELLS  Secrete nectar, fragrances, mucilage, resins and oils  Contain few chloroplasts but have ↑ amounts of dictyosomes and endoplasmic reticulum AERENCHYMA  Specialized in gas exchange; large intercellular spaces  Commonly observed in pines  Observed below is a large central cavity PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) COLLENCHYMA TISSUE COLLENCHYMA CELLS  Unevenly thickened primary walls (thin in some areas, thick most often in the corners)  Typically, alive at maturity  Provide plasticity the ability to be deformed by pressure or tension and to retain the new shape even if the pressure or tension ceases  Present in elongating shoot tips as a layer just under the epidermis or as bands located next to vascular bundles  Usually produced only in shoot tips and young petioles (connects the leaf to the stem) SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE SCLERENCHYMA CELLS  Has both a 1˚ wall and a thick 2˚ wall that is almost always lignified  Many dead at maturity  Provides elasticity, the ability to be deformed, but snap back to their original size and shape when the pressure or tension is released  Some are involved in water transport  Develop mainly in mature organs that have stopped growing (non-extending parts) and have achieved their proper size and shape TYPES OF SCLERENCHYMA CELLS SCLEREIDS  Brittle and inflexible  Form hard, impenetrable surfaces (shells of walnuts and coconuts or the pits or stones of cherries and peaches) FIBERS  Flexible; found in areas where strength and elasticity are important (wood of flowering plant, trunk and branches)  Resists insects, fungi, pests (bark)  Elongates as the internode increases in length  Flax fibers – common source for paper and linen cloth. E.g Philippine fibers like abaca leaves or Manila Hemp and pineapple leaves are hard fibers TRACHEIDS  Water-conducting long cells with tapered ends, no perforations REYES    Only type of water conducting cells in ferns, conifers and most other non-flowering plants. Dead at maturity (hollow tubular wall) Secondary wall has pits (to keep sclereid alive) VESSEL ELEMENTS  Forms large hole called a perforation which greatly reduces the friction = water moves much more easily than through pits of tracheids EPIDERMIS          Outermost surface of an herbaceous stem, leaf and root. Uses: For protection and Regulate exchange of materials Encrusted with cutin (cuticle) prevents loss of water Contains guard cells, trichomes and root hairs Cutin inhibits the entry of CO2 needed for photosynthesis = plant's starvation → pairs of guard cells with a hole (stomatal pore) between them to permit gas entry Guard + stomatal pore (open during daytime to permit entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis) = stoma Stomatal pores are open during daytime Accessory cells – serves as reservoir of water and ions Bulliform cells – longitudinal rows of vacuolated cells Epidermal hair – for the elongation of the epidermal cell outward (trichome and root hairs) for increase water absorption. It is irregular, isodiametric and distinctly elongated in shape. PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) TRICHOMES  Epidermal outgrowths/hairs FUNCTIONS  Protection from insects and excessive sunlight  Aids in nutrient uptake  Spread of seeds  Cotton trichomes can be made into threads, which is then woven into cloth  Plant trichomes as defense CLASSIFICATIONS      Glandular Trichome - appears as hollow tubes Stinging Trichome – ability to inject substance to a tissue that comes in contact with it Bristle Trichome – finer compared to stinging trichome Scale Trichome – finer projections, flower like appearance Stellate Trichome – star like appearance CORK OR PHELLEM      REYES Outer covering of woody stems and roots Cell wall is impregnated with suberin Produced by the cork cambium (secondary meristem) No intercellular spaces; Needs to be compact to avoid escape of water Only for plants that undergoes secondary growth PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUES THE VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM XYLEM  Brings water and mineral salts from the roots to the rest of the plants  Consists of tracheids (help to transport water), vessels, xylem parenchyma (storage of water) and xylem fibers (structural support)  The tracheids and vessels help to transport water and minerals from roots to all part of the plant  Xylem parenchyma stores water  Fibers help in support PHLOEM  Moves sugar and other organic nutrients (food) and minerals from the aerial parts of the plants going to the roots  Consists of sieve tubes, companion cells (transport food from the leaves towards other structures, movement is downwards), phloem parenchyma and phloem fibers  The sieve tubes and companion cells transport food from leaves to all parts of the plant.  Phloem parenchyma stores food  Fibers help in support REYES PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) ARBITRARY CLASSIFICATION VASCULAR AND NON-VASCULAR PLANTS ANGIOSPERM  Flowering plants  Vascular, seed within ovaries  May include trees, herbs, shrubs, bulbs, even parasitic plants  Most of the drugs being discovered are from the angiosperm family BRYOPHYTES  Liverworts, hornworts, mosses  Lacks vascular tissue but some have water conducting tube  Limited to a narrow range of habitat; usually seen in bodies of water  Multicellular; embryo remains attached to mother plant nourished and protected PTERIDOPHYTES  Lycophytes, fern, horsetail, whiskfern  Have vascular tissue and pores to reproduce their offsprings  Seedless but embryo nourished by parent cell GYMNOSPERM  Gingko, cycads, gnetae, conifer  Known as naked seeds  Vascular have seeds which are not enclosed inside an ovary REYES ACCORDING TO PLANT HABIT OR FORM TREE  Plants with a height of > 5 meters  Usually with woody main trunk or stem  Lives for several years SHRUB  Plants with a height of less than 5 meters  With short main trunk or stem  Lives for several years  With numerous lateral branches HERB  Plants with little or no woody tissue  Often used as spices VINE  Plants with climbing or training or trailing stem, maybe herbaceous vine or woody vine LIANAS  Plants with woody climbing or trailing stems  Long flexible climbing stems rooted from the ground (e.g. grapevine)  Usually found in tropical rainforests PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) ACCORDING TO LIFESPAN ACCORDING TO MODE OF NUTRITION ANNUAL  Plants that live for only one year or completes the vegetative and reproductive cycle in one growing season (e.g. rice, corn) AUTOTROPHIC  Plants that can manufacture their own food  Usualy green due to the presence of chlorophyll BIENNIAL  Plants that lives for two year or two growing season  Vegetative growth is completed during first year and reproductive or flowering takes place in the second year (e.g. onion, carrot) PERENNIAL  Plants that lives for several years (e.g. trees) HETEROTROPHIC  Plants that are non-chlorophyllus  They get their nourishment from other plants by living as parasite, absorbing nutrient from tissue of their host ACCORDING TO CAPABILITY TO BEAR FLOWERS FLOWERING  Plants that bear flowers as their reproductive organ ACCORDING TO WATER REQUIREMENT MESOPHYTES  Plants that require moderate amount of water (e.g. backyard plants) HYDROPHYTES  Large amount of water is needed for them to live (e.g. water lily, aquatic plants) HALOPHYTES  Plants that live in a watery but salty environment (e.g. mangrooves) XEROPHYTES  Only requires small or scanty amount of water  Specialized part in the plant system that stores water for them to survive drought or no water environment (e.g. cactus, succulents) NON-FLOWERING  Plants that do not produce flowers SPECIMENS INTERPHASE, PROPHASE, METAPHASE STEM WITH LENTICAL ACCORDING TO PLANT HABITATS TERRESTRIAL  Plants that is rooted on the ground or soil AQUATIC  Plants that live in watery areas AERIAL OR EPIPHYTE  Can be classified as epiphytic plants  They are attached to another plants (usually trees) as commensal or parasite to get sunlight (e.g. orchid) REYES LEAF EPIDERMIS OF PINUS PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) ROOT OF HELIANTHUS (PARENCHYMA) ARISTOLOCHIA ELEGANS (SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE) DICOT MANGO ROOT PROPHASE AND TELOPHASE MONOCOT ROOT STEM MONOCOT NERIUM OLEANDER (DICOT LEAF) ROOT OF DICOT ARISTOLOCHIA ELEGANS (COLLENCHYMA) REYES PHA611: PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY LABORATORY: UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS - FACULTY OF PHARMACY (1A-PH) ARISTOLOCHIA ELEGANS (MONOCOT STEM) MONOCOT LEAF ZEA MAYS (MONOCOT STEM) DATILES STEM (TANGENIAL SECTION) HELIANTHUS ANNUUS LEAF COLEUS STEM TIP DICOT IXORA LEAF REYES