Philosophy 1st Quarter PDF

**Philosophy (1^ST^ QUARTER)** **NATURE AND FUNCTION OF PHILOSOPHY** **PHILOSOPHY** - Combination of two Greek words, which are "**Philo**" (**love**) and "**Sophia**" (**wisdom**) - Means "**love of wisdom**", "pursuit of knowledge and truth", "systematic investigation" - Uses hu...

**Philosophy (1^ST^ QUARTER)** **NATURE AND FUNCTION OF PHILOSOPHY** **PHILOSOPHY** - Combination of two Greek words, which are "**Philo**" (**love**) and "**Sophia**" (**wisdom**) - Means "**love of wisdom**", "pursuit of knowledge and truth", "systematic investigation" - Uses human reason to investigate the ultimate **causes**, **reasons**, and **principles** which governs all things - Mother of all sciences - Way of life - Persistent quest for knowledge and truth **ORIGIN OF PHILOSOPHY** - Greece is the birthplace of philosophy in the West - Thales is the **Father of Philosophy** - He's approach highlights the difference between religion and philosophy. Religion rests on faith while philosophy rests on reason. **PHILOSOPHICAL ACTIVITY** **Characterized by 3 things:** 1\. Philosophy involves the widest generalizations 2\. It's all about fundamental -- root cause that explain almost everything in a given context 3\. It is Holistic -- driven by the desire to integrate things into a one coherent whole **BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY** -To answer "Where am I?"- **METAPHYSICS** - Deal with question regarding reality and existence -To answer "How do I know it?"- **EPISTEMOLOGY** - Study of the nature and means of human knowledge **LOGIC** - Science and art of correct thinking and reasoning -To answer "What should I do?"- **ETHICS (MORALITY)** - Deals with human actions whether good or bad, right or wrong, acceptable or unacceptable, justifiable or unjustifiable. **AESTHETICS** - Deals with the nature of art/ objective judgement of beauty **POLITICS** - deals with the principles of a proper social system. **PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON** - Area in philosophy that understands the human person from a philosophical perspective. **PRAKTICAL USES OF PHILOSOPHY** 1. For critical analysis and interpretation of concepts, definitions, arguments and problems 2. Improves problem-solving and decision making 3. Develop clean and adequate articulation of ideas 4. Wisdom-application of knowledge/sound choices and judgements 5. Self-development **NOTABLE ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS** **PHYTHAGORAS (570 BCE -- 495 BCE)** - Mathematician and scientist - Credited with formulating the Pythagorean theorem **HERACLITUS (535 BCE -- 475 BCE)** - Proposed that everything that exists is based on a higher order or plan which he called logos - For him, change is a permanent aspect of the human condition - Credited with the saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice." **DEMOCRITUS (460 BCE -- 370 BCE)** - Devoted himself to the study of the causes of natural phenomena - Among the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles called **atoms** **DIOGENS OF SINOPE (412 BCE -- 323 BCE)** - Known advocate of living a simple and virtuous life - His emphasis on austerity and simplicity often went to the extreme, and he was said to have lived like a beggar - His teachings and views were later developed by his followers and influenced the development of several schools of philosophy such as **Cynicism** and **Stoicism**. **SOCRATES (470 BCE -- 399 BCE)** - Considered the famous philosopher of ancient times - Made contributions to the field of ethics - Was credited with formulating the **Socratic method** -- means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that let the learner examine and analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic **PLATO (427 BCE -- 347 BCE)** - Student of Socrates - **H**e wrote down his mentor's teaching and incorporated some of his own ideas into them - Plato's most significant ideas included his **Theory of Forms**, which proposes that everything that exist is based on an idea or template than can only be perceived in the mind - Also known for his **dialectic** - a method of inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to arrive at a new knowledge - He's lasting contribution to learning was his founding of the **Academy**, an institution of **ARISTOTLE (384 BCE TO 322 BCE)** - Attended the Academy, and was the prominent student of Plato - For him, all ideas and views are based on perception and our reality is based on what we can sense and perceive - His studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise to **deductive reasoning** - the process by which specific statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or generalization **PHILOSOPHICAL TOOLS AND PROCESSES** Greek philosophers gave us how to use our intellect to understand realities around us. The tools that they frequently utilized are the following: **1. PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS** - Philosophy was born because of ignorance. If one is ignorant, he asks questions and if he keeps on questioning the more knowledge he acquires. **Types of questions:** **SIMPLE QUESTIONS** - influenced by curiosity and sense of wonder **SERIOUS QUESTIONS** - influenced by our experiences and circumstances **DEEP QUESTIONS** - influenced to search for meaningful answers **SOCRATES** is considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times. - Known for **Socratic Method**, a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals **DIALECTICS** -- term used to describe a method of philosophical argument that involves some sort of contradictory process between opposing sides. **2. LOGICAL REASONING** - Process of thinking about something in a logical way in order to form a conclusion or judgement. - Reasoning is the method we use in doing philosophy. **DEDUCTIVE REASONING** - General/universal argument to specific/particular argument- Conclusion **Ex**: Premise 1: All human beings are mortal Premise 2: But the President of the Philippines is a human being Conclusion: Therefore, the President of the Philippines is mortal. **INDUCTIVE REASONING** - Begins with particular/specific statement to universal/general argument. **Ex**: Premise: Student A, B, C, D, E, F.... are wearing school ID. Conclusion: Therefore, all students are wearing ID **PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW AND HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE** **PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW** - Looking at the situation only in one part and not seeing the whole situation - Defined as a way or a method how one sees or perceives the reality or a phenomenon - A perspective that is based on one of the component parts of a whole. focuses on specific aspects of the situation **HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE** - Seeing the situation as a whole by connecting its parts and looking through the bird's eye view - Looking at the thing or person from various perspectives - Learning and seeing how a thing is related to everything else - Requires to have an open mindset  **CRITICAL THINKING** - The careful, reflective, rational, and a systematic approach to questions of very general interest. **Attributes of a critical thinker include**: - Looks for evidence to support assumptions and beliefs - Adjusts opinions - Looks for proof - Examines problem - Rejects irrelevant and incorrect information **PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION** **REFLECTION** - Activity that requires a person to examine his or her thoughts, feelings and actions and learn from experience. - Allows us to have opportunities to think more deeply about our action, our motivations for doing such action, and even its possible consequences **Two types of reflection:** **PRIMARY REFLECTION** - The ability to think logically. - The ability of the mind to construct and evaluate arguments. - It examines its object by abstraction, by analytically breaking it down into its constituent parts. - It is concerned with definitions, essences and technical solutions to problems. **SECONDARY REFLECTION** - Type of reflection that enables us to look deeper into our experiences and see the bigger picture of reality. - It integrates the fragmented and compartmentalized experience into a whole - It is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. **MORAL THEOLOGY** - employs the **STOP** sign as guide post of moral decision making. **S** = **Search** out the facts. (It is necessary that all means should be exhausted to better understand the issue.) **T** = **Think**, reflect and analyze the facts, its negative or positive effects, advantages or disadvantages. **O** = How it affects **Others**. We should always consider others in every decision that we make. Every action that we take has always a social dimension. It affects ourselves, others and community where we belong. **P =** stands for **Pray**. We are human beings with limitations. If our best efforts are not enough, then there is no way but look up for divine or God for enlightenment and guidance. **KNOWLEDGE OF TRUTH** **EPISTEMOLOGY** - Science devoted to the discovery of the proper method of acquiring and validating knowledge **Purpose of Epistemology:** 1\. To show how we can acquire knowledge. 2\. To give us a method of demonstrating whether the knowledge we acquired is really knowledge (i.e., true). **KNOWLEDGE** - Clear awareness and understanding of something. - it is **[provided by facts]** - it is **[based on reality]** - it is **[observable and evident]** on the real world **2 Ways to Acquire Knowledge:** 1. **EMPIRICISM** - Acquire knowledge using our senses  2. **RATIONALISM** - Acquire knowledge by thinking with the use of our minds **Process of Acquiring Knowledge:** 1. **REALITY** - To know is to know something. This "something" is what philosophers call reality, existence, being. 2. **PERCEPTION** - Our first and only contact with reality is through our senses. Knowledge begins with perceptual knowledge. 3. **CONCEPT** - Abstract or generic idea generalized from particular instances 4. **PROPOSITION** - Statements about the world or reality are called propositions. Propositions may or may not carry the truth. **FACTS** - Propositions or statements observed to be real and truthful **CLAIM** - Proposition that requires further examination; can be contested 5. **ARGUMENT** - Series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader/ listener that a claim/ opinion is truthful. Group of statements that serve to support a conclusion. **Domains of Truth:** 1. **OBJECTIVE DOMAIN** - Related to scientific truths - Pertains to the natural world that maintains a relative independence from the perspective and attitude of human beings that perceived them. **Ex:** - Typhoon season - Water's boiling point (100 degrees celsius 2. **SOCIAL DOMAIN** - Truth is related to a general agreement or consensus on what is right as opposed to what is wrong. - Based on norms (standard of acceptable behavior in society) **Ex:** - Maintaining silence inside the chapel - Cheering loudly in a basketball game - Being silent in the library 3. **PERSONAL DOMAIN** - Truth is related to "SINCERITY" - Consistent to inner thoughts and intentions needs to establish "trust" **TRUTH** - Has passed the "procedures of justification" **JUSTIFICATION** - Process of proving the truth or validity of a statement. - This process is made up of ways of critically testing a claim against certain criteria. **TRUTH** - Knowledge validated based on the facts of reality are independent of your thoughts, feelings or preferences **OPINION** - Statement of judgment of a person about something in the world. - Opinions are bases for making arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a fact. - Statement of judgment that are in need of further justification. **CONCLUSION** - Judgment based on certain facts - Could still be contested or questioned **BELIEFS** - Statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. **EXPLANATIONS** - Statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why statement is true. **Characteristics of an Opinion:** 1. **C**annot be confirmed 2. **O**pen to interpretation 3. **B**ased on emotions 4. **I**nherently biased **Characteristics of Truth:** 1. **C**an be confirmed with other sources 2. **I**ndependent of one's interpretation, preferences and biases 3. **B**ased on the facts of reality **THEORIES OF TRUTH** **3 Theories of Truth** 1. **CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF TRUTH** - What we believe or say is true if it corresponds to the way things actually are based on the facts. - Would have sense perception or experience as its source of knowledge. 2. **COHERENCE THEORY OF TRUTH** - Deals with the consistency of the truth of statements being claimed within the system that is being used or employed. - 3. **PRAGMATIC THEORY OF TRUTH** - States that a belief/statement is true if it has a useful. - (pragmatic) PRACTICAL application in the world. If it does not, then it is not true. **METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING** **DIALECT METHOD** - Formulated by the Greek philosopher Socrates - Understanding something through a series of question - The method starts with eliciting the definition of a certain word from a person who appears to be familiar (or "pretends" to be familiar) with its meaning, then points out the imperfections of the understanding of the person through a series of questions**.**    **PRAGMATIC METHOD** - Pragmatism was popularized by William James and institutionalized in American culture by John Dewey**.** - Pragmatists seek to make philosophy relevant by solving real life problems - Aims to test the view of science, religion and philosophy by determining their practical results. - Successful experience is the verification process of truth for the pragmatists **Ex:** - if I practice this belief, will it bring success or failure? Will I solve problems or create problems? **PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD** - Conceived by Edmund Husserl - To build a philosophy free from any biases or preconceived ideas - One can only do this if one returns to immediate experience. **PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFLECTIONS** - **Primary Reflection** refers to distinguish who we are (the self) against other things (the non-self or objects) - **Secondary Reflection** refers to when we view that our self is bigger and more expansive. result of secondary reflection is a more expansive view of the self until it embraces the world **ANALYTIC METHOD** - Initiated by philosophers at Cambridge University (England): - George Edward Moore (1873-1958)  - Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) - Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951). - To clarify how philosophers used words through an analysis of language **FALLACIES** **LOGIC** - Branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis of arguments - Studies and elaborates on good argumentation. - Study of correct thinking and reasoning **FALLACY** - Group of statement that appear to be arguments, but fail to support the conclusion. **Ex:** - There is no hope in the Philippine government, because the Philippines is a tropical country. **Types of Fallacies:** **1. Argumentum ad Hominem** **(Attacking the Person)** - **Hominem came from Latin word "homo"** which means man. - Means hitting the person below the belt instead of focusing on the issue at hand. - Attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the argument itself. **Ex:** - How can we believe him when he talks about social distancing, he is a lawyer who is a liar **2. Argumentum ad Baculum** **(Appeal to Force)** - **Baculum** came from a Latin word which means scepter or stick. - A scepter is a symbol of authority. - This is committed when a person uses threat or force to advance an argument. - Using the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance an argument. **Ex:** - TV Patrol is the best news program on TV. If you don't believe me, I won't let you watch the TV. **3. Argumentum ad Misercordiam** **(Appeal to pity)** - **Misercordiam** came from Latin word Misericordia which means pity or compassion. - A person uses emotion such as pity to convince someone - Using emotions such as pity or sympathy. **Ex:** - All these charges are baseless; this is just plain harassment- can't you see how this affect my family? **4. Argumentum ad Populum** **(Appeal to people"/ Bandwagon fallacy)** - ***Populum*** is the Latin word for people. - Most of TV commercials are guilty this argument which exploit people's vanity, desires, etc. - The idea is presented acceptable because a lot of people accept it. **Ex:** - I'm sure you want to have an iphone. Almost 80% of your schoolmates are using it **5. Argumentum ad Tradition/ Antiquitatem** **(Appeal to Tradition)** - Traditio means tradition. - Advancing an idea since it has been practiced for a long time. - "This is the way it has always been done". **Ex:** - Marriage should be between a man and a woman. It has been so for a long time in this country; it should remain so today and in the future. **6. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam** **(Appeal to Ignorance)** - ***Ignorantiam*** a Latin word for **ignorance**. - Whatever has been proven false must be true and vice versa. - Committed when a person could not give a counter argument or if they could not present any evidences or witnesses to prove or disprove the statement of another, thier assertions are correct and the opponent is wrong. **Ex:** - "According to Zecharia Sitchin, the author of the book Cosmic Code, Adam was the first test tube baby." Since nobody proves otherwise, therefore it is true **7. Petitio Principii** ***(Begging the Question)*** - A conclusion is taken for granted in the premise. - Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true. - Also known as **"circular argument"** **Ex:** - I have the right to free speech; therefore, you cannot stop me from talking **8. Hasty Generalization** - Committed when one reaches a generalization based on insufficient evidence. **Ex:** - Our neighbor who is a police officer was convicted of being a drug dealer, therefore, all police officers are drug dealers. **9. Cause-and-effect** - Assuming that the effect is related to a cause because both events occur one after the other. - Assuming a "cause-and-effect relationship between unrelated events. **Ex:** - Jen comes to class just as the bell rings every day. Jen's arrival at class causes the bell to ring **10. Fallacy of Composition** - Infers that something is true of a part, is true of a whole. **Ex:** - You are a doctor, therefore you came from a family of doctors **11. Fallacy of Division** - Infers that something is true of the whole, must also be true on its parts. **Ex:** - You come from a family of doctors and intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this course! **12. Fallacy of Equivocation** - Using the same term in a different situation with different meaning. - Calling two different things by the same name. **Ex:** - Humans walk by their legs. The table has legs. Therefore, the table walks by its legs **13. Fallacy of Accident** - Occurs when one attempts to apply a general rule to an irrelevant situation. **Ex:** - Cutting people with knives is a crime. Surgeons cut people with knives. Surgeons are criminals **14. Argumentum ad *Verecundiam*** ***(Argument from Authority)*** - Committed when a person uses a name of a popular celebrity or name of an expert to put more weight in the assertion being made. **Ex:** - My assignment in Philosophy is not wrong. Ms. Aguirre, my English Academic teacher who is known internationally as a novelist, confirmed my answer.