PHILOSOPHY-REVIEWER-WEEK-1-8.pdf

BEGINNING OF PHILSOPHY AND DOING 1 WEEK PHILOSOPHY WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY : SOPHIST VS SOCRATES Sophist The term philosophy comes from t...

BEGINNING OF PHILSOPHY AND DOING 1 WEEK PHILOSOPHY WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY : SOPHIST VS SOCRATES Sophist The term philosophy comes from the two claims they know everything Greek words philien, which means “to love” First professional teachers and Sophia, which means wisdom. Socrates Etymologically, it means “love of wisdom.” “My wisdom consists in a accepting It is the sum and summit of human the I knew nothing” knowledge. It is the scientia scientiarum; the KNOWLEDGE compendium of all learning. VS WISDOM It asks the simple question like: “Where did the world come from?” KNOWLEDGE It also asks the most exhilarating questions a fact based idea or reality like: “What is the beginning of the beginning that cannot be disputed of the world.” “water is liquid” PHILOSOPHY IS NOT: WISDOM The Filipino concept of philosophy is somewhat is a deep understanding of a negative, being tagged as a “pilosopo” means thing, concept, and idea. a person twisting an argument in order to make It goes beyond the physical a point even if the argument is wrong. The true aspect. sense of being a philosopher is that the person never cease to search for wisdom in his or her everyday existence. BEGINNING OF PHILOSOPHY WHY DO PHILOSOPHY? Miletus, Ionia, Asia Minor It is a search for meaning. Concerned with the beginning of everything It is a good tool in understanding the Thales of Miletus (624-546 BCE) human person. “The origin of everything is water” It is the means towards the attainment of happiness. Anaximander of Mileteus (c. 550 BCE) “Apeiron (boundless or limitless, cannot be Philosophy offers the students a chance to defined by time and space)” explore the fundamental questions about human existence. Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 570-497 BCE) It can help us clarify our thoughts. “The origin of everything is air” It digs into the root causes of the people’s problems and discovers new solutions and PROBLEM OF THE ONE AND THE MANY remedies to human ills. It gives us a clear understanding of the Parmenides of Elea Heraclitus of Ephesus human person and the reason for his (c. 510 BCE) (c. 540-480 BCE) “Change is an Illusion.” “Everything is in existence. constant flux.” CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :)) By: Cie:) BEGINNING OF PHILSOPHY AND DOING 1 WEEK PHILOSOPHY PROBLEM OF THE ONE AND THE MANY Empedocles of Sicily Pythagoras of Samos (c. 495-435 BCE) (c. 570-496 BCE) “Earth, wind, water and “Numbers” fire.” Leucippus & Democritus of Abdera (490-430 BCE and c.570- 496 BCE) “Atoms” HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY Ancient Philosophy - Cosmocentric ( origin of the universe) Medieval Philosophy - Theocentric ( God- centered) Modern Philosophy - Ideocentric ( idea- centered) Contemporary Philosophy - Anthropocentric ( Human - centered) PROBLEMS IN PHILOSOPHY Man’s acquaintance with science and technology provided him an instant satisfaction and led him to set aside reasoning. People believed that philosophy does not have a proper object. Unlike the natural and positive sciences, philosophy appears to be not focused on the true and real problems. Philosophy has lost its importance in religion and spirituality. Contemporary philosophy has become inaccessible to the modern-day students. People find it impractical to talk about philosophy in its highfalutin terms because it has no practical use in their day-to-day living. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF 2 WEEK HUMAN PERSON D. Philosophy of Pyschology BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY psychology comes from two Greek words psyche, means soul and logos means study I. Philosophy of Thought considered as the study of the soul; because A. Epistemology back then philosophers considers the soul as branch of philosophy that deals with nature, the principle of life and the reason why people sources, limitations and validity of human behave as they do. knowledge In modern philosophy, it is considered as considered as the investigation of what Rational Psychology, the study that deals with distinguishes justified belief from opinion the human person as composed of body and explains: (1.) how we know what we claim to soul. know (2.) how we can find out what we wish to E. Social Philosophy know and (3) how we can differentiate truth deals with the philosophical study of a society from falsehood. and its institutions. B. Logic concerned in determining the features of the Concerned as the science of correct reasoning ideal or best society as it deals with the study a body of information concerning the different of relationships of the human person with others relations that arise in our mind when it knows and society things F. Political Philosophy II. Philosophy of Reality politics from the Greek word polis, means A. Metaphysics community or society branch of philosophy that deals with the origin deals with one social institution, the State, and of things seeks to determine its justification and proper basically the study of being in its general organization aspects studies the facts about social organization, it deals with the study of the nature of beings as also evaluates social organization, especially it tries to answer the questions like “what is the government from an ethical point of view. being?” and “what are the fundamental III. Philosophy of Morality properties of being?” A. Ethics B. Theodicy ethos which means “customs” or “character.” also known as the Natural Theology or the study of moral judgments. It tries to study Philosophy of Religion human acts and searches for the means on how deals with the question of God’s existence. to obtain wisdom regarding how life should be Basically, it tries to answer the question: “Is lived. there a God? It is also known as moral philosophy.” B. Aesthetics THEOLEGY aesthesis which means “harmony. deals with the study of God under the Provides meaning on arts and beauty, hence, it light of natural reason is known as philosophy of art. THEODICY It deals with the questions about the meaning deals with study of God under the light of of beauty and tries to determine whether faith. beauty is in the subject or in the object It upholds the principle fides quaerens C. Philosophy of Human Person intellectum, faith follows reason deals with the philosophical inquiry into a C. Cosmology human being as a person and as an existing cosmos means universe and logos means study being in the world. study of the universe from a philosophical Its primary concern is the study about the viewpoint dignity of human person, truth, freedom, justice deals with the reality of the origin and the end of love, death and human person’s relationship the universe with others and with God. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF 2 WEEK HUMAN PERSON DOING PHILOSOPHY When one practices philosophical reflection, he/she examines his/her existence and Philosophizing is doing philosophy. practical issues in life. The ultimate end is to It is making speculations or theories about find the underlying meaning and reasons behind fundamental or serious issues in a complicated one’s experiences in life. or difficult manner. One of the benefits of engaging in It begins with wondering and posing the philosophical reflection is that people become question, why. critical thinkers. Being critical thinkers, we Human person uses philosophy to satisfy understand clearly a particular situation and his/her curiosity. determine whether such situation presents a By posing the question why, philosophy helps problem that needs an explanation or practical human person search for the meaning, reason, solution and causes of things As philosophy is the continuous search for wisdom, doing philosophy is not just to have a PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFLECTION grasp of things, but to have a profound understanding of the meaning, reason, or Primary reflection – refers to the process causes of things, to have more general view of deriving clear concepts. It is base on and at the same time, a deeper appreciation of observable phenomena. In primary reality. Hence, doing philosophy is to engage in a reflection, the qualities of things are philosophical activity. seen by the observer. We do discover, for instance, the various elements of a thing – its shape, color, or function. To engage in a philosophical activity such as Getting to the facts tells us about the critical or rational reflection, a person will need to basic components – reason and various attributes of things allow us to experience. form our objective knowledge of the Reason enables the person to reflect on or world. examine the underlying meaning or causes of Secondary reflection – in contrast things or realities. Through reason, a person invites us to go deep into ourselves. We is able to make sense of his or her experience see the truth that is inside our inner and of the realities both external and internal selves. Beyond what we grasped in to us. Experience provides a person with the initial primary reflection, secondary reflection data so that he/she would be able to process is the realization of the inseparability of that data and to have subsequent reflection the situation and the individual. or examination. The principle nihil intellectum Secondary reflection is inner reflection, quod prius fuerit in sensi, there is nothing in in order to understand and make fully the intellect that does not come first from the aware of ourselves. Gabriel Marcel said senses is a testament to the importance of that “reflection is like a plunge under an experience in philosophical activity icy shower that awakens one from that pleasant morning dreaminess.” PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION Philosophical reflection is a more profound examination of the underlying meanings or causes of the problems regarding human existence. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF 2 WEEK HUMAN PERSON METHODS OF PHIOSOPHIZING By describing those structures, Edmund Husserl believes that we can find certainty, which The art of questioning philosophy has always sought. The famous Socratic Method consist of asking This process entails a method or series of a series of critical questions in order to unmask continuously revised methods – for taking up a the sophistry of those who claim to hold a peculiarly phenomenological standpoint, monopoly of the truth. “bracketing out” everything that is not essential, The quest for the truth begins with the art of thereby understanding the basic rules of questioning. “The search for the truth,” it can be constitutive processes through which said, “and not really the possession of it, is the consciousness does its work of knowing the true goal of philosophy” world Plato uses the Socratic Method in his writings. These writings enable the reader to observe the SUMMARY exchanges between Socrates and the sophists. The sophists were itinerant teachers who specialized in rhetoric and in the techniques of There are three main branches of teaching of philosophy in Athens during the 5th philosophy namely: Philosophy of B.C.E. Thought, philosophy of reality and In Plato’s Dialogues, the participant questions, philosophy of morality. analyzes, and examines certain claims. Through Philosophizing is doing philosophy. the critical method employed, Plato teaches It is making speculations or how to determine and distinguish the truth from theories about fundamental or opinion. serious issues in a complicated or The Dialogues of Plato contains stories which difficult manner. help the reader describe a philosophical Doing philosophy is to engage in a concept that he wishes to explain, i.e. justice, philosophical activity. the beautiful, the good, and many others. To engage in a philosophical Socrates acts as the main character. activity such as critical or rational Philosophy often puts into question our reflection, a person will need to assumptions about the world. For instance, people can be distracted by concerns which basic components – reason and limit their view of reality. Philosophy allows experience. people to see the big picture. It opens the Primary reflection is base on broad horizon in which one recognizes unity in observable phenomena. diversity, of the convergence of things, or of the Secondary reflection is inner notion of wholeness where one gets to reflection, in order to understand experience what is most meaningful and make fully aware of ourselves. The quest for the truth begins with PHENOMENOLOGY the art of questioning. The word “phenomenon” comes directly from Philosophy often puts into the Greek word phainomenon, meaning question our assumptions about “appearance.” the world. Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, had used Phenomenology is the scientific the same word to refer to the world of our study of the essential structures of experience. consciousness. Phenomenology is the scientific study of the essential structures of consciousness. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  3 WAYS OF DOING PHILOSOPHY WEEK TRUTH VS OPINION By describing those structures, Edmund Husserl believes that we can find certainty, which TRUTH philosophy has always sought. In philosophical sense of the word, truth is This process entails a method or series of the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, continuously revised methods – for taking up a thoughts, or propositions that are said, in peculiarly phenomenological standpoint, ordinary discourse, to agree with the facts or to “bracketing out” everything that is not essential, state what is the case. thereby understanding the basic rules of The definition of truth in philosophy is constitutive processes through which anchored on the agreement of the facts consciousness does its work of knowing the (evidence) with the actuality. Fact, is a reality world that cannot be logically disputed or rejected, facts are concrete realities that no amount of reasoning will change. SKEPTICISM AND DOUBT OPINION Opinions are a person or group of person’s According to skepticism theory, the perspective or judgment on any issue at hand. human mind can never attain the It is vastly affected by their experience, truth. understanding, knowledge and beliefs. The human mind is unreliable because It is an honest attempt to draw a reasonable people are prone to error and that conclusion from factual evidence. there is a prevalence of error over An opinion is potentially changeable-- truth. depending on how the evidence is interpreted. In other words, error undermines the By themselves, opinions have little power to truth; there are more errors than truth. convince The mind commits mistakes and arrives. Since opinions are a form of judgment, it can at falsehood than truth more often. be correct or proven wrong based on the facts Since the mind cannot attain certainty or evidences at hand. about things, so the proper attitude That is the reason why there is what we called a must be the suspension of judgment half baked opinion – opinions based on Doubt is a state in which the mind insufficient or unexamined facts or evidences. suspends its judgment or assertion on the truth of a certain proposition or belief. TRUTH AND DIALECTICS When one is in doubt, one suspends Dialectics is an art of refutation that dates his/her judgment about a particular back to ancient Greeks. position or idea or which of two ideas In classical philosophy, dialectic is an exchange or positions to take. of propositions (theses) and counter- propositions (antitheses) resulting in a synthesis Doubt is either positive or negative. of the opposing assertions, or at least a Doubt is positive when the evidence for and against a qualitative transformation in the direction of the proposition is so equally balanced as to render decision dialogue. impossible. Example: “We are married for ten years Doubt is negative if there is absence of sufficient already, and nothing has changed, you still act evidence on either side. If one does not have sufficient as if you’re still a bachelor!” evidence on either side. If one does not have sufficient Dialogues illustrates how dialectics is an reason to decide whether or not to take commerce or engineering, then he/she suspends his/her decision effective means of examining and evaluating truth claims. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  3 WAYS OF DOING PHILOSOPHY WEEK Going back, reasoning is a mental act whereby INFERENCE AND SYLLOGISM starting with several judgments which we relate to one another, we arrive at a new judgment Inference is the drawing of a conclusion from one which necessarily follows from preceding ones. or more premises. There are two kinds of inference: immediate and mediate All millionaires are businessmen; When a conclusion is drawn from only one But, Manny is a millionaire; premise, the inference is immediate Therefore, Manny is a businessman. when a conclusion is drawn from two premises, the inference is mediate (because the On the example, we come to know this new truth conclusion is inferred from one premise through “Manny is a businessman” by interrelating the the mediation of another). previous ones for they have something in common The mental product of inferential thinking is – the subject “millionaires” that enables us to argument relate the concepts “businessmen” and “Manny.” The external expression of an argument is called No conclusion can be drawn from two propositions syllogism that have nothing in common (Santiago, 1998). Through simple apprehension and judgment, the human intellect grasps innumerable truths. But the SUMMARY vast complexities that reality presents to us demands a more elaborate process that will allow us to arrive at Truth is the property of some complex truths. This is reasoning. sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are said, in ordinary discourse, In logic a simple sentence has several parts just like to agree with the facts or to in a grammatical sentence: state what is the case All men are created equal Opinions are a person or group quantifier of person’s perspective or subject judgment on any issue at hand. copula It is vastly affected by their predicate experience, understanding, knowledge and beliefs. Quantifier – indicates the degree of universality (quantity) In classical philosophy, of the subject. A universal proposition is that which takes dialectic is an exchange of the subject in the entirety of its extension, the sentence propositions (theses) and above in the example is a proposition. A particular counter-propositions proposition limits this extension, ex. Some birds can fly, (antitheses) resulting in a and a singular proposition restricts it to an individual synthesis of the opposing subject ex. Cha Eun Woo is a versatile Korean actor. assertions, or at least a Copula – is the linking verb is (am, are, was, were) and is not (am qualitative transformation in not, are not, was not, were not) indicating the agreement or the direction of the dialogue disagreement between the subject term and the predicate term. Reasoning is a mental act The degree of agreement or disagreement is determined by the whereby starting with several quantifier of the proposition. The copula gives the form of the judgments which we relate to proposition. The standard form of categorical proposition is, one another, we arrive at a therefore, one that follows the subject-copula-predicate new judgment which arrangement. Example: necessarily follows from All millionaires are businessmen. preceding ones. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  3 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM WEEK CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM Example: A false premise but seemingly true conclusion: Categorical syllogism is the logical process in which, Money makes man live comfortably; the premises relate two terms with a third (middle), But, man’s goal is money; and the relationship is expressed in the conclusion Therefore, Man’s goal is to live comfortably. that either unites or separates the first two terms In this case, the conclusion will either be in the On the other hand, and argument can have true affirmative or in the negative, depending on how the premises yet, the conclusion is wrong because of terms are related in the premises. the defective form. Example: Example: True premises but false conclusion: Punishing the guilty restores order in the country But, putting criminals behind bars is a form of A square is a geometrical figure; punishing the guilty; But, a circle is a geometrical figure; Therefore, putting criminals behind bars restores order Therefore: A circle is a square in the country. Since reasoning is a logical process aiming at truth A hypothetical syllogism, on the other hand, is an and consistency, logic does not content itself with inferential thinking which concludes with certainty, mere consistency but pushes itself toward the affirming or denying a statement, from the truth. A correct syllogism is, therefore, affirmation or denial of another. understood as that which is both sound and valid. Example: Either you pass the test or you fail; PARTS OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM But, you pass; Therefore, you didn’t fail. 1. the major term (P) which is the predicate term of the conclusion and is contained in the major One cannot be in Maragondon and Manila at the same premise time; 2. the minor term (S) which is the subject term of But, you are in Maragondon; the conclusion and is contained in the minor Therefore, you are not in Manila. premise 3. the middle term (M) which is common to, and NATURE OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM found in, both premises. The major term and the minor term are also We distinguish matter and form of the categorical called extremes. Each of the terms appears in syllogism. The matter refers to the propositions exactly two of the propositions. It appears in the that comprise the reasoning process; the form is order of major premise, minor premise and the link that joins the premises to the conclusion. conclusions. A syllogism is considered valid when it is impossible to have a false conclusion if the premise is true. False premises can have either a true or false conclusion. If a true conclusion is drawn from false premises, its truth is not due to consequence from the false premises but is merely accidental to such inferential consequence. Therefore, if a conclusion is true, it does not necessarily follow that its premises are true CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  4 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM WEEK Example: All human beings are living creatures – Major Premise 2. In a valid categorical syllogism the middle But, Matthew is a human being; - Minor Premise term must be distributed in at least one of the Therefore, Matthew is a living creature. - Conclusion premises. For the parts of categorical syllogism: In order to effectively establish the presence of a genuine connection between the major and minor In the Major Premise: terms, the premises of a syllogism must provide some All – is the Quantifier information about the entire class designated by the Human beings – is the Middle term middle term. Living creatures – is the Major term If the middle term were undistributed in both In the Minor Premise: premises, then the two portions of the designated Matthew – is the Minor term class of which they speak might be completely Is a human being. – is the Middle term unrelated to each other. In the Conclusion: Syllogisms that violate this rule are said to Therefore, Matthew – is the Minor term commit the fallacy of the undistributed middle. Is a living creature – is the Major term Example of a valid syllogism: All human beings are mortal, RULES AND FALLACIES FOR But John Wick is a human being, CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS Therefore: John Wick is mortal. Example of a syllogism that has a fallacy of 1. A valid categorical syllogism will have three undistributed middle term: and only three unambiguous categorical terms. Penguins are black and white. The use of exactly three categorical terms is But some old TV shows are black and white, part of the definition of a categorical Therefore, some penguins are old TV shows. syllogism, and we saw earlier that the use of an ambiguous term in more than one of its The middle term is what connects the major and the senses amounts to the use of two distinct minor term. If the middle term is never distributed, then terms. In categorical syllogisms, using more the major and minor terms might be related to different than three terms commits the fallacy of four parts of the M class, thus giving no common ground to terms. relate S and P. Power tends to corrupt, 3. In a valid categorical syllogism if a term is But, knowledge is power, distributed in the conclusion, it must be Therefore: Knowledge tends to corrupt. distributed in the premises. This syllogism appears to have only three terms, but A premise that refers only to some members of the there are really four since one of them, the middle class designated by the major or minor term of a term “power” is used in different senses in the two syllogism cannot be used to support a conclusion that premises. To reveal the argument’s invalidity we need claims to tell us about every member of that class. only note that the word “power” in the first premise means “ the possession of control or command over Depending which of the terms is misused in this people,” whereas the word “power” in the second way, syllogisms in violation commit either the premise means “the ability to control things. fallacy of the illicit major or the fallacy of the illicit minor. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  4 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM WEEK 5. If either premise of a valid categorical syllogism is negative, the conclusion must be negative. An affirmative proposition asserts that one class is included in some way in another class, but a negative proposition that asserts exclusion cannot imply anything about inclusion. For this reason an argument When a term is distributed in the conclusion, let’s say with a negative proposition cannot have an that P is distributed, then that term is saying affirmative conclusion. something about every member of the P class. If that An argument that violates this rule is said to same term is NOT distributed in the major premise, commit the fallacy of drawing an affirmative then the major premise is saying something about conclusion from a negative premise. only some members of the P class. Remember that the minor premise says nothing about the P class. Example: Therefore, the conclusion contains information that All crows are birds, is not contained in the premises, making the Some wolves are not crows, argument invalid. Therefore, some wolves are birds. Example of a valid syllogism: 4. A valid categorical syllogism may not have two negative premises. All crows are birds, Some wolves are not crows, The purpose of the middle term in an argument is to Therefore, wolves are not birds. tie the major and minor terms together in such a way that an inference can be drawn, but negative Two directions, here. propositions state that the terms of the propositions Take a positive conclusion from one negative are exclusive of one another. In an argument premise. The conclusion states that the S class is consisting of two negative propositions the middle either wholly or partially contained in the P class. term is excluded from both the major term and the The only way that this can happen is if the S minor term, and thus there is no connection between class is either partially or fully contained in the M the two and no inference can be drawn. class (remember, the middle term relates the A violation of this rule is called the fallacy of two) and the M class fully contained in the P exclusive premises. class. Negative statements cannot establish this relationship, so a valid conclusion cannot follow. Take a negative conclusion. It asserts that the S No fish are mammals, class is separated in whole or in part from the P Some dogs are not fish, class. If both premises are affirmative, no Some dogs are not mammals. separation can be established, only connections. Thus, a negative conclusion cannot follow from If the premises are both negative, then the positive premises. relationship between S and P is denied. The conclusion cannot, therefore, say Note: These first four rules working together indicate anything in a positive fashion. That that any syllogism with two particular premises is information goes beyond what is contained invalid. in the premises. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS/SOCRATES 5 WEEK AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF PERSON However, it is impossible to conceptualize anything that does not exist. PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS If anything is, it must have had a beginning. But nothing exists out of nothing. Everything is self-contradictory. Hence, nothing 1. SOPHISTS exists. They busied themselves with answering the 4. Thrasymachus of Chalcedon question about man while the others were “The Epistemological Authoritarian” busy answering cosmological and metaphysical problems. Justice is whatever suits the strongest. Because previous philosophers failed to Injustice should not be taken as a defect of arrive at a uniform answer about the character. Injustice is a virtue. beginning of everything, the sophists just Injustice should be preferred to the life of focused on the question about the human justice. The unjust person is more superior in character person. and intelligence than the just person. 2. PROTAGORAS OF ABDERA Justice is pursued by the simpletons and such KNOWN FOR THREE CLAIMS justice leads to weakness. (1) That man is the measure of all things, of the People should be aggressive in pursuing their things that are that they are, and of the things own interests in virtually unlimited form of self- that are not that they are not; assertion. (2) That he could make the worse argument Justice is at the mercy of injustice. appear better or the weaker argument appear Laws are made by the ruling party for its own to be the stronger; and interest. (3) That one could not tell if the gods existed or Morality is reduced into power, leading truth not. and ethics into a nihilistic attitude. There is no standard for testing whether one MIGHT IS RIGHT. person’s perception is right and another person’s perception is wrong. SOCRATES & HIS PHILOSOPHY OF THE Knowledge is limited to the person’s various HUMAN PERSON perceptions. Everything is true insofar as somebody else is The main feature of his philosophy is his accepting a fact as true. In other words, thought on ETHICAL WISDOM—the knowledge is relative to each person. recognition of the fundamental importance 3. Gorgias of Leontini “The of doing good as the basic principle of human activity. Epistemological Nihilist” The focal point of his thought was the His position can be summed up in three personal, i.e., of what a virtuous person might propositions: be, or what it was that could rightly be called 1. Nothing exists; wisdom. 2. If anything existed, it could not be known; 3. If anything did exist, and could be known, it could not be communicated. MOST PERSISTENT COMMAND All things that exist must go out of existence. “KNOW THYSELF.” Hence, before a tree comes into existence, it must not exist first. “AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT To understand things, we must begin and end with WORTH LIVING.” the contention that SOMETHING IS NOT. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS/SOCRATES 5 WEEK AND PLATOS AND THEIR PHILOSOPHY OF PERSON A life devoid of philosophical speculation is hardly a human life because it is incomplete and is not His teachings called the attention of the fully functioning. It lacks virtue or excellence.. political government. The essence of man is the psyche—a combination of what we think as the mind and soul: He was accused by the poet Meletus, the consciousness, the capacity to REFLECTIVE THINKING. politician Anytus, and the orator Lycon An unexamined life is a life that takes the psyche of 2 charges: for granted. “To know the good is to do the good.” 1. Corrupting the mind of the youth; Knowledge is virtue. Ignorance is a vice. 2. Denying the national gods and Happiness can only be attained if a person introducing new gods in their stead. possesses knowledge. Knowledge leads a human person to become virtuous. If he does not become virtuous, it must be that he does not know. Virtue is a natural endowment. It is not acquired PLATO AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF through education. However, it is also possible that PERSON (RATIONAL IDEALIST) this virtue can be taught. If virtue can be taught, it is not something that will He founded the Academy on the seem like introducing something new to the mind. principle that students should learn to Learning is a form of intellectual midwifery - a criticize and think for themselves rather homage to socrates who explained that his role than simply accept the views of their was that of a philosophical midwife, not to tell teachers. people what the truth is, but rather to help them The Academy was considered as the first get out the truths that are already inside them. university. Many of the finest intellects in A person is capable of doing good because the classical world were schooled here. goodness is already innate in him. The academy has 4 subjects : Math, He created the concept of the psyche. What makes Science, Rhetoric, and Philosophy and only the human person act is the psyche or the human men were allowed. soul. Average persons lack wisdom and self- The activity of the soul is to know and direct our restraint. behaviour in our day-to-day living. The trial and death of Socrates showed The soul is the one that animates the body. Plato what would happen when justice is Our responsibility is to take good care of the soul detached from wisdom and self-restraint and make this soul as good as possible. and reduced to a majority vote. Wrongdoing is involuntary. It is always a product of The death of Socrates, the revolt of the ignorance. Thirty, the abuses of the sophists, and Knowledge should not be theoretical and other factors convinced Plato that a speculative. It should be put into action. corrupt state produces corrupt citizens. To obtain happiness, a person has to be virtuous. To His great influence stems from the manner become virtuous, one should fulfil his own function. in which he brought all the diverse True respectability stems not from the will of the philosophic concerns into a unified system majority but from proper reasoning. of thought including the reconciliation of We should not care much about what the populace the views of Heraclitus and Parmenides. will say of us, but about what the expert on matters One of the first problems of the early of justice and injustice will say. Greek thinkers during Plato’s time was on Instead of listening to the dictates of public the unity and multiplicity of things. opinion, we should rather strive to listen always to the dictates of reason. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS/SOCRATES 5 WEEK AND PLATOS AND THEIR PHILOSOPHY OF PERSON THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE PLATO ON THE HUMAN PERSON The human person is composed of a body and a soul. The body is subject to change and impermanence. The body is subject to change and impermanence. Since man is capable of knowing the permanent and the essences of things, then part of him should also be permanent. The real man is the soul. It is the whole of the human In order to provide a more vivid distinction between person. changing and unchanging, Plato used the allegory of the There is the pre-existence of the soul. (He took this cave, a parable which summarizes a number of his main idea from Pythagoras and Empedocles. doctrine. The cave illustrate that there were six individuals who were chained and imprison since childhood inside the cave facing the end wall. The only The soul is composed of 3 distinct faculties, source of light for them is the fire the emits its light over the three levels of knowledge and desire. a low mid-wall to the opposite end wall of the cave. These 3 levels are: The end wall has a short and narrow passage that Sensation (αιστηεσις) people and animals can pass thru. The only thing that Opinion (δοξα) these chained six individuals can see are their own Mind or Intellect (νους) shadows and those of the objects that move along the mid wall behind them. In addition, the sounds that they The NOUS has to overrule the soul so that man hear are only those echoes of the real sound. will always have the yearning for the world of Plato believed that the human beings are actually Since the soul is imprisoned forms. in the body, the imprisoned in the world of opinion, in the physical world soul finds itself dragged down towards a life (as represented by the cave in the allegory). Because of of mere sense and physical pleasure. this, people (represented by the chained individuals inside the cave) became too blind to see and too deaf Life in this world is a spiritual journey, a return to hear the Logos of the higher world or in Plato’s term, to the soul’s roots and beginnings. the world of Ideas or Forms (represented by the environment outside of the cave). The tendency of the soul is to yearn for that Since Plato was a rational idealist, he believed that the which is beyond. This is due to the soul’s physical world is not the reality, but rather an illusion, connaturality with God. because it can be changed (Heraclitus), Plato believed that reality is constant and changeless (Parmenides), Morality is achievable when reason overcomes hence the reality is not in the physical world, but in the the appetites and the stimuli of the body. world of Ideas or Forms. The knowledge of the eternal and higher world is the real knowledge. Human person’s Knowledge is innate. imprisonment in the world of matter made them too blind to see the real knowledge of the higher world. In Only knowledge can produce virtue because it order to re-focus the human person’s thoughts from the is ignorance or false knowledge that has world of matter towards the world of Ideas is thru produced evil. education. Education is to lead the people out of the cave into the world of light. Education should bring the In order to obtain true knowledge, one has to prisoners of the cave to realize the need of turning the be aware that he is ignorant and therefore, whole body around so that his eyes may see the light has to search his way back towards the state instead of darknes of knowledge. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS/SOCRATES 5 WEEK AND PLATOS AND THEIR PHILOSOPHY OF PERSON PLATO ON LEARNING & EDUCATION Learning is a form of reminiscence. SUMMARY Good life is a life of inner harmony with the The sophist are considered as the first real world. professional teachers during the ancient Greek society. Virtue could only be attained when each part Ancient Greeks value disciplines such of the soul is fulfilling its own function, i.e., as humanities, arts and philosophy when the lower parts of the soul would be that they gave much importance to subjected to the sovereignty of the rational these disciplines as a way of early element. form of education and learning. Harmony can be achieved only if the parts of Sophist busied themselves with the soul were fulfilling its function. answering the question about man while the others were busy answering PLATO ON SOCIETY AND POLITICS cosmological and metaphysical problems. Needs must be met by the 3 classes of people: (1) Protagoras held that human person is workers, (2) warriors (3) guardians (philosopher- the measure of all things. king). Georgias of Leontini held that if anything did exist, and could be The society should provide the people in meeting known, it could not be the 3 basic needs: (1) nourishing needs (food, communicated. shelter, clothing); (2) protection needs (military, Thrasymachus believed that a life of police); (3) ordering needs (leadership and being unjust is better than the life of government). having justice, because being unjust is not a defect of character but a The REPUBLIC is a study of Plato’s ideal society and virtue. a study of types of individuals. The primary philosophy of Socrates pertaining to the human person is ethical wisdom, living an ethical life A good life can be lived only in a good society. No and knowing thyself. one can live a good life without having some social The allegory of the cave is a activities, obligations, and concerns. representation of Plato’s rational idealism, that reality is not in the An ideal state is that which is just to its subordinates. physical world but in the world of ideas. A state is just when it functions fully. An unjust state is Plato’s book The Republic illustrate his dysfunctional if it fails to meet some essential need. rigid and functional ideal society, Plato is against the idea of The good life is nothing more-or less- than each individual democracy, for him an uneducated functioning well according to his or her own nature, in a citizenry will create a corrupt state that is well-ordered and wisely ruled. government and society. Reason makes a human person Injustice originates from imbalance in a society. When the resemble the Supreme Reason, who society will not be functioning properly, then injustices will rules and guides the destinies of surely occur. individuals and nations and leads all things to their proper ends. Some imbalance always results when one part of the state tries to fulfil the function of another part. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  ARISTOTLE / ST. AUGUSTINE / ST. THOMAS 6 WEEK AQUINAS ARISTOTLE AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF Reason makes a human person resemble the Supreme Reason, who rules and guides the PERSON (PRAGMATIC EMPIRICIST) destinies of individuals and nations and leads all things to their proper ends. Aristotle agreed with Plato that man is composed of a Since Aristotelian philosophy speaks about body and a soul. However, Aristotle held that the the proper end of things, his philosophy is body and soul are inseparable from one another. considered to be teleological – its function The body and the soul are correlative constituents of and purpose. one being. Human person is distinct with other A human person cannot be as such without a body or creatures because we have the capacity to soul, or body alone or soul alone. The soul and the think, reason out and learn. body are not separate entities in a human person. Aristotle believed in the principle that the The soul forms the entelechy, the definite form of the human mind is a tabula rasa – a blank sheet body. The body and the soul, according to Aristotle that is filled with knowledge that the human are so closely together that upon the death of the person experience thru his/her senses, nihil body, the soul will also die with it, contrary to the in intellectum quod non prius fuerit in sensi - belief of Plato about the pre-existence of the soul and there is nothing in the intellect that does not its changelessness and permanency. come first from the senses. Aristotle, unlike his mentor Plato who is a rational idealist, Man can only be considered good if and is a pragmatic empiricist. Aristotle believed that reality is only if he is functioning as a human person. the physical world which we live in and that each creature Everyone must be able to discover first the and things has a specific purpose to function. distinctive function of everyone in order to It must have been his inclination with biology that Aristotle obtain goodness. developed a pragmatic and empirical approach in his The function of the human person is an philosophy on the human person. Furthermore, he also do activity of the human soul, which follows or not agree with Plato that the real world is constant and implies a rational principle. The end or unchanging, for Aristotle, a thing would undergo change function of man must have something to do only insofar as the nature of such thing permits it to be with his specific activity as a rational being such. In other words, there must be a principle within such a Every human person is naturally seeking thing to allow for the change. Although the principle vary towards the attainment of happiness. The according to the kind of change involved, in general, they word Aristotle used that is so often can be referred to as the principle of actuality and the translated as “happiness” is eudaimonia. principle of potentiality. Eudaimonia implies being really existing In the physical thing, these principle are the form, which rather than just being alive: fully aware, signifies the act, and the matter, which signifies the vital, alert. potency or the capacity of the matter to obtain another A reasonable person does not avoid life. act. This teaching is called the hylomorphic doctrine. Like Rather, he engages in it fully. for instance, the human person, we were born, grew up, Happiness should not be connected with matured becomes old and eventually dies that is our pleasure. A life devoted solely to pleasure is actuality – meaning we change, because our nature allows a life fit only for a cattle. us to change; in the process we also have the potency, the Pleasure is not the goal of life; nor is the potential to change to be an improved version of acquisition of wealth. Fame and public ourselves, and that is the reason why we study, finish our success does not lead one to eudaimonia, degree and be successful improving ourselves, so we can but rather he more self-sufficient we are, attain another level of perfection as we change. the happier we will be. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  ARISTOTLE / ST. AUGUSTINE / ST. THOMAS 6 WEEK AQUINAS There is a greater peace of mind and satisfaction in knowing that a person can provide for his/her own God is the Creator of all things. He created needs than there is in depending on others, that is the everything ex nihilo. reason why we strive hard, to be self-sufficient and to live within the “just middle” not to extremely rich nor God created the world out of love and the extremely poor, and extremely happy or euphoric to human person is part of this creation. extreme sadness or in a state of depression. From the objective point of view, a morally virtuous act Morality consists in the constant imitation of consists of a measured activity, following the rule of the divine model. Morality consists in love the just middle or the mesotes. A virtuous act is that since it is this love that leads us to imitate which proceeds from right intention. God, who is Love. Human beings are political (social) creatures designed by nature to live with the others. All actions of man can be adjudged as good or bad St. AUGUSTINE ON THE HUMAN depending on the goodness or badness of its effect on others. PERSON In order for the human person to be sure that his action is done in permanent disposition, it should be The human person is an Imago Dei done in the act of contemplation. (Image of God) Whenever an action is performed based on contemplation, such action is said to be coming from God is TRIUNE, i.e., a trinity of persons in phronesis or the practical wisdom one nature. Aristotle, like Plato, viewed the communal life of the polis as the proper place for the exercise of the moral Man also bears a societal dimension. virtue. Because man has a function to fulfil, his life constitutes being one with the community God is the Supreme Unity, the perfect exemplar of society. ST. AUGUSTINE AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF Life is a dialectic movement towards love. PERSON Hence, virtue is the order of love. His philosophy is considered a philosophy of Aurelius Augustinus has been described as a “colossus love. bestriding two world” because of his efforts of synthesizing early Christian theology with his own understanding of Platonic philosophy. The human person is an Imago Dei, bearing the image of God because the human person is Christianity is a religion for simple folk, for the created in the image and likeness of God. Man uneducated and unlettered, whose Bible is primitive in also bears societal dimensions, those that obey style and contradictory. and love God’s word are considered living with God even in this physical world, they live in what If God is the creator of all things, how can it be St. Augustine called Civitas Dei or living in the possible for a moral evil to arise in the world “City of God.” However, those people that value created by a God who is a Summum Bonum. (the more the pleasures of this world and disregard ultimate good) God and His love for the human person, are living in what he called Civitas Mundi or living in the His philosophy is eudaimonistic in character because “City of Men.” Man’s desire for the earthly it takes happiness as the be-all and end-all of yearnings is what Augustine held in his doctrine of human life. disordered love. Happiness can only be attained in God alone. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  ARISTOTLE / ST. AUGUSTINE / ST. THOMAS 6 WEEK AQUINAS This is Aquinas’ moderate realism. Moderate St. AUGUSTINE ON THE HUMAN Realism places universals firmly in the mind in PERSON opposition to extreme realism, which posited these universals as independent of human thought. It was necessary for the salvation of St. Augustine believed that God being a summum man that certain truths which exceed human bonum the ultimate good and source of goodness, reason should be made known to him by Divine did not create evil. Revelation. If God is the creator of all things, how can it be St. Thomas Aquinas, tried and failed to possible for a moral evil to arise in the world created understand the nature of God. He spent years by a God who is a Summum Bonum? St. Augustine of his life trying to understand where God answered this question by disagreeing with Socrates originated, or if God is a created being and and Plato that evil is a product of ignorance, rather God’s origin. Rather, he came to accept the St. Augustine believed that the turning away from reality that the human person is NOT capable God and the turning to God are not forced acts but of knowing the nature of God in this life rather a voluntary act. because our knowledge is limited by its origin Evil, or sin, is the product of the will. All humanity in sense-experience. The divine reality is far possesses the freedom of the will. Evil is not an above the capability of human understanding. existing reality. It simply is a deprivation of something. Those things that harmonize with other things are considered good. When there is St. Thomas Aquinas’ Five ways disharmony, then there is evil. of Proving the Existence of Go Furthermore, Augustine held that It is definitely the human person’s pride that leads him away from God’s ISt. Thomas created the five arguments that grace, just like what happened in the Garden of proved the existence of God: Eden, when Eve did not heed God’s word of not eating the fruit of the tree of the Knowledge of Good 1. The First Way begins with the sense and Evil, hence, disobeying God out of pride. experience of motion or change in the Since all men seek happiness, such happiness is to be universe. It upholds the principle: omne found when the human person submits himself to the autem quod movetur, ab alio movetur. Divine Order and by seeking eternal peace, not in Nothing is moved unless moved by another – earthly society. God as the universal mover, that created things and set these things in motion ST. THOMAS AQUINAS AND HIS including the universe. PHILOSOPHY OF PERSON 2. The second way is from the nature of the Efficient Cause. God universal cause of everything except evil. Philosophy and theology played complementary 3. The third way is taken from possibility and roles in the human person’s quest for truth. necessity. That things will not exist if it is not According to St. Thomas, all knowledge originate in created by someone – only God can do sensation, but sense data can be made intelligible creatio ex nihilo, or creation out of nothing. only by the action of the intellect. 4. The fourth way is taken from the gradation of To reach understanding of the highest truths, those perfection to be found in things. That God is with which religion is concerned, the aid of the great designer of all things that His revelation is needed. creation speaks for God’s goodness and grand design. 5. The fifth way is taken from the governance of the world. That God is the one responsible for the orderly of things here in this world and the universe. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  ARISTOTLE / ST. AUGUSTINE / ST. THOMAS 6 WEEK AQUINAS Man has 3 natural inclinations: God’s Relationship with Human Person 1. Self-preservation – protect his/herself and The given proof of God’s existence does not exactly tell his/her properties and love ones form us positively what God is. potential harm and danger is one of the fundamental right and responsibility of an The imperfect goodness and wisdom of man may be individual. taken to represent or mirror the perfection of these 2. Just dealings with others – treat others with qualities in God. respect, kindness and truthfulness. 3. Propagation of species – or unitas et Goodness and wisdom may be found in man but it will procreatio, unity and procreation is the be found in a perfect manner in God. ultimate goal of sexual union between a male and female specie of any kind God’s purpose in creation is to communicate His including human person that God designed. perfection, which is His goodness, to the world. Hence, sex should be treated as solemn and only between married individuals in the case The universe contains both the corruptible and the of human person. incorruptible entities. Man’s ultimate happiness consists in Both happiness and pain, life and death would exist contemplating God and not in goodness of the simultaneously with one another. body. Man’s ultimate happiness consists only in wisdom and not in any other sciences. Human Suffering and death occur not because God wills person should always be aware of the morality these evil as such. of his/her action. Evil exist because of the privations inherent and unavoidable in creatures of different grades of The Three Determinants of Moral Act of a Human goodness. Person: Human person is created endowed with goodness. He 3 Factors that can help determine whether yearns for goodness because of his synderesis and our action is moral or not: conscience. Finis operas—that to which the act tends Synderesis is the intellectual habit or disposition by before all else. which man, in given situations, is in possession of the Circumstantiae– the condition which will fundamental principles of morality. certainly affect its morality. Finis operantis—the intention of the The fundamental principles of morality: DO agent. GOOD AND AVOID EVIL. A good act with a bad motive makes the moral action bad, the end does not justify THE NATURAL INCLINATIONS HUMAN PERSON the means - a person may not employ an evil means in order to attain a good end. Human acts are good if they promote the purpose of To know whether we are acting rightly or wrongly, we God and His honor. An act is considered evil must see to it that we are following the voice of reason. if it deviates from the reason and the divine Man will know that a particular act is good if it is in moral law. accordance with the human nature. Conscience will serve as the natural guide in making moral decision. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  ARISTOTLE / ST. AUGUSTINE / ST. THOMAS 6 WEEK AQUINAS Six Natural Duties of the Human Person: The Moral Principles as Basis of Human Action: 1. Duty to Keep Healthy and Take Care of One’s Self 2. Duty to Take Care of One’s Property and Respect Other’s Property. T 3. Duty to Support One’s Family Principle of Double Effect: a good effect and 4. Duty to Respect Private Boundaries an evil effect will result from a good cause. 5. Duty for Religious Tolerance 6. Duty to Perform one’s Best 4 principles of Double Effect: 1. The action directly intended must be good or at least morally indifferent; 2. The good effect must follow from the action at least as immediately as the evil effect; 3. The foreseen evil effect may not be intended but merely permitted to occur; 4. There must be a sufficient reason for allowing evil to occur. Principle of Totality—the right to cut off or mutilate a certain part of the body for the good of the whole. Principle of Stewardship—human life comes from God and no individual is the master of his own body. Principle of Inviolability of Life—Life is God’s and has been loaned to us; hence, it is inviolable and sacred. Principle of Sexuality and Procreation—this underscores the two-fold purpose of sexual union: unitas et procreatio. Six Natural Rights of the Human Person: 1. Right to Life 2. Right to Private Property 3. Right to Marry 4. Right to Physical Freedom or Personal Liberty 5. Right to Worship 6. Right to Work CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  7 HUMAN PERSON AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT WEEK According to Paul Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich, the First, this kind of self-realization is spiritual in grave risk of global warming was already nature. The basic idea is that it is not anticipated but it has been long ignored. Western ego. The Western self is a mere While there are sectors who cast a cloud of doubt abstraction, one that is formed by way of the about the reality of climate change, most scientist materialistic trait of the Western world. This are however united in their findings and stand as to ego is a self that is detached from nature. In its occurrence and impact. deep ecology, people grow with nature. This impact is most felt by the poorest regions on the Secondly, the idea of bio-centric equality planet. means that all things in the biosphere The relationship between human beings and the develop to reach their own unfolding or self- environment is sometimes wrongly viewed in an realization. It means that all organisms in the instrumental way. planet form part of a whole, we are all one. The earth is valued only because of its resources. We do share a unity. This oneness implies This type of relation is that of extraction and that each has equal worth or value in the exploitation. whole unfolding of the universe. The resources of the planet are seen as a source of Human beings have no right to destroy wealth. This wealth goes into the economy through nature just to serve their selfish ends. corporations and governments. The many benefits Humans are just co-inhabitants of the planet, to the population are the basic justification for this a co maker and not the supreme master. relation God bequeathed upon people the moral obligation to take care of all beings, HUMAN BEING’S PERSPECTIVE ON including all non-sentient beings. Humans in ENVIRONMENT: this sense, should not take advantage by abusing the resources of the planet or think The kind of relationship that human being that these resources are unlimited establishes with the environment depends on how he/she perceives it. DISORDER OF THE UNIVERSE Human beings sees and considers the environment as an erratic and disorderly thing The domination of humanity is linked to the that needs to be analyzed, reformed and domination of nature based on the anthropocentric reshaped through the cultural tools of science model. An unfair or unjust utilization of the and technology in the service of the human environment result to ecological crisis. From this self. view, it follows that human arrogance toward Furthermore, the environment is considered as a nature is justifiable, in order to satisfy human commodity or property to be used and disposed interests. From this view, it follows that human for one’s own individual welfare arrogance toward nature is justifiable, in order to satisfy human interests. DEEP ECOLOGY AND BIO-CENTRIC Most of the times, humans adopt an exploitative EQUALITY: attitude whenever nature is merely considered as an instrument for one’s profit or gain. For instance, Deep ecology is a different way of looking at man’s quarrying or cutting down age old trees could justify our relationship with nature. We do not own the earth. exploitative attitude towards nature. Rather, we belong to it as part of a whole. Deep ecology in this sense is grounded in the interrelatedness of the Accordingly, humanity needs to develop an “ecological species as co-inhabitants in the planet. Philosophically, conscience” based on individual responsibility. the very essence of deep ecology is to keep asking more Ecologists challenge us to adopt a lifestyle that involves simple living that honors the right of all life forms to live, searching questions about the real meaning of human life, flourish, and create a rich diversity of human and non- society and nature. The source of the ideas of deep human life. For ecologists, the right to live and blossom ecology is Oriental. It has two important aspects: self- should not just be for human beings but must be valid to realization and bio-centric equality. all forms of life. CIE:) PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))  8 HUMAN PERSON AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT WEEK Natural Law Ethics: The relationship between human beings and the environment is sometimes wrongly viewed in an There is goodness in human nature to do good which instrumental way. The earth is valued only because of its is rooted in the goodness of God; the God who resources. This type of relation is that of extraction and created everything according to his Divine plan. This exploitation. The resources of the planet are seen as a goodness of God in human being can be seen and source of wealth. This wealth goes into the economy manifested through the expressions of the human through corporations and governments. The many intellect and reason. The goodness of reason and benefits to the population are the basic justification for intellect is observed and experienced when human this relation. action is in accordance to God’s plan; otherwise, such action is unethical and must be avoided. HUMAN BEING’S APPROACHES TO We respect nature because God created it for divine ENVIRONMENT: purpose. The environment is created and continuously being re-created for human being’s well- Instrumental Approach: being. But such process must not jeopardize the divine plan to make the environment sustainable for In this approach to environment, human beings affirms the continuous existence of human race. the protection of the environment as long as it possesses value or importance for human being. He/she takes care Sacredness of Environment: of the environment because it is a medium in establishing The recognition of the sacredness of environment is his/her society and civilization. based on the creation of all things. The environment as part of creation poses an affirmation of a Creator, who Axiological Approach: is the uncaused and cause, who caused everything that exists (Buenaflor, 2017). The environment shall always Human beings recognizes the intrinsic value of the have an inherent relation with the Creator. This shows environment. This demands the human person to protect that the environment “would have a real relation to Him and take care of it. Beauty of nature can be seen as the because were it not the creative work of God, the external expression of such intrinsic value. Axiological environment would not have existed at all. approach needs greater use of imagination and The Spirit of Stewardship: reflection on the part of human beings for them to see and experience the intrinsic value of the environment. Human beings is part of creation. The human person is Anthropological Approach: not the author of his/her existence nor the master of his/her existence. According to Timbreza, human beings has the responsibility to take care, protect, and The primary concern of the human person is to unveil cultivate his/her potentialities, faculties, and his/her being as a human or what being human ought to functions. But this responsibility is not limited to be. The focus of establishing relationship with the his/her own self, but extends to the environment. environment is not environment itself, but his “being.” Consequently, the human person sees the importance of Human Being as the Summit of Creation: protection, care, and respect for the environment. Nonetheless, the human being is the one who determines As the summit of creation and image of God, the the intrinsic value of it. The value of the environment human person has the moral responsibility to take comes from the external authority; from the human good care and respect the environment. He/she participates in the Divine Creator’s creative acts in the being. environment. In this context, he/she recognizes the “otherness” of the environment. In such context, Utilitarianism: Emmanuel Levinas believes that human being’s action is for the good of his fellow individuals and not only for This approach focuses on the consequences of human his own sake (Camiloza, et al. 2017). action, whether it is right or wrong. Our action is ethically right when it produces greatest happiness for the greater number of people, otherwise the action is ethically wrong. Human being uses such view to utilize and manipulate natural environment for human CIE:) development. PHILOSOPHY - FIRST SEMESTER - FIRST QUARTER :))