Philo Module 1 - Introduction to Philosophy PDF

 Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;...

 Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY: DEFINITION & NATURE Welcome students! We will begin our philosophical journey by learning what philosophy is all about and how it developed. Thinking is the main activity in this subject. On our first module, we will examine the meaning, nature, etymology, and importance of philosophy as well as the characteristics and examples of philosophical questions. In addition, an overview of the development of philosophy will be featured. Learning Objectives: A. analyze the nature and importance of philosophy; B. distinguish philosophical and non-philosophical questions; and C. differentiate the different schools of thought that emerged across history. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? “ ” “ ” + From a distance, Philosophy seems irrelevant, old-school, boring, and utterly confusing. But when you look at its etymological meaning, “love for wisdom,” it can be intriguing and interesting. Why would someone have a strong desire for wisdom? What is wisdom after all? We already have science, why waste our time in philosophy? People who are devoted to wisdom and engage in the practice of philosophy are called philosophers. They do not only seek knowledge; they want to know the correct application of that knowledge. Being wise is attempting to apply what you have learned in life in order to live and die well. In pursuit of wisdom, one must examine oneself and seek fundamental truths about the world; and this is where philosophy shines. Philosophy is basically an activity concerned with answering or reflecting on the biggest questions about life and reality; questions that are complex, general in point-of-view and can be highly controversial. These are the questions that people find ridiculous and stupid, since they cannot be answered directly by common sense and even science itself. We call these questions as philosophical questions. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 2 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS Philosophical questions are questions that do not have a definite answer since they are broad or general in scope, lack single method for answering, and have no practical purpose. Answering these questions are beyond the collection of physical evidence and empirical research. They make sense through the use of reason or rational thinking. Due to the nature of these questions, it is normal for philosophers to have conflicting views and perspectives. As you go over this course, you would encounter multiple schools of thought and insights about a particular topic or issue. At first glance, these questions are somewhat heavy and mind blowing to the point of compelling you to stay away from doing philosophy. Think of the question “Can money buy happiness?” We all know that when we buy new clothes or pair of shoes to make ourselves attractive, buy a new car, visit an Instagram-worthy place, or eat your favorite meal with your friends, we are happy. But is this really happiness? Will this emotion last? Can you consider it happiness if it is temporary? What really is happiness? You see, philosophy helps us look at this old-aged question in new ways like connecting emotions with money. Another intriguing question is “Why are we so afraid of death? When we think about it, we are surrounded by death. The air we breathe is produced by plants that have been fertilized by dead creatures. Our clothes are covered with dead plants and animals. Our cars are powered by creatures long dead and we call these “fossil fuels.” We are transported by the bones of dead dinosaurs. The earth you’re standing on right now has accumulated so many dead creatures all over the years. Your teeth, skin, bones, muscles – your whole body is slowly decaying. Our stomach is a cemetery – a cemetery of dead pigs, of dead chickens, of dead cows, of dead insects, of dead plants that were fruits and vegetables. Why are we scared of death when in fact we are always surrounded by the dead? We inhale the dead; we consume the dead. And yet we are still afraid of death. When we think about it, life is only possible because of the dead. These facts give us an impression that living is so cruel; that in order to live, some creatures have to die. It feels like when you are contemplating about these kinds of questions, you may feel emptiness or extreme confusion. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 3 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty It is significant to note, however, that you may have encountered and tried to answer these questions in the past. Sometimes, you do not know that you are already engaging in philosophy! When you argue with your parents as to whether or not raise your allowance, or when you discuss with your friends if it is good to cheat to have higher grades, you are already experiencing philosophy. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY Philosophy is similar to science in that it exhibits critical thinking and open-mindedness. Contrary to popular belief, Philosophy is not about giving careless opinions. Rather, like science, it involves systematic procedures and methodology in formulating answers and perspectives using reason or rational thinking. Philosophy investigates things, not by using any other laboratory instrument and investigative tools, neither on the basis of supernatural revelation, otherwise it becomes theology; instead, the philosopher uses his natural capacity to think or simply, human reason alone or the so-called unaided reason. This sets the distinction between philosophy from other sciences. All other sciences, concern themselves with a particular object of investigation. On the other hand, philosophy deals with questions about everything and it tries to examine the principle or judgement behind everything, including their existence! Philosophy is not just an activity, but also a discipline. It is an overarching field of study which investigates “anything under the sun.” Unlike other disciplines like mathematics and the sciences which deal with specific topics – biology with living things, physics with forces and energy, chemistry with chemical components of things – philosophy deals with a broad spectrum of topics ranging from an analysis of the meaning of sort-of familiar terms like important to the inquiry into meaning of life itself. Philosophy, in one way or another, ends up touching upon nearly every aspect of human life and has something to say when it comes to science, art, religion, politics, medicine, and a host of other topics. As said, philosophy is as broad as life and as deep as human understanding. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 4 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty IMPORTANCE OF DOING PHILOSOPHY | FROM SCHOOL OF LIFE Philosophy has an important place in our daily lives. Engaging in philosophical reflection leads to the development of beneficial skills that individuals can apply in everyday situations. It enables us to have a holistic thinking. Holistic thinking refers to a perspective that considers large-scale patterns in systems. A holistic perspective requires an individual to have an open mindset and ability to get the general sense or impression regarding a situation. Partial thinking focuses on specific aspects of a situation. The partial view is an important component of analytical thinking, as an individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a problem in order to understand it. 1. We are vulnerable to errors of common sense Public opinion – or what gets called ‘common sense’ – is sensible and reasonable in countless areas. It’s what you hear about from friends and neighbors, the stuff that’s just assumed to be true, the stuff you take in without even thinking about it. The media pumps it out by the gallon every day. But in some cases, common sense is also full of daftness, error and the most lamentable prejudice. Philosophy gets us to submit all aspects of common sense to reason. It wants us to think for ourselves, to be more independent. Is it really true what people say about love, about money, about children, about travel, about work? Philosophers are interested in asking whether an idea is logical – rather than simply assuming it must be right because it is popular and long-established. 2. We are mentally confused We’re not very good at knowing what goes on in our own minds. We know we really like a piece of music. But we struggle to say quite why. Or someone we meet is very annoying, but we can’t pin down what the issue is. Or we lose our temper, but can’t readily tell what we’re so cross about. We lack insight into our own satisfactions and dislikes. That’s why we need to examine our own minds. Philosophy is committed to self-knowledge – and its central precept – articulated by the earliest, greatest philosopher, Socrates – is just two words long: Know yourself. 3. We have muddled ideas about what will make us happy We’re powerfully set on trying to be happy, but go wrong in our search for it on a regular basis. We overrate the power of some things to improve our lives – and underrate others. In a consumer society, we make the wrong choices because, guided by false glamour, we keep on imagining that a particular kind of holiday, or car, or computer will make a bigger difference than it can. At the same time, we underestimate the contribution of other things – like going for a walk, tidying a cupboard, having a structured conversation or going to bed early – which may have little prestige but can contribute deeply to the character of existence. Philosophers seek to be wise by getting more precise about the activities and attitudes that really can help our lives to go better. 4. Our emotions can send us in dangerous and unwanted directions We are inescapably emotional beings but regularly forget this uncomfortable fact. Occasionally certain emotions – certain kinds of anger, envy or resentment – lead us into serious trouble. Philosophers teach us to think about our emotions, rather than simply have them. By understanding and analyzing our feelings, we learn to see how emotions impact on our behavior in unexpected, counterintuitive and sometimes dangerous ways. Philosophers were the first therapists. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 5 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty 5. We panic and lose perspective We are constantly losing a sense of what matters and what doesn’t. We are – as the expression goes – constantly ‘losing perspective’. That’s what philosophers are good at keeping a hold of. Across history, philosophers made repeated attempts to address ways in which we are unwise. So, for example, in ancient Athens, Socrates paid special attention to the problem of how people get confused in their minds. He was struck that people didn’t quite know what they meant by key ideas – like courage or justice or success – even though these were the main ideas they used when talking about their own lives. Socrates developed a method (which still bears his name) by which you can learn to get clearer about what you mean by playing devil’s advocate with any idea. The aim isn’t necessarily to change your mind. It is to test whether the ideas guiding your life are sound. The overall task of studying philosophy is to absorb these and many other lessons and put them to work in the world today. The point isn’t just to know what this or that philosopher happened to say, but to aim to exercise wisdom at an individual and societal level – starting now. The wisdom of philosophy is – in modern times – mostly delivered in the form of books. But in the past, philosophers sat in market squares and discussed their ideas with shopkeepers or went into government offices and palaces to give advice. It wasn’t abnormal to have a philosopher on the payroll. Philosophy was thought of as a normal, basic activity – rather than as an unusual, esoteric, optional extra. Nowadays, it’s not so much that we overtly deny this thought – we are always getting snippets of wisdom here and there – but we just don’t have the right institutions set up to promulgate wisdom coherently in the world. In the future, though, when the value of philosophy is a little clearer, we can expect to meet more philosophers in daily life. They won’t be locked up, living mainly in university departments, because the points at which our unwisdom bites – and messes up our lives – are multiple and urgently need attention right now. BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY How did philosophy originate and develop? Why did people start to engage in philosophical inquiry? To answer these questions, we will have an overview of the development of Western philosophy. Since this is just an “overview”, expect that the explanation is too simplistic and lacks further details. The purpose of giving an overview is to provide you with a general idea of how philosophy developed without overwhelming you with a lot of information. If you are passionate to learn more details about the history of philosophy, you can check some resources indicated on the references at the end page. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 6 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty The development of western Philosophy is divided into six parts: pre-philosophical era, pre- Socratic philosophy, classical (Socratic) philosophy, medieval philosophy, enlightenment and age of reason, and modern philosophy. In each part, you will encounter the dominating theme of philosophy as well as different schools of thought and their respective philosophers. What we meant by “school of thought” is a set of ideas, opinions or beliefs shared by a group of people with a common perspective. On the other hand, what we meant by “philosopher” is a person who practices philosophy or engages in answering philosophical questions. A. PRE-PHILOSOPHICAL ERA Even before the birth of natural philosophy, people had already attempted to explain the origin of things. It is evident in Myths or legends. These stories are characterized by religious elements or supernatural powers and not by natural or rational explanation. The earliest records of western philosophy are generally in Ancient Greece. However, philosophy did not start in the main parts of Greece, such as Athens and Sparta, but in its colony called Ionia. The region of Ionia lies on the eastern part of Greece, in present-day Turkey, and its inhabitants are Greeks as well. They share similar culture and myths with those who live in the main parts of Greece. Thales, who lived in Miletus (city of Ionia), became the first proper philosopher because he investigated the natural world through observation and reason, not through supernatural or mythological explanations. He was followed by other Greeks and more philosophers emerged. This event in history is called the “Ionian Awakening.” This is where we start our discussion on how western philosophy developed through time. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 7 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty B. PRE-SOCRATIC ERA The philosophers where called the philosophers of nature. They investigated the single underlying substance that make up everything. They also philosophized whether change exists or is just an illusion. Materialism was the dominant school of thought during this period because several pre-Socratic philosophers believed that the world can only understood through physical matter. This is why some of them are considered as naturalists. 1. The Milesians a) Thales Known as the first person in recorded history to have started philosophizing because he did not resort in supernatural or mythological explanations. Coined the term arche which means the ultimate substance of everything. Believed that the arche is water because it can be found in many places. We can perceive water to be liquid (inherent state), solid (freezing), and gas (evaporation). b) Anaximander Younger contemporary and student of Thales. Believed that the ultimate substance of everything is apeiron, which is translated as “the infinite” or “the boundless”. c) Anaximenes Believed that the ultimate substance of everything is air. In its stable state, air is invisible, but when it is moved and condensed it becomes first wind and then cloud and then water, and finally water condensed becomes mud and stone. Rarefied air, presumably, became fire, completing the gamut of the elements. 2. The Non-Milesians a) Pythagoras Said that everything in the world is governed by numbers, and it can be understood through mathematics. Proponent of Pythagorean theorem. b) Xenophanes Believed that the ultimate substance of everything is earth and it interplays with water. “For all things come from earth, and all things end by becoming earth. For we are all sprung from earth and water. All things that come into being and grow are earth and water." Considered as the first philosopher of religion. He criticized the representation of God found in the works of Homer and Hesiod. In their stories, there are many gods and goddesses who are anthropomorphic (look like humans) and possess immoral human acts such as stealing, deception, and adultery. For Xenophanes, there is only one God who is transcendent and omnipresent. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 8 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty c) Heraclitus Believed that everything in the world was in a state of constant change and flux. Everything moves on, he said, and nothing remains; the world is like a flowing stream. If we stand by the riverbank, the water we see beneath us is not the same two moments together, and we cannot put our feet twice into the same water… we cannot even step twice into the same river. Said that the ultimate substance of everything is fire. He believed that the world is an ever-burning fire: all things come from fire and go into fire; ‘all things are exchangeable for fire, as goods are for gold and gold for goods’. There is a downward path, whereby fire turns to water and water to earth, and an upward path, whereby earth turns to water, water to air, and air to fire. The death of earth is to become water, and the death of water is to become air, and the death of air is to become fire. d) Parmenides Rejected the idea of Heraclitus about change. He believed that change is just an illusion. For something to change, it has to out from nothing. But he believed that something can not come out of nothing because nothing is nothing. For example. He believed that the universe is already there. It did not suddenly evolve from nonexistence to existence. Believed that everything that exists is static and unchanging. e) Empedocles Synthesis the thought of other philosophers. As we have seen, each of them had singled out some one substance as the basic stuff of the universe: for Thales it was water, for Anaximenes air, for Xenophanes earth, for Heraclitus fire. For Empedocles, all four of these substances (water, earth, fire, air) stood on equal terms as the basic elements of the universe. These elements have always existed, he believed, but they mingle with each other in various proportions to produce the furniture of the world. In his last years, they tell us, he came to believe that he was a god, and met his death by leaping into the volcano Etna to establish his divinity. f) Democritus Introduced atomism. He believed that the everything is composed of tiny, indivisible and indestructible things called atoms. He believed that they are too small to be detected by the senses, and that they are infinite in number and come in infinitely many different kinds. They are scattered, like motes in a sunbeam, in infinite empty space, which he called ‘the void’. They have existed for ever, and they are always in motion. They collide with each other and link up with each other; some of them are concave and some convex; some are like hooks and some are like eyes. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 9 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty A. CLASSICAL OR SOCRATIC ERA The philosophers during this period placed an emphasis on how people should behave and think, how society and government should operate, and what lies beyond the physical world. These provided further development to ethics, philosophy of politics, and logic. 1. Socrates The oratorical philosopher; left no writings. Well-known for his Socratic Method; it is a method of questioning that attempts provoke clarification of ideas and discussion by asking follow-up questions that are critical and insightful. Encourages people to acknowledge their own ignorance and to be skeptic; this will motivate us to pursue wisdom. “I know that I know nothing”. 2. Plato A literary superstar; he is best known for his writings such as “The Republic” which is composed of philosophies presented in dialogues. It was he who wrote the philosophies of Socrates. His philosophy is a completion and extension of philosophy of Socrates. His famous philosophy is the Theory of Forms (Idealism) which asserts that the reality only exists in our mind, and that experiences are just illusions. In essence, Plato believes that our ideas our superior over our senses. He also believed that philosopher kings should rule the people since they are not prone to be swayed by their impulses and emotions in creating decisions for the people. Introduced the idea that humans are composed of a tripartite soul (rational spirit, emotional spirit, and appetitive spirit). He reminded us to let our rational spirit dominate so that we would not create irrational actions caused by emotional and appetitive spirit. 3. Aristotle His philosophy is an opposition of Plato’s philosophical tradition. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believes in Realism; the endowment of senses will lead a person in direct contact with the world (experiences) and provide adequate proof in pursuit of the truth. In a nutshell, Aristotle believes that ideas must be supported by perception. We have to rely on both reason and senses to understand the things around us. Father of Political Science; he systematically studied politics. He created the classical types of the government and categorized them as either good or bad (monarchy or tyranny, aristocracy or oligarchy, polity or demagoguery). Introduced the idea of virtue as the “ultimate good” and eudaimonia as “happiness”. Virtue is understood as what lies between what is excessive and deficient (e.g. not too courageous, but not too afraid; just the right amount of courage). In order to achieve eudaimonia or ultimate happiness, we must live a virtuous life or a life of virtue. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 10 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty B. SCHOLASTIC OR MEDIEVAL ERA The confluence of faith and reason. Philosophers in this period were concerned with reconciling philosophy with religion. They tried to explain the existence of God through logical arguments. Scholasticism was the dominant school of thought where Christian philosophers tried to reconcile classical philosophy with Christian theology. Here are some of the notable medieval philosophers. 1. Avicenna Muslim philosopher Reconciled Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic theology. Introduced the idea of tabula rasa (blank slate: this means that we are not born with built-in mental content and that our minds our filled in with ideas coming from our surroundings). This idea will later influence social-contract philosopher John Locke. 2. St. Augustine of Hippo One of his notable philosophies is that man is fallible. This can be traced from the story of Adam and Eve. God has given man freewill and choice whether to obey Him or not. Adam and Eve eventually exercised their freewill to disobey God. This became the Peccatum Originale (The Original Sin). We cannot expect man to be perfect because in the beginning, man has freewill yet he/she chose to do the bad thing. Since man is fallible, he/she needs God to be able to make the right choices. 3. Thomas Aquinas Had a logical approach to reconciling faith and reason. Cosmological argument and teleological argument of God’s existence: explanations of how God exists based on the laws of physics and natural world. Believed that it is impossible for the universe to exist and move on its own. He explained that before something moves, there should be a mover. He concluded that God is the prime mover. The first motion was caused by God. He also believed that the universe did not come from a random explosion because if that were the case, it would contradict to the accurate complexities of life: why do we have accurate genetic codes, why are the heavenly bodies in stable position, etc.? The universe must be designed by an intelligent designer. He also believed that the Holy Bible can be a metaphor for science. Provided the features of God: omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, omnibenevolent. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 11 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty C. RENAISSANCE AND THE AGE OF REASON Renaissance is the period when philosophers replaced God with man and his/her achievements. Humanism is at the heart of their philosophy. Among the subjects of their philosophy include the politics and the self. These are some of the notable philosophers: 1. Niccolò Machiavelli Believes that the end justifies the means, that a leader/politician must sacrifice morality to secure the glory and success of the state. This may have influenced the iron fist leadership of some politicians. He also pointed out that “its better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both.” For him, leaders who are not feared cannot enforce obedience and cannot perform his/her functions. But Machiavelli points out that it is better that you are both feared and loved. Do NOT misunderstand what Machiavelli tells us that it is ultimately good to sow terror and do extreme actions to the people. He emphasized that there should be a combination of love and fear. Many dictatorships were dismantled by their people because their leaders were evil. 2. Francois-Marie Arouet (Voltaire) He said that all evils in the society (idolatry, superstition, and fanaticism) that divides people during his time are coming from the French Catholic Church. He passionately protested against these things. Believed in the rational religion called deism which believes that God created us but does not interfere with our lives since we humans have our reason. God left us to decide on our own through the use of our mind. He tells us to encourage others to cultivate our mind. His philosophy was so influential that during the French Revolution, his words became the rallying cry of the people: “Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite!” D. MODERN PHILOSOPHY The modern tradition in the history of philosophy is recognized to be concerned about problems or issues about the source of human knowledge. It is often described as dominated by two schools of thought – rationalism and empiricism – and ends with the synthesis made by Immanuel Kant. The reflection and analysis are directed toward answering the question on the nature of knowledge and the verification on types of knowledge claims to be known by humans. 1. Rationalism It is a school of thought that adheres to the idea that reason is the only source of knowledge. Knowledge begins with intellect or reason through the process of abstraction. Abstraction is a process where we derive the essence of objects. Example is a dog. We can immediately distinguish such animal from other animals because the mind has already abstracted the essence of a dog. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 12 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty a) Plato Knowledge is a pre-existed knowledge. The “eidos” (Ideas or forms) are pre-existent. These ideas or forms is known by the human mind by means of pure recollection. Knowledge is always remembering. Thus, “to know is to remember.” b) Rene Descartes Knowledge is clear and distinct idea. This clear and distinct idea is made available because of human consciousness. Once the human person becomes conscious of the things around him, he starts to have a clear and distinct idea of whatever come into play with his consciousness- the use of the senses. However, the clear and distinct idea is challenged by the question of certainty because human senses can be deceived. How can I be certain of my knowledge of things? What if I have a twisted perception of such realities? Or how if there is an evil genius presenting a twisted reality? Hence, one needs to doubt. It is through the process of doubting that one arrives at a certainty of knowledge of things. 2. Empiricism It is a school of thought that adheres to the idea that sensory experience is the only source of knowledge. a) David Hume Knowledge is a body or bundle of impressions. Impressions are networks of ideas and facts. Example, spiderman. The concept of spiderman is a network of the attributes of a human and a spider and is applied to a single idea of spiderman. Since, knowledge is an impression, there’s no absolute knowledge. It is dependent on one’s impression. b) John Locke: Tabula Rasa Knowledge is that which is acquired. A person is born with an empty mind. Man acquires knowledge through the process of time- experience. 3. Immanuel Kant: Synthetic a priori knowledge Knowledge for Kant is derived from the idealist thought that it is derived from the unity of the body/senses and the intellect. Reality is formless. What gives shape to reality is the human mind. Hence, we do not acquire knowledge but we project it to the world. The acquisition of knowledge is dependent on the categories or the conditions of the human mind. In addition, we can only know so much. Nevertheless, the limitation of knowledge is never negative in its sense, it is an opening to the beyond. Example, we can only know a person so much. We can know the person as it appears before us. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 13 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty However, our knowledge of that person is very dependent on our “categorical constructs”- it’s very dependent on how much the mind perceived. We can know the name, complexion, size, and shape. However, we can never know the totality of the person. Hence, our knowledge is just a projection of our mind. 4. Other Notable Philosophers a) Friedrich Nietzsche He is a critic of religion. One of his critiques is that the Christian religion causes “sklavenmorale” (slave morality). This means that Christianity is creating virtues to mask weakness which is a common morality among slaves. For example, kindness is a mask against surrendering people you have no match with; obedience is a mask against submitting to people you hate; humility is a mask against inability to do something greater; forgiveness is a mask against not being able to take revenge against those who wronged you. According to Nietzsche, we have to surpass the limitations of man imposed to us by the Christian religion. He also said “God is dead” which means that our idea of God died because He is replaced by science. Religious practices are abandoned by man because science is the ones satisfying his needs. For example, prayer for healing is replaced by medicine. b) Albert Camus He believes that life has no meaning and we must rejoice about it. This is because we have the freedom to define it ourselves. His existential philosophy can be seen from his writings about the Myth of Sisyphus, a legend of King Sisyphus who was casted to forever roll a rock up the mountain and the rock falls when he reached the top. Our lives are like Sisyphus’. It has no meaning. But we can create our own meaning to it. c) Jean Paul Sartre He believes that existence precedes essence. This means that we are born without meaning; that we exist first. He tells us that as we go through our life that we find our essence (meaning or purpose). You can observe the trend of philosophy in the different periods of time, from the era of the ancient philosophers to the existentialists and modern philosophers. What we can take from this lesson is that philosophers are influenced by what is happening around them. They use social forces or issues as themes or subject matter to their philosophical activity. Their perspectives are also affected by their background, situation, values, religion, economics statues, and political leanings. These are clear evidences that philosophy is really big and diverse, and you can encounter a swathe of perspectives by immersing yourself to it. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 14 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion  Introduction to the Philosophy of the Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Human Person 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Grade Level/Section: Senior High School Module 1 – Philo Subject Teacher: HUMSS Faculty SYNTHESIS Philosophy in the earlier times has been regarded as the sum and summit of all sciences of human knowledge because it has been regarded as compendium of all knowledge. It started when human beings started to be curious and to wonder about the things around them. “What is the ultimate material of the universe?” It should be noted that the Milesians are not ultimately concerned with mainly satisfying the answer to the question, but they more interested in finding the significance of their relationship to their world. Doing Philosophy enables a person to engage in critical analysis and interpretation of concepts, definitions, arguments, and problems. Doing Philosophy also improves problem-solving and decision making. The ability to analyze a problem or dilemma, identify the significant aspects, and come up with alternative solutions is an important skill learned through philosophy. In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic point of view-the perception of looking at all aspects of a situation first before making a conclusion. Wisdom as it refers to a person’s ability to apply knowledge to daily life particularly in making sound choices and judgment is the intended product of philosophizing. Philosophizing is oftentimes attributed to looking at reality from the lens of Philosophy. However, Philosophical lens and philosophizing have distinct characteristic. A philosophical lens offers a substantive insight or reading of a text while a method of philosophizing gives us the procedures or step by step guide on doing a philosophy. In short, a philosophical lens is Substantive while a method of philosophizing is Procedural. Finally, knowledge of Philosophy can contribute to self-development. REFERENCES: Dela Cruz, M. (2010). Introduction to Philosophy. Retrieved from: https://www.scribd.com/doc/41261921/Unit-1-Introduction-to-Philosophy-Lesson-1 Dela Cruz, R. (2015). Introduction to Philosophy and its Branches. Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/document/273188933/An-Introduction-to-Philosophy Kenny, Anthony (2006). An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy: Blackwell Publishing: Retrieved from: https://svetlogike.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/an-illustrated-brief-history-of- western-philosophy.pdf Ramos, Christine Carmela. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of Human Person. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store School of Life (2014). What is Philosophy for. Retrieved from: https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/what-is-philosophy-and-whats-it-for/ Sioco, M. & VInzons, I. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Quezon City: VIbal Group, Inc. Introduction to Philosophy: Definition & Nature | Page 15 of 15 Edited By: Mr. Erwin John E. Resurreccion