PLC101-R/1/2003-2006 Politics Manual PDF

# 2002 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria PLC101-R/1/2003-2006 97211206 3B2 CONTENTS GETTING STARTED V OVERVIEW XV THEME 1 POLITICS AS A FACET OF HUMAN LIFE 1 STUDY UNIT 1 THE CONCEPT OF POLITICS 2 STUDY UNIT 2 HUMANS AS POLITICAL BEINGS 29 THEME 2 MANIFESTATIONS OF HUMAN BEINGS' POLITICAL ORGANISATION 43 STUDY UNIT 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODERN STATE 44 STUDY UNIT 4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODERN STATE (CONTINUED) 54 STUDY UNIT 5 THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRADITIONAL FORMS OF GOVERNMENT AUTHORITY 69 STUDY UNIT 6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE 80 STUDY UNIT 7 ANCIENT AUTHORITIES AND EMPIRES 92 PLC101^R/1/2003 -2006 iii STUDY UNIT 8 CITY STATES 98 STUDY UNIT 9 THE SYSTEM OF FEUDALISM 103 STUDY UNIT 10 THE POLITICS OF THE ESTATES AND THE ABSOLUTIST STATE 112 STUDY UNIT 11 RELIGIOUS AND MILITARY FORMS OF GOVERNMENT AUTHORITY 118 STUDY UNIT 12 WAYS IN WHICH THE MODERN STATE DEVELOPED 125 iv GETTING STARTED Welcome as a student in Politics (often called Political Science) at Unisa and to the Department of Political Sciences in particular. We trust that you will find the course interesting and enriching. Since we come into contact with politics almost every day of our lives, we hope that the course will equip you with the necessary knowledge and skills to make a contribution to politics. In this way you can put the theory into practice. Since a student's first introduction to a new course is sometimes difficult, at this point we shall provide a few hints on the approach that we shall be adopting in this course. POLITICS AS A SUBJECT Politics is the topic that we shall be studying in this course. Since the origin of the subject, the focus of the field of study of politics has often changed. Some of the fields of study that have been emphasised in the past are institutions, philosophy, laws and political behaviour. As you progress in the course (especially if you are taking it as a major subject), you will be introduced to all the elements. You will also see that the study of politics has points of contact with most other fields of study, even the natural sciences Ð look, for example, at green politics in terms of which people are concerned about the effects of pollution. CONTENTS OF THE COURSE The content of this module is as follows: One study guide which forms the nucleus of the course. A prescribed book which supplements the study guide. The aim of the prescribed book is to teach students to handle PLC101^R/1 v academic books and to assess them critically. Tasks on the prescribed books will thus be given in the study guide. Tutorial letters containing general information on the University, the course, prescribed books and assignments. It is vitally important for you to read all the tutorial letters, especially PLC101±R/101. Activities which are part of the study units. Set enough time aside for the activities because they afford you the opportunity of developing and/or refining your academic skills. They also test your understanding of the course contents, which, in turn, will prepare you for the assign- ments and examination. Assignments contained in PLC101±R/101, which you will be required to submit in order to gain admission to the examination. Brochures such as Unisa: services and procedures which you should study carefully in order to acquaint you with library procedures, for example. We also recommend the following: Do yourself a favour and buy the study aid, Effective study. Tutorial Letter PLC101±R/101 contains details of this publication, which provides information on study methods, time management, memorisation techniques, the writing of assignments, answering multiple-choice questions and how to study for the examination. Make sure that you have access to a few good dictionaries. POLITICAL MAPS The study guide repeatedly mentions geographical areas and states in particular. However, the number of states has drastically increased in the last few years, and not all atlases contain all the new states. Thus for your convenience, the study guide contains political map indicates the different political political maps of the world indicating regions and states. Use them boundaries to orientate yourself towards the world of politics. vi KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS concept A concept is the idea of the existence of something such as a particular phenomenon and what it entails Ð think, for example, of term the concepts of husband, wife, love and hate. A term is a word or phrase (set of words) used to identify a particular concept. A definition definition again is a sentence explaining what a certain concept entails, or how a specific term is used. You will be introduced to specific concepts, terms and their definitions in any subject or course Ð hence the importance of your understanding what specific concepts entail and how specific terms are used. If you do not master these concepts and understand how specific terms are used, meaningful communication in a particular subject becomes problematic. In this course you will also be introduced to certain concepts and terms. Make sure that you master them. To make this easier for you, a list is provided at the beginning of each theme. To enable you to easily look up these concepts and terms in the study guide, you are advised to write down the page number next to these terms whenever you encounter them in the text. At the same time this will give you practice in using indices in academic books. STUDY GROUPS In this course you are encouraged to develop your own views on politics, but at the same time to be aware of others' views. We therefore recommend that you try to start a study group in your area. Details of how to go about this are provided in Tutorial Letter PCS100±E/101. If it is not possible to start such a study group, we recommend that you discuss what you learn in this course with other people. It is also important to read different newspapers Ð these you can also swop with others. HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLES To explain certain facts to you, we often used hypothetical examples (ie imaginary examples). Although these examples are often linked to certain offices, such as that of a particular minister, bear in mind that the example is only imaginary and that we are not stating that a certain person acted in this way. PLC101^R/1 vii We trust that you will find the course interesting and that you will consider continuing with it. If you have any problems do not hesitate to contact us. Wishing you every success! The presenters of the course viii ! PLC101^R/1 ix x PLC101^R/1 xi xii PLC101^R/1 xiii xiv OVERVIEW No matter where we are, political decisions are made which affect our way of life. Sometimes we feel positive about these political decisions, while at other times we may feel negative. In this study guide, we shall be looking for answers to the following questions: ``What is politics? How and why does it affect our lives? In what ways are people politically organised?'' To familiarise you with politics and to provide answers to these questions, you should be able to explain what the concept of politics entails explain why politics is a facet of human life distinguish between the different manifestations of political organisation discuss the nature of humankind's political organisation today, and how it developed PLC101^R/1 xv T H E M E 1 POLITICS AS A FACET OF HUMAN LIFE OVERVIEW This theme entails searching for an answer to the question: ``Why is politics a facet of human life?'' In order to answer this question, you should be able to explain what the concept of politics entails why people are political beings We now provide a list of terms and concepts that are important in this study unit. Make sure that you are completely familiar with the meaning of these terms and concepts when studying this section. We suggest that you keep a record of the page numbers whenever you encounter these terms in the text. PG 4 PG12 authoritarian authoritative decisions authorities PG8 PG8 authority community comparison PG9 competency VII concepts consultative PG12 PG17 decisions VII definitions executive authority goods government legislative authority PG9 legitimacy PG 18 liberal tradition participative PG12 PG16 policy matters PG5 political decisions political decision makers PG5 politics PG8 power regulation services society PG4 structural problems PG 16 subjects VII terms PG18 totalitarian tradition PG5 values PLC101-R/1 1 STUDY UNIT 1 THE CONCEPT OF POLITICS Compiled by Susan Botha OVERVIEW In this study unit, we will look for an answer to the question, ``What is politics?'' To be able to answer this question, we will start with a brief description of what we regard as politics in this study. In short, politics has to do with decisions that authorities make for an entire society, according to specific procedures and on a variety of matters. In order to explain what this definition implies it is necessary to find answers to the focus questions set out below. FOCUS What decisions are political decisions? QUESTIONS For whom are political decisions made? Who makes political decisions? How are political decisions made? About what things are political decisions made? Who executes (carries out) political decisions? 2 It is also important for you to know the following: How the concept of politics is defined. How the term ``politics'' is used. 1.1 WHAT DECISIONS ARE POLITICAL DECISIONS? Have you ever stopped to think about how important decisions are in your life? You make some decisions for yourself and some for other people, for example, for your family and at work. Now think about all the decisions you have not made, but which still affect your life. Political decisions are one example of decisions that affect your life, but which do not necessarily have your approval. Even if a political decision does not have your approval, you are still bound by it. The nature of political decisions makes it very important for you to know exactly what political decisions are. ACTIVIT Y 1.1 Read the following two hypothetical examples and then answer the questions: The Minister of Transport has announced that because of the shock- ing road death figures, the government has decided to take strong ac- tion against people who break the traffic rules. Your neighbour has decided that because his children have performed poorly at school, they may now only watch television on Saturdays. Answer the following questions: (1) Whose actions are influenced by the first decision? Is this deci- sion going to affect both you and your neighbour? Who is not affected by this decision? (2) Whose actions are affected by the second decision? Is this de- cision going to affect you? Who is not affected by this decision? (3) What will or may happen if you and/or your neighbour violate the traffic rules? (4) What will or may happen if your neighbour's children watch television on a Monday? (5) What will or may happen if you and your children watch televi- sion on a Monday? (6) What do you think will happen if your neighbour hits his children PLC101-R/1 3 so hard, because they watched television on a day other than Saturday, that they have to be taken to hospital? Comparison is when a If you compare the decisions made in the two sentences, you will person looks at similarities and notice that there are important similarities and differences that tell differences between two us more about politics. or more things. One similarity is that both sentences give examples of decisions that are going to affect someone's actions (behaviour). In the first sentence, everyone over whom the Minister of Transport can Authority is the legal exercise authority, is affected. If the person concerned is the and legitimate right to Minister of Transport of South Africa (RSA), everyone living within exercise control over the borders of South Africa will be affected. In the second sentence, others. those over whom your neighbour has authority will be affected. Since the last-mentioned case is a family matter, you and other families will not be affected by the decision because your neighbour, as the head of his family, has authority over the members of his family, but not over you. A second similarity is that both decisions can be enforced. The Department of Transport can act against those who violate traffic rules, and your neighbour can act against his children who disobey the rules laid down in his house. When a decision can be enforced, authoritative it is referred to as an authoritative decision. An important difference that becomes apparent from the discussion of the similarities is that these two authoritative decisions do not apply to exactly the same group of people. If you and your neighbour are inhabitants of South Africa, then the first decision applies to all people living in South Africa, including you and your neighbour. Everyone in South Africa is bound by this decision (with the exception of people with diplomatic immunity). The second decision is authoritative since it can be enforced, but it can only be enforced on your neighbour's family. In other words, you and other inhabitants of South Africa are not bound by this decision. Thus, we can regard the first decision as an authoritative society decision for the whole of South African society. (A society is a social unit of people who, because of certain interests and activities, develop common institutions and live in an interdependent way in a common living environment.) You and your neighbour are members of the South African society. Your neighbour's decision is 4 not applicable to the whole of society, but the Minister of Transport's decision is. The term ``politics'' comes from the Greek, polis, which refers to a city-state. What do you think would happen if your neighbour were to punish his children by hitting them so hard that they land up in hospital? In South Africa he will probably be accused of child abuse, stand trial and be sentenced. Why will this happen? Surely your neighbour has the right to decide how his children should behave? The answer to this question is that your neighbour may only take authoritative decisions for his family which are not in conflict with values the values enforced in that society. (A value is something that people regard as important and strive for, and it therefore determines, among other things, what can be regarded as right and as wrong.) In other words, there are decisions that have a higher status in South African society compared to the decisions your neighbour takes for his family. The Minister of Transport's politics decision is concerned with politics; political decisions have the political decision highest status in a society, because they are not subordinate to other decisions such as the one taken by your neighbour, for example. Your neighbour's decision is, therefore, not a political decision, because it is subordinate to political decisions. ACTIVIT Y 1.2 Indicate which of the hypothetical statements below refers to a politi- cal decision. Explain your choice. (1) The President of South Africa has announced that from now on drastic steps are going to be taken against crime. (2) The XYZ Soccer League has announced that from now on strict action is going to be taken against clubs that use overseas players. It should be clear from the preceding discussion that the first decision relates to politics, while the second does not. To sum up: The first characteristic of politics discussed is the following: PLC101-R/1 5 Politics has to do with authoritative decisions that apply to an entire society. 1.2 FOR WHOM ARE POLITICAL DECISIONS TAKEN? In the preceding discussion, we mentioned that decisions taken in politics are applicable to the whole of society. What does this mean? ACTIVIT Y 1.3 Read the next three statements and then answer the questions which follow. The Minister of Finance has announced that all taxpayers must regis- ter with the South African Revenue Service. The Premier of Gauteng has announced that owners of vehicles with old registration numbers must apply for new registration numbers. The City Council of Pretoria approved a decision at their last monthly meeting, that strict action would be taken against people using fire- works without the necessary permission. (1) To whom does the Minister of Finance's decision apply? (Will the inhabitants of Gauteng, the Free State, Pretoria and Johan- nesburg be bound by the decision?) (2) To whom does the Premier of Gauteng's decision apply? (Will the inhabitants of Pretoria, Johannesburg, the Free State and the whole of South Africa be bound by it?) (3) To whom does the City Council of Pretoria's decision apply? (Will the inhabitants of Johannesburg, Gauteng, the Free State and the rest of South Africa be bound by it?) The first decision applies to all the inhabitants of South Africa. The second decision applies only to the inhabitants of Gauteng; since Pretoria and Johannesburg are situated in Gauteng, the decision will also apply to the inhabitants of these two cities. The third decision, however, will apply to the inhabitants of Pretoria. The question that arises here is whether the last two statements relate to political decisions because they can be enforced on far fewer people than the first decision. The answer to this question depends on what we understand by the concept of society. 6 We indicated earlier that the inhabitants of South Africa form a society. This suggests that it is a particular society, but not the only society. The inhabitants of Pretoria, Johannesburg, Gauteng and the Free State, like the inhabitants of any other town, city and province in South Africa, form a specifically defined (demarcated) society in which decisions, that are authoritative for that particular society, may be taken. One can regard these societies as subsocieties of the overall South African society. Any decisions made in these subsocieties may be taken because the overall society allows them to be made. The political decisions made in these subsocieties have a higher status than any other decision made therein, such as, a decision by a sports association, business enterprise or church. For instance, a certain business enterprise in Pretoria cannot decide to hold a fireworks display without obtaining the necessary permission from the City Council of Pretoria. There are many other societies similar to the one in South Africa, in which authoritative decisions, which apply to all members of that society, are taken. Think, for example, of Zimbabwe, Botswana, the USA, China and Japan, to mention but a few. These societies also have subsocieties in which political decisions are made. To sum up: The two characteristics of politics discussed thus far are as follows: Politics relates to authoritative decisions made for the whole of society. Political decision are the highest level of decisions made in a particular society. 1.3 WHO MAKES POLITICAL DECISIONS? In our discussion thus far we have mentioned authoritative decision that are taken for an entire society. Who makes these decisions? ACTIVIT Y 1.4 Read the preceding discussion again, and then do the following: PLC101-R/1 7 (1) In the preceding discussion, indicate which people and organi- sations made authoritative decisions. (2) Name the decisions that have to do with politics. (3) Give reasons why the other decisions are not political deci- sions. The following people or organisations were mentioned: the Minister of Transport, your neighbour, the President of South Africa, the XYZ Soccer League, the Minister of Finance, the Premier of Gauteng and the City Council of Pretoria. This brings us to further questions, namely: Who are these people? Who are the Minister of Transport and the President of South Africa? Why can they make decisions which can be enforced on everyone in South Africa, while your neighbour and the XYZ Soccer League cannot. The answer is that the Minister of Transport is also authorities part of the authorities in South Africa and is, therefore, in the position to make the highest authoritative decisions for the whole of South African society. Authorities consist of all the institutions and people responsible for taking, executing (carrying out) and adjudicating (applying) political decisions. That is why we refer to them as political decision makers. We say that they are sovereign in making authoritative decisions, because there is no-one who may make a higher decision in that society. In the same way, the Premier of Gauteng and the City Council of Pretoria are in the position to make the highest authoritative decisions on certain issues for the entire subsociety. (These issues are usually assigned by the national authority.) You, your neighbour and XYZ Soccer League, however, are not in such a position, because you do not have the necessary authority. On what grounds may someone make a decision for an entire society? A person must have the necessary power and authority in order to make decisions for an entire society. power Firstly, a person may have sufficient power to make and enforce decisions. A person has power when he or she is able to make someone else do something that he or she would otherwise not do. Secondly, a person may be given the necessary authority to make authority authoritative decisions. Authority is often defined as legalised and legitimate power. When someone is given authority, he or she has the power, competencies and legitimacy to make authoritative decisions. However, he or she must also have the capability to 8 exercise authority. Military leaders, for example, may make it impossible for those with authority to actually exercise it. competency A person must also have the necessary competency or powers to make authoritative decisions. Someone who has the necessary power and/or authority, can empower another person to make authoritative decisions. Competency implies empowering a person to carry out a specific action. legitimacy Political decision makers obtain authority by means of legitimacy. Legitimacy may be regarded as the opinion of the members of the society, that those people who make authoritative decisions have the right to do so and that they are entitled to obedience. Society may thus accept a government's exercise of power and competency as legitimate. It is in this way that the government is given authority. However, having power and competency does not necessarily imply legitimacy and authority. Thus, on the grounds of the competency given to him or her, someone may acquire the necessary power to make decisions that can be enforced on an entire society, without this person having the necessary legitimacy and authority. When someone does not have the necessary authority, he or she may indeed have the necessary power to make decisions for society as a whole and consequently force society to accept these decisions. In the long run, however, it is difficult for political decision makers who do not have legitimacy and authority to enforce decisions. ACTIVIT Y 1.5 Read the following paragraph and then answer the questions: During the apartheid era in South Africa, the government decided that all blacks should carry passbooks. However, blacks revolted against this and burnt their passbooks on a number of occasions. Despite this, however, the government enforced this decision and those who did not carry their passbooks were prosecuted. (1) Do you think the government had legitimacy among blacks dur- ing the apartheid era? Give a reason for your answer. (2) How did the government succeed in enforcing its decisions on blacks? (3) Among which section of the population did the government have legitimacy? PLC101-R/1 9 (4) From whom did the officials, who were responsible for the pro- secutions, obtain the necessary competency or powers? One can deduce from history that the former government did not have legitimacy among the majority of blacks, but it did among the majority of whites. The government's decisions were largely forced on blacks through the exercise of power, and forced on whites through the exercise of authority. The officials responsible for prosecutions obtained the necessary competency or powers from the political decision makers. Authorities seldom have 100 percent legitimacy in a particular society. If the authorities do not have adequate legitimacy, efforts will be made in that society to replace the authorities with legitimate authorities. That is why efforts were made in South Africa during the apartheid era to overthrow the authorities. Political decision makers will only be able to enforce their decisions on an entire society if they have either the necessary power or the necessary authority. If they do not, they can still make decisions for the whole of society, but they will have trouble enforcing their decisions. So, a further characteristic of politics comes to the fore, namely the interaction and relationship between the authorities and their subjects. Robert A Dahl (1984:95) proposes the following political strata: The powerful = those who exercise power and authority in society The powerful The power- The power-seekers = those who pursue seekers positions of power and authority The political stratum The political stratum = those in society who become actively involved in politics The apolitical stratum The apolitical stratum = those who are not interested in politics (The outside circle defines the particular society.) FIGURE 1.1 10 The authorities make authoritative decisions for the whole of society (subjects), but they (the authorities) should take into account the subjects' attitude towards them as well as the decisions they make and the way they enforce these decisions. political decision makers Obviously another important consideration is who the political decision makers are. This will depend largely on the society concerned. As a rule, political decision makers are specific individuals, institutions and groups. Examples of such individuals would be a king or a president. Parliaments and councils are examples of institutions and governing parties are examples of groups. However, it is especially those people who are involved in the legislative institutions, but also the executive and even the judicial institutions, who are important decision makers. How does someone become a political decision maker? Once again, this depends on the particular society. As a rule, someone becomes a political decision maker as a result of heredity or by means of an election, appointment or self-appointment. To sum up: The characteristics of politics that we have discussed thus far are as follows: Politics has to do with the interaction and the relationship between the government and its subjects. This interaction and relationship relates to the highest authoritative decisions made for the whole of society. These authoritative decisions are made by those with the necessary power, authority, legitimacy and competency (political decision makers). 1.4 HOW ARE POLITICAL DECISIONS MADE? We are now looking for an answer to the question: ``Is any decision made by a political decision maker a political decision?'' ACTIVIT Y 1.6 Go back to activity 1.1 and then answer the following questions: (1) Suppose that your neighbour happens to be the Minister of PLC101-R/1 11 Transport. Who is now going to be affected by your neighbour's decision about his children's performance at school? (2) What would happen if he were to hit his children so hard that they land up in hospital? A hypothetical example In this hypothetical example, the Minister of Transport makes a is an imaginary example. decision in his private capacity and not in his official capacity. Thus, only the members of his family are bound by his decision and not you or any other person. In his private capacity he is just as bound by the authoritative decisions made and applied in that society, and he, therefore, cannot punish his children as he likes. The actual people who make decisions are important when a distinction is made between political and other decisions, and the circumstances in which decisions are made are also a significant consideration. Authoritative decisions have to meet specific procedural requirements. If we look at the procedures for making political decisions, we can distinguish between the following three kinds of political decisions: authoritarian decisions consultative decisions participative decisions authoritarian Authoritarian decisions are decisions made by political decision makers, without the society, for which the decisions are being made, being consulted about the decisions. In the case of consultative consultative decisions, the society is consulted, but the political decision makers make the final decisions without having to include participative society's ideas in the decision. In the case of participative decisions, the society is consulted and their ideas are incorporated into the decision. To sum up: The characteristics of politics discussed thus far are as follows: Politics relates to the interaction and relationship between the government and its subjects. This interaction and relationship relate to the highest authoritative decisions made for the whole of society. These authoritative decisions are made by those with the 12 necessary power, legitimacy and competency (political decision makers). Political decisions are made according to specific procedures for an entire society. 1.5 ABOUT WHAT MATTERS ARE POLITICAL DECISIONS MADE? In our discussion so far we have already given a few examples of political decisions. These are examples of decisions about action against traffic offenders vehicle registration registration of taxpayers a ban on fireworks If we look at these examples, we might gain the wrong impression that authoritative decisions are concerned with the ``do's and don'ts'' that individuals in society are required to observe. AC TIVIT Y 1.7 Table 1.1 contains extracts from a summary of the South African government's expenditure. Study this table and write down the political decisions that are made in South Africa. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION TOTAL AMOUNT 1.1 General administration: 1.1.1 Legislation and execution 928 690 000 1.1.2 Financial and fiscal services 3 057 990 000 1.2 Foreign affairs 1 586 417 000 1.3 General research 657 742 000 1.4 Other 1 907 606 000 2 Public order and safety: 2.1 Defence 11 351 662 000 2.2 Police: 2.2.1 Traffic control 651 876 000 2.2.2 Fire 31 762 000 2.2.3 Other 13 423 776 000 2.3 Correctional services 4 179 907 000 2.4 Law courts 2 125 362 000 PLC101-R/1 13 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION TOTAL AMOUNT 3 Social security and welfare services: 3.1 Education: 3.1.1 Pre-primary, primary and secondary 31 275 462 000 3.1.2 Tertiary 7 157 363 000 3.2 Health: 3.2.1 Primary health care 8 135 900 000 3.2.2 Other 11 180 815 000 3.3 Social security and welfare services 18 151 432 000 3.4 Housing 4 151 391 000 3.5 Sewerage and sanitation 9 897 000 3.6 Community development 3 860 107 000 3.7 Recreation 315 342 000 3.8 Culture 946 867 000 3.9 Other 23 673 000 4 Economic services: 4.1 State water schemes and other water services 1 913 463 000 4.2 Fuel and energy 156 057 000 4.3 Agriculture, forestry and nature conservation: 4.3.1 Subsidies on agriculture 4.3.2 Agriculture 3 371 281 000 4.3.3 Forestry 310 988 000 4.3.4 Nature conservation 770 351 000 4.4 Mining 314 139 000 4.5 Manufacturing: 4.5.1 Regional development 864 013 000 4.5.2 Other 1 090 242 000 4.6 Construction 4.7 Transport and communication: 4.7.1 Roads and road transport 5 242 909 000 4.7.2 Other 2 018 684 000 4.8 Other economic services: 4.8.1 Tourism 169 193 000 4.8.2 Labour 680 781 000 4.8.3 Export trade promotion 1 437 744 000 4.8.4 Other 527 230 000 5 Unallocable 5.1 Former provincial administrations 81 000 5.2 Ancillary services 4 322 513 000 5.3 Purchases of land 14 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION TOTAL AMOUNT 5.4 Erection of buildings 861 645 000 5.5 Loans to household 5.6 Cost of raising loans 50 000 000 5.7 Interest 38 549 782 000 SUBTOTAL ö GENERAL GOVERNMENT 187 762 153 000 Education 20% Interest 21% Public order/ safety 17% Unallocable 3% Other services 4% Other social services 15% Economic services 10% Health 10% Source: Central Statistical Service: Release P9121 A quick look at the above table shows that money was spent on the following, for example: education health pensions provision of water defence and police Why would the government want to spend money on these things? The answer is that money is provided to carry out the authoritative decisions made, say, about education. The things about which political decisions are made in a society, relate to the way of life and living conditions in that society. These things are usually divided into the following two categories: PLC101-R/1 15 structural matters policy matters Political decisions about structural matters involve things such as who, where and how decisions may be taken. They also involve decisions about, say, the number of houses of parliament, the powers of the president, the provinces and the constitutional court. Policy matters again have to do with questions (usually problems) in society to which the government has decided to pay attention. These usually concern regulating society providing services and goods Regulating society, therefore, entails all the ``do's and don'ts'' of the individuals in a society, such as the requirement that births, marriages and deaths have to be registered. The provision of services, for example, concerns protection services such as those provided by military units, the police, courts and prisons, medical services, and pensions. The provision of goods again relates, among other things, to the building of roads, bridges and houses. Sometimes another category of matters about which political decisions are made is identified, namely systems matters. Although different systems are evident in politics, such as the legal system and the legislative system, the political system, in particular, is of vital importance. A political system is a set of identifiable and A system is a set of interdependent units (including the government) which generates identifiable and interdependent units (brings forth) authoritative decisions by means of interaction. This interacting with each is usually represented as follows: other. Inputs from society in the form of: People in authority who convert Outputs in the form of demands into outputs authoritative " (also make own unput) decisions for the " demands and support society NB " " " " " " Effect of decisions on society which in turn gives rise to new inputs from society FIGURE 1.2 16 Systems matters therefore usually relate to these units and the interaction between them. Matters about which decisions have to be made are important and indicate the government's functions in a society. ACTIVIT Y 1.8 Read the following paragraph and answer the questions: After abortion had been illegal for many years in South Africa, new legislation was introduced which provides for abortion on demand. This new legislation, however, received mixed reaction from South Africans. Pro-abortion groups welcomed it, for they regarded it as a breakthrough in the empowerment of women. Anti-abortion groups, however, regarded it as the legalisation of murder. The latter groups have already indicated that they are busy collecting signatures for a petition in which they will request the reinstate- ment of stricter abortion laws. How was the new legislation on abortion received? How do you feel about the new legislation on abortion? What do you think the President's reaction to the proposed pe- tition is going to be? How do you think the President should act? When making authoritative decisions, political decision makers A decision is the product of a choice normally have to make a choice between different possibilities. If between different there is support for different possibilities in a society, there will be possibilities. people who are satisfied and others who are dissatisfied. That is why groups are formed in society which pass on their needs, interests and ideas to the political decision makers. In carrying out these activities, it sometimes happens that different groups cooperate with each other, but also that, as in the case of the abortion legislation, they compete with each other, and even come into conflict with each other. Another important consideration in the discussion here is the question: ``About what matters should authoritative decisions be made?'' The answer will depend once again on the circumstances in PLC101-R/1 17 a particular society. If we look at the issues about which decision are made, we are faced with two main traditions, namely: a totalitarian tradition a liberal tradition totalitarian In a totalitarian tradition, there are few aspects of a person's life that are not regulated by political decisions. The individuals in a society liberal can make few decisions for themselves. In the liberal tradition, as few as possible decisions are made for people which means that individuals in such a society have a great deal of freedom to decide matters for themselves. ACTIVIT Y 1.9 Make a list of ten matters about which you can decide yourself. Indicate whether there are political decisions that impose re- strictions on these decisions. (Eg, can you get married, regard- less of how old you are?) Make a list of ten political decisions made for you. Indicate whether you think these decisions should be made for you. Do you feel that you should be consulted about political deci- sions which affect you? Do you think that, through political decisions, provision should be made for the care of the elderly? In the People's Republic of China (Communist China), political decisions have been made that stipulate that a married couple may have only one child. Do you think that a government should interfere in a couple's decision about the number of children they intend having? (Bear in mind that the population of the People's Republic of China is 1,2 billion.) Discuss this activity with your fellow-students or your friends and see what kinds of answers they come up with. Your opinion reflects In this activity you must give your own opinion. Since an opinion is your own ideas. not a fact, there is no right or wrong answer. Different students will A fact is something we know has happened or is probably give different opinions. true. 18 To sum up: The characteristics of politics that we have discussed so far are the following: Politics relates to the interaction and relationship between the government and its subjects. This interaction and relationship relates to the highest authoritative decisions made for a whole society. These authoritative decisions are made by those with the necessary power, authority legitimacy and competency (political decision makers). Political decisions are made in accordance with specific procedures for an entire society. Political decisions are made about a whole range of matters (ie, they depend on circumstances in the particular society). 1.6 WHO CARRIES OUT POLITICAL DECISIONS? We indicated earlier that a decision, whether it is oral or made on paper, that is not carried out or enforced, is actually meaningless. It is not only the making of the decisions that is important, therefore, but also the provision for executing or carrying it out. Provision should be made for people and funds to execute decisions. The executive authority is mainly responsible for executing authoritative decisions. The term executive authority is used both in a narrow and broad sense. In its narrower use, it refers mainly to the government, that is the cabinet. In its broader sense, it refers to the government and the bureaucracy (officialdom). For the purposes of this section, we are primarily concerned with the narrower meaning. ACTIVIT Y 1.10 Study the outline of positions of authority which were/are responsible for carrying out decisions in South Africa. Write down a number of recent political decisions that the people who currently occupying these positions are responsible for. PLC101-R/1 19 NB EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY AND CABINET PRESIDENT EXECUTIVE DEPUTY PRESIDENT OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT CABINET Presidential Services Alpha Communication Legal Services DEPARTMENT OF CONSTITU- Cabinet Support Services MINISTER FOR PROVINCIAL TIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROVINCIAL LEGISLATURES AFFAIRS AND CONSTITU- Intergovermental Relations SOUTH AFRICAN SECRET SERVICE TIONAL DEVELOPMENT Local Government Affairs NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATIONS SERVICE National Education Policy Eastern Cape MINISTER OF EDUCATION Training Systems OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE Free State DEPUTY PRESIDENT Education Norms and Standards Guateng Personal Support SOUTH AFRICAN REVENUE KwaZulu/Natal Communication Service SERVICE Mpumalanga Revenue Administration Northern Province CENTRAL STATISTICAL SERVICE Customs and Excise North-West Demography Western Cape Economical, Statistics and Surveys DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE Research and Development International financing Sectoral policy and publication man- CENTRAL ECONOMIC ADVISORY agement MINISTER OF FINANCE SERVICE Public Investment Examining Policy Advice and Analyses Pensioners Administration Regional Examining Research Macro, fiscal and economic policy SOUTH AFRICAN COMMUNICA- DEPARTMENT OF STATE TION SERVICE EXPENDITURE Communication Support Service Financial Planning Communication Execution Expenditure Control MINISTER FOR POSTS, DEPARTMENT OF HOME DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING TELECOMMUNICATION AFFAIRS Housing Support AND BROADCASTING MINISTER OF HOME AFFAIRS Civic Affairs Migration Service Housing Sector Performance Government Printing works Human Settlement MINISTER OF DEPARTMENT OF ARTS, CULTURE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE HOUSING Legal Services SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY MINISTER OF JUSTICE MINISTER OF ARTS, State legal advisory services Arts and Culture Promotion Legislation Service Science and Technology Promotion CULTURE, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY MINISTER FOR LAND DEPARTMENT OF LAND DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTIONAL AFFAIRS AFFAIRS AND SERVICES Land Return AGRICULTURE ????? Control Settlement Support MINISTER OF Development program and Religious Physical Planning and State Land CORRECTIONAL Care Information SERVICES Industries Land Surveying Deeds Registration DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE MINISTER OF DEPARTMENT OF Defence of the Republic DEFENCE AGRICULTURE Agricultural Production: ????? Marketing DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMEN- Programmers and Information TAL AFFAIRS AND TOURISM MINISTER OF PUBLIC WORKS Environmental Management DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS Tourism Promotion Government Accomodation MINISTER OF ENVIR- ????? Services Polution Control ONMENTAL AFFAIRS Sea Fisheries DEPARTMENT OF TRADE AND IN- AND TOURISM Weather Bureau DUSTRY Foreign Trade Affiars DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN Internal Trade AFFAIRS MINISTER OF TRADE AND Consumer Protection Corporate Planning INDUSTRY Industrial Structure Maintenance Legal Affairs MINISTER OF FOREIGN Small/Medium Housing ????? Intergovermental Relations and Public AFFAIRS DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT Affairs Transport System Development Civil Aviation Regulation DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH Shipping regulation National Health Systems MINISTER OF TRANSPORT Roads Academic Health Centre and Hospital Development DEPARTMENT OF WATER AFFAIRS Operational and Technical Policy AND FORESTRY Health Resource Planning MINISTER OF HEALTH Water Resource Development Health Evaluation and Research MINISTER OF WATER Water Utilisation Registration, Regulation and Procure- AFFAIRS AND FORESTRY Forestry ment DEPARTMENT OF WELFARE Population Development DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR Strategic Policy Development and Labour Regulations MINISTER FOR WELFARE Planning Labour Policy AND POPULATION Social Development Utilisation of Human MINISTER OF LABOUR DEVELOPMENT Social Welfare Service Resource/Development SOUTH AFRICAN MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE DEPARTMENT OF MINERALS AND Practical Training and Development ENERGY MINISTER OF Mine Safety, Health and surveying MINERAL AND Mineral Promotion and regulation En- ENERGY AFFAIRS ergy OFFICE OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE MINISTER FOR THE PUBLIC COMMISSION SERVICE AND Merit Protection and Equity ADMINISTRATION Effectiveness and Efficiency DEPARTMENT OF SAFETY AND SECURITY MINISTER OF SAFETY DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SERVICE Internal Safety and Security AND SECURITY AND ADMINISTRATION Remuneration and general conditions INDEPENDENT COMPLAINTS of service DIRECTORATE Human resource development and Investigation of complaints and miscon- public service reform duct illegally committed by members of Labour relations, organisational mat- the South African Police Service ters and information technology OFFICE FOR PUBLIC ENTERPRISES DEPARTMENT OF SPORT AND Oversee Political Interests of Parastatal RECREATION MINISTER OF SPORT MINISTER OF Companies Scientific and Support Services Support Services to certain Public Sport Advancement AND RECREATION PUBLIC ENTERPRISES Enterprises Recreation Advancement NOT IN PROTOCOL ORDER FIGURE 1.3 (Publico 1997) 20 To sum up: The characteristics of politics discussed in this study unit are as follows: Politics relates to the interaction and relationship between the government and its subjects. This interaction and relationship relate to the highest authoritative decisions that can be made for an entire society. These authoritative decisions are made by those with the necessary power, authority, legitimacy and competency (political decision makers). Political decisions are made in accordance with specific procedures for an entire society. Political decisions are made about a whole range of matters, depending on the circumstances in a particular society. The executive authority and the bureaucracy carry out political decisions. 1.7 HOW IS THE CONCEPT OF POLITICS DEFINED? Thus far we have looked at the characteristics of politics. We are now going to examine how the concept of politics is defined in Political Science. However, before we can do this, we need to know more about definitions because many different definitions of politics have already been formulated. Some definitions are better than others, but this does not mean that some are necessarily wrong. To explain the problem of definition, we are going to use the simple everyday example of a bed. We mentioned earlier that a definition is a sentence that indicates what a specific concept entails and how a term is used. Before we can use the term ``bed'' for a specific object, we must know what the concept ``bed'' entails. ACTIVIT Y 1.11 Try explaining to someone what a bed is. PLC101-R/1 21 A definition always has two parts, namely that which is defined, which we call the definiendum, and that which gives the explanation, which we call the definiens. The following is one possible definition of the concept ``bed'': a bed is a structure (with a mattress) on which a person can sleep. Can you think of other possible explanations of the concept ``bed''? Remember that you cannot use the same terms in your definition. You may not, for example, say that a bed is a bed; or that a political party is a party that participates in politics. The characteristics of a concept are not all equally important. Some characteristics of a concept are defining characteristics. This means that if those characteristics are present, we know what concept we are dealing with. For example, in the natural sciences, a star (sun) is a heavenly body that radiates energy (other heavenly bodies are planets and moons). The radiation of energy is thus a defining characteristic of a star. Some characteristics are often merely chance or accompanying characteristics of a concept. The fact that stars are visible in the sky at night, is merely an accompanying characteristic because planets and moons are also visible at night. Thus we cannot regard the characteristic, night visibility, as a defining characteristic of a star. The greater the number of characteristics specified for a concept, the fewer examples of that concept we will obtain. Thus if we stay with our definition of the concept ``bed'', we will be concerned with a particular number of beds. If, for example, we define the concept ``bed'' as an object on which one can sleep, then we are going to be faced with more kinds of beds (eg, we can also sleep on a mat). If we define the concept of bed as a structure that is at least 30 cm high, on which a mattress is placed, and on which a person can sleep, then we are going to be concerned with fewer beds (we can also sleep on structures that are lower than 30 cm). ACTIVIT Y 1.12 Go through our discussion again and make a list of all the characteris- tics of politics that we have discussed. (1) Indicate which characteristic you think is the most impor- tant ö in other words, which characteristic is so important that if it is missing, we are not dealing with politics. (2) Indicate which characteristic you think is the least impor- tant ö in other words, which characteristic is so unimportant that even if it is missing, we are still dealing with politics. 22 (3) Does everyone necessarily agree about which characteristic is the most important and which is the least important? If you had difficulty deciding which characteristic of politics is the most important and which is the least important, you are still in good company. The concept ``politics'' has been defined in many different ways. There are many definitions because it is not always easy to determine which characteristics are the defining character- istics of politics. Of course, the greater the number of characteristics we specify, the less politics we will encounter. ACTIVIT Y 1.13 Use the list of characteristics of politics that you drew up in activity 1.12 and then do the following: Study the list of definitions and or characteristics below. Mark the definitions that regard power (and/or legitimacy and/ or authority) as a characteristic of politics, by writing a ``P'' after the definition. Mark the definitions that regard the societal context of politics as a characteristic of politics, with an ``S'' (you may place more than one mark after a definition). Mark the definitions that regard conflict and disputes as a char- acteristic of politics, with a ``C''. Mark the definitions that regard the allocation of values and/or resources as a characteristic of politics, with a ``V''. Mark the definitions that indicate that politics relates to deci- sions, with a ``D''. List of definitions: Politics is the power to levy taxes. P/V Politics is the peaceful settlement of disputes between different inter- ested parties. C PLC101-R/1 23 Politics is the authoritative allocation of values for a whole society (Da- vid Easton). C ``We wish to understand by politics only the leadership, or the influenc- ing of the leadership, of a political association, hence today, of a state'' (Weber). Politics entails the legitimate use of physical force. P Politics is the struggle for power. P Politics is the relationship between the authorities and their subjects. S Politics is about seeking and using power to change the social rela- tionships between people. S Politics is a sphere of social activity in which at least two social classes, whose objective interests are mutually antagonistic, engage in a struggle for control of the state. P/S Politics is a process that arises out of conflict between groups that try to realise their interests and in which the government only plays the role of referee. C/P Politics is the allocation of scarce resources. V If we look at these definitions we will find that they still relate to the characteristics of politics that we have discussed thus far. Yet some of these definitions have limitations. The scope of these definitions is not important at this stage. What is important, is that different authors define the concept of politics in different ways. To sum up: The way in which we define a concept, as indicated in the example of the concept ``bed'', will determine what we regard as politics in the real world. That is why it is important when reading books on politics, to always study the author of a book's definition of the concept of politics. Remember that if we do not take note of how a particular author defines the concept of politics, we will not be able to understand what he or she is writing. 1.8 OTHER USES OF THE TERM ``POLITICS'' In the preceding discussion we emphasised the definitions of the concept ``politics''. However, the term is also used to refer to other concepts. You have all probably heard of 24 office politics politics in sports associations (think, eg, of rugby and soccer) The question here is whether the concept of politics that we have discussed thus far is the same as the term ``politics'' in these examples. The answer is `'no''. What has happened here is that the term ``politics'' is now being used to refer to other, although related, concepts. In such cases, we say that the term ``politics'' has undergone an extension of meaning. There are certain similarities between office politics and politics in sport, on the one hand, and politics as we study it in Political Science, on the other. For example: In both cases, authoritative decisions are made. In both cases, there are people with power positions. There is one important difference between politics in the office and in sport, on the one hand, and politics as we study it in Political Science, on the other. To pinpoint this difference, it is necessary to look at the origin of the term ``politics''. As indicated earlier, the term ``politics'' comes from the Greek, polis. The polis was a particular society that was organised by means of authoritative decisions (that were not subordinate to other decisions). Thus in this course, the emphasis is on ``the highest authoritative decisions'' as a characteristic of politics, as we study politics in Political Science. In the case of office politics and politics in sport, authoritative decisions are made, but these decisions are still subordinate to the decisions made by the authorities for the whole of society. To sum up: The use of terms to identify certain concepts should always be handled carefully. It is when we start forming new concepts, in particular, that we should be careful with the terms we use to define them. Extending the meaning of terms can sometimes cause confusion. When we create or use new terms for concepts, we refer to the term as a neologism. In the social sciences there is a tendency to extend meaning at the cost of neologisms (new terms). PLC101-R/1 25 SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS This self-evaluation exercise is based on the contents of this study unit. Answer the following questions: (1) A decision is an authoritative decision when it can be.................... (2) A political decision is the........................... authoritative decision made for a whole........................... (3) The term ``politics'' is derived from the Greek..................... (4) Decisions can........................... on a whole..........................., because the political decision makers possess either the necessary........................... or the necessary........................... (5) Politics relates, among other things, to the relationship between the................ and the...................... (6) If we look at the procedures for making political decisions, we can distinguish three kinds of political decisions, namely...........................,........................... and........................... (7) Political decisions are usually made about the following:........................... and..........................., but can also be made about........................... (8) If we look at the things about which political decisions are made, two main traditions are evident, namely a........................... and a........................... tradition. (9) What other uses of the term ``politics'' are there? (10) In your own words, explain the characteristics of the concept ``politics''. (11) How would you define the concept ``politics''? In order to answer the next five questions, you must consult the prescribed book. The aim of these questions is to teach you how to handle academic books and at the same time revise what we have discussed up to now. (12) Glance quickly through the contents of the prescribed book. Write down all the topics (eg specific terms and concepts) that you have already been introduced to in this study unit. (13) In Jackson and Jackson's opinion, are there few or many definitions of the concept of politics? (14) Turn to the discussion ``What is politics?'' on page 5. A few examples are given of definitions of the concept ``politics''. See which definitions differ from those given in the list above, and add to the list by writing down these definitions. (15) According to Jackson and Jackson, two characteristics come to the fore in most definitions of politics. Name these two characteristics. Indicate whether these are also regarded as characteristics of politics in this study unit. (16) Why are power, authority and legitimacy important concepts in the study of politics? 26 You may also consult one or more of the books listed below, but are under no obligation to do so. Note that some of the books have earlier and later editions. You may use any edition, but always try to obtain the latest edition of a book. Bear in mind that the books are listed in alphabetical order and not in order of preference. Ball, AR. 1993. Modern politics and government. 5th edition. London: Macmillan. Dahl, RA. 1984. Modern political analysis. 4th edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Danziger, JN. 1994. Understanding the political world: a comparative introduction to political science. 2nd edition. New York: Longman. Gamble, JK, Irwin, ZT, Redenius, CM & Weber, JW. 1992. Introduction to political science. 2nd edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Heywood, A. 1994. Political ideas and concepts: an introduction. New York: St Martins. Jackson, R & Jackson, D. 1997. A comparative introduction to political science. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Lawson, K. 1994. The human polity: an introduction to political science. 3rd edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Ponton, G & Gill, P. 1993. Introduction to politics. 3rd edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Ranney, A. 1996. Governing: an introduction to political science. 7th edition. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall. Roskin, MG, Cord, RL, Madeiros, JA & Jones, DS. 1997. Political science: an introduction. 6th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Using the table of contents at the beginning of the book and the index at the back of the book, see whether and how these authors explain the concept of politics. Ask yourself the following questions: (17) Does/do the author/authors indicate the origin of the term ``politics''? (18) Does/do the author/authors mention whether the concept of politics is difficult to define, and that there are many definitions of the concept? (19) What different definitions of the concept of politics, does/do the author/authors mention? (20) Are these definitions included in our list of definitions in activity 1.13? (21) To which of these definitions does/do the author/authors give preference? (22) Do you agree with the author's/authors' choice? Why/why not? (23) Which of the following concepts are used in this author's/these authors' discussion of the concept of politics: power, authority, PLC101-R/1 27 legitimacy, competency, authoritative decisions, force, govern- ment, subordinates, society, conflict and scarce resources? SOURCES Ball, AR. 1993. Modern politics and government. 5th edition. London: Macmillan. Dahl, RA. 1984. Modern political analysis. 4th edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Danziger, JN. 1994. Understanding the political world: a comparative introduction to political science. 2nd edition. New York: Longman. Gamble, JK, Irwin, ZT, Redenius, CM Weber, JW. 1992. Introduction to political science. 2nd edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Heywood, A. 1994. Political ideas and concepts: an introduction. New York: St Martins. Jackson, R Jackson, D. 1997. A comparative introduction to political science. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Lawson, K. 1994. The human polity: an introduction to political science. 3rd edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Ponton, G Gill, P. 1993. Introduction to politics. 3rd edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Ranney, A. 1996. Governing: an introduction to political science. 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Roskin, MG, Cord, RL, Madeiros, JA & Jones, DS. 1997. Political science: an introduction. 6th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 28 STUDY UNIT 2 HUMANS AS POLITICAL BEINGS Compiled by Susan Botha OVERVIEW In study unit 1 you were introduced to political decisions which affect your life, even if you do not approve of them. It is not always possible to get away from such a situation. If you are dissatisfied with the political decisions in South Africa, the best you can do is to move elsewhere, say, the United States of America (USA), only to be subject to the authoritative decisions made there. In this study unit we are, therefore, looking for reasons why politics is an unavoidable phenomenon in people's lives the implications of politics for people To explain why politics is inevitable, and the implications for people, it is necessary to find answers to the following focus questions: FOCUS What is the origin of human beings' political environment? QUESTIONS What is the purpose of political life? Why is knowledge of politics so important? PLC101-R/1 29 2.1 WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF HUMAN BEINGS' POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT? Think of all the rules and regulations that control an individual's life from the moment of his or her birth until the administration of his estate after his or her death. How does it happen that people find themselves in a situation in which authoritative decisions are made for them? ACTIVIT Y 2.1 Follow the instructions below and then answer the questions which fol- low: Think of all the political decisions made for you. Put yourself in a world where there are no authorities (those that rule and govern) to make authoritative decisions. (1) What do you think are the disadvantages of the existence of authorities? (2) What do you think the advantages are of authorities? (3) Is it possible for people to live in a world without authorities? There are a number of definite disadvantages linked to the existence of authorities that makes decisions for a whole society. Think of the following: All the money you have to pay in taxes. The restrictions political decisions impose on your way of life, for example, not being allowed to marry before you reach a certain age. The obligations that political decisions impose on people, for example, compulsory military service that white males in South Africa had to undergo during the apartheid era. The restrictions and obligations imposed on the individual's freedom, will depend on whether the authorities act in a totalitarian or authoritarian way, and whether they leave room for individual decision making or not, as in the case of liberalism. During the apartheid era in South Africa, for example, people were not allowed to live where they chose. This reminds one of the French 30 philosopher, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712±1778), who said, ``Man is born free but is everywhere in chains.'' There are, however, definite advantages to the existence of authorities. Just think of the following: Who will take action against criminals if there are no authority figures? Who will see to it that roads and bridges are built if there are no authority figures to make the necessary decisions? The advantage of the existence of authorities who make author- itative decisions for the whole of society, therefore, relate to their functions. In other words, the authorities have a protective and regulatory function that ensures our safety and freedom have a function to provide goods and services that are essential to maintain society (eg fighting disease) even have, in some societies with the necessary financial means, the function of providing luxury goods and services that benefit society, for example, promoting the arts and research Although political decisions do restrict our freedom, they can, in fact, protect our freedom and make possible our self-realisation. A theory is a set of Various theories have already been developed to explain the origin ideas and concepts arranged in such a way of politics or to try and explain why the individual finds himself in that it explains a political environment. These theories provide the following something to us. explanations for the political environment: supernaturalistic naturalistic rationalistic Hence, there are divergent (different) explanations for the origin of politics. It is possible to identify common elements in these explanations which relate primarily to the fact that human beings always find themselves among other human beings the regulation of the relationships between people in a societal context occurs only through the exercise of power and authority PLC101-R/1 31 the institution of authorities (those that rule and govern) to exercise power and authority Since people are always found among other people, a variety of interactions and relationships develop. These interactions usually give rise to group formation (eg the development of cultural groups, interest groups and classes), sometimes resulting in the development of patterns of interactions (relationships) between the following: between individuals between individuals and groups between different groups between individuals, groups and the natural environment If you now think about the nature of the interactions in which more than one person is involved, you will find the following: Different individuals have different experiences. Different individuals may even have different interpretations of the same experience and develop different ideas about it (you have probably encountered this in discussions with your fellow-students); nevertheless, there are always those who, to a greater or lesser extent, have similar interpretations and experiences. Since uniformity and differences are both possible among different members of a particular society, cooperation and conflict occur between individuals. According to some of these theories, coopera- tion and handling conflict are possible only through the exercise of power and authority. The main difference in these theories concerns the way in which power and authority are instituted and how they should be exercised. We shall now briefly examine the ideas in these theories. 2.1.1 Supernaturalistic explanations Theories in this category provide a supernatural and divine explanation for the origin and existence of authorities. These explanations, therefore, relate to religious views, and will obviously differ to the extent that certain religions differ from each other. 32 According to these explanations, human beings are part of a Supreme Being's creation and the authorities' exercise of power and authority relates directly to human beings' divinely appointed place and task on earth. Hence, human beings' political organisation is an inseparable part of their religious views. There are a few basic variations of these explanations: A deity is the ruler of humankind and the earthly leaders must carry out the commands received directly from this deity Ð these leaders are the protectors of a deity's laws on earth. An example here is the Israelites under Moses. Priests who are the earthly rulers, such as the Incas in Ancient Peru and even the Brahman castes in India, are also examples of this. This explanation also underlies the political order in Iran which is based on the rules of Islam. In the West, these explanations led to the development of the idea of the divine right of kings. The Dalai Lama who is both the spiritual (Buddhist) and the banned earthly leader of Tibet (situated in the south-western part of the People's Republic of China) is an interesting case in point. The Buddha is a spiritual leader, and not, as in the other religions (eg in the Christian religion) a deity. Another interesting example is Britain, where the monarch (queen) is both head of state and head of the Anglican Church. In other states such as Norway and Sweden, a particular religion (Lutheranism) is protected by the authorities. In South Africa too, certain political parties have these views as their basic point of departure. Think, for example, of the African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) and their opposition to abortion. Further examples are the African Muslim Party and the Islamic Party in the Western Cape. The earthly rulers are the direct descendants of a deity. This PLC101-R/1 33 is an age-old explanation. A contemporary (modern) example is the idea among some people that the Japanese emperor is a descendant of a deity. The earthly rulers are people who can think and act for themselves, but they are appointed by a deity (even by means of democratic elections). These explanations are important to Westerners, but also occur in other societies where there is little distinction between religion and other aspects of the society. Some societies even

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