Understanding Human Personality - Lecture Notes PDF

CHAPTER 14 Understanding Human Personality 1 Chapter 14 Outline Trait Personality Theories Psychodynamic Theories Humanistic Theories Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories Self Theories Comparing Personality Theories  What is Personality? Personality...

CHAPTER 14 Understanding Human Personality 1 Chapter 14 Outline Trait Personality Theories Psychodynamic Theories Humanistic Theories Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories Self Theories Comparing Personality Theories  What is Personality? Personality Complex set of psychological qualities that influence an individual’s characteristic patterns of behaviour across different situations and over time Fluid vs. Stable Theories of personality used to both understand and predict behaviour 3 Underlying Characteristics – that people differ & are consistent across situations, behaviour is caused by internal factors (not environmental), guides and directs behaviour Approaches classify people according to types or traits of personality Personality “Traits” Traits We use words to describe ourselves and others – calm, caring, organized, assertive, outgoing Enduring qualities or attributes that predispose individuals to behave consistently across situations The sum total of typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that makes a person unique.  Personality structures (not environment) determine behaviour  They are placed on a continuum  Universal Traits? Cattell’s 16 personality factors (16PF)  Identified source traits  Survey all words in the the English language that described personal characteristics (170 adjectives)  Used Factor Analysis to create 16 broad factors on a continuum Eysenck’s dimensions of extraversion and neuroticism  Linked to Hippocrates’ humours  Reticular formation – approach or avoidance  People can fall anywhere in the circle 5 Universal Traits? Extraversion- Neuroticism-Stability Psychoticism- Introversion Superego Outgoing, sociable, Tense, anxious, moody, Impulsive, aggressive, optimistic, etc etc hostile etc. Reserved, unsociable, Calm, even-tempered, etc. Empathetic, cooperative, quiet, etc altruistic Driven by level of cortical Driven by limbic system Driven by hormonal arousal in cortex of brain and autonomic nervous function & our system neurotransmitters Reticular formation ANS drives fight or flight Increased androgen mediates cortical arousal response (testosterone) and relative absence of serotonin Introverts—higher base High N—more labile, Lead to heightened level activation, avoid longer-lasting ANS aggressiveness, further stimulation, low reactions impersonal attitudes, and pain tolerance antisocial behavior Extroverts—lower base High N—continues to Very little attention in level activation, seek process stressor even exercise domain; can be 6 further stimulation, high when it is no longer advantageous in certain  Big 5 Traits Costa and McCrae & the Big Five (NEO) Five factor model describes broad traits that are argued to underlie all traits we have Still used today Cross cultural https://drj.virtualave.net/IPIP/ipipneo120.htm validation Evaluating Trait Theories Advantages: Describe people’s personalities Disadvantages: Don’t explain how behaviour generated & personality develops Only portray a static view of personality – often through one trait Need for a profile and change in traits Traits & Personality Can study the heritability of traits using behavioural genetics Examine the degree to which traits & behaviour patterns are linked with identical (MZ) and fraternal (DZ) twins Some studies predict MZ twins to be similar (.50 correlation) – lower for DZ twins If traits predict behaviour and are stable, why the consistency paradox or person situation controversy? State vs. Trait or Nature vs. Nuture  Psychodynamic Theories All psychodynamic theories are based on the assumption that powerful inner forces (our unconscious) shapes personality & motivate behaviour Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has been one of the most influential  All behaviour was motivated by psychic energy  Innate drives form tension systems 2 basic drives: self-preservation & Psychosexual Development Psychic energy in forms of libido/eros (sexual desires) and thanatos (death instinct) Eros operates from birth and manifests in stages Linked to pleasure in different erogenous zones and some conflicts to be resolved (e.g., Oedipus complex) Too much gratification or too much frustration at any stage leads to fixation Fixation linked to adult personality characteristics Psychosexual Development Psychosexual Development Object Relations Theory – people are motivated by a need to have relationships with others. Personality forms in the relationship between children and their caregivers. Becomes working models/unconscious influence Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Psychic determinism Assumption that all mental and behavioural reactions (symptoms) are determined by earlier experiences Freud emphasized how unconscious processes can shape behaviour (iceberg concept)  Manifest content – thoughts & feelings in awareness  Latent content – concealed thoughts & memories  Revealed through Freudian slips & dreams Conscious Contact with outside world Preconscious Material just beneath surface Ego of awareness Reality principle Realistic way of Unconscious fulfilling the ID  Secondary Superego Well below surface Opposes of awareness; process thinking the ID’s difficult to retrieve desires Moral Id imperatives Inborn part of the Ideals unconscious mind – very selfish Pleasure principle Primary process thinking – e.g, dreams Structure of Personality ID  Storehouse of fundamental drives (unconscious, irrational, impulsive)  No contact with the outer world  Operates on the Pleasure Principle SUPEREGO  Storehouse of society’s values, standards, and morals  Idea of our “conscience”  In conflict with the id EGO  Reality-based aspect of self (referee between id & superego)  Conscious level/logical thinking  Operates on Reality Principle Defense Mechanisms Ego defence mechanisms Mental strategies the ego uses to defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses that seek expression and the superego’s demand to deny them “Put the lid on the id” Repression is the primary defence, additional defences needed when anxiety is present Defence Mechanisms 18 Evaluating Freud’s Theories  Theories were criticized on several bases: - Concepts are vague and not operationally defined - Doesn’t reliably predict behaviour, applied retrospectively - Developmental theory but not based on studies with children - Minimizes traumatic experiences and its interpretation as dreams - Looked at clinical populations - Androcentric (male-centred) bias Humanistic Theories Humanistic Theories Key aspect of humanistic theories is self- actualization Constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential Motivation for behaviour comes from unique tendencies (innate & learned) to develop and change towards this goal (Rogers, Maslow, Horney).. The goal is unique for each person Self-actualization sometimes conflicts with need for approval from self & others (role of unconditional positive regard from others) Positive regard helped us to cope with interpersonal & intrapsychic defences Humanistic Theories Holistic Explain people’s separate acts in terms of their entire personalities Dispositional Focus on innate qualities within a person that exert a major influence over the direction of behaviour Phenomenological Emphasize individual’s frame of reference and subjective view of reality rather than an observer Humanistic Theories Human needs organized; arranged from most basic to personal and advanced needs Lower needs must be met first or higher needs cannot operate Hierarchy of Needs begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied then higher- level safety needs become active then psychological needs become active  HUMANISTIC APPROACH: ROGERS Carl Rogers Self Theory Central concept = self-concept Organized , consistent set of perceptions & beliefs about oneself Our early lives children cannot separate themselves from their environment Self concept develops over time (e.g., the Me and the not Me) Once established - tendency to maintain it Self-consistency Consistency among ‘self-perceptions’ Congruence Consistency between self-perceptions & experience  Roger’s Self-Concept Self Ideal self the person I the person I think I am think I want Congruence – to be consistencies between the two The larger the discrepancies between the two (i.e., self perception and experiences) the more psychological problems one experiences - deny or distort reality to be consistent with self-concept Healthy Adjustment Fully Function Self – when there is congruence Karen Horney believed that we require a certain condition for our “real self” to flourish Humanistic Theories Evaluating Humanistic Theories  Theories were criticized on several bases: - Concepts are fuzzy and difficult to research - Not necessarily focused on individual characteristics (as compared to human nature) - Neglect important environmental variables Theories Bandura stresses interaction of individual factors, behaviour, and environment Self reflection & self reactiveness Reciprocal determinism – aka the Triarchic Reciprocal Causality Must examine all components to understand personality Social-Cognitive Theories Past theories have neglected to consider the role of learning and environmental contingencies in personality Personality is learned behavior Behavior influences future learning experiences – specific circumstances allow us to understand why Julian Rotter & Expectancy Theory Expectancy Reward value Reinforcement  EXPECTANCY THEORY Expectancy & Reinforcement Behaviour governed by 2 factors (Rotter) Expectancy Likelihood of consequences given behaviour Reinforcement How much we desire or dread consequences  INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC LOCUS OF CONTROL Intrinsic – motivated by inherent nature of an activity (ie: make oneself feel good) People are motivated by the inherent nature of the activity, the pleasure of mastering something new, or the natural consequences of the activity.  Affected by how praise is given – needs to be sincere, focused on effort, and not in comparison Extrinsic – motivation is external to the activity, not inherent activated by external rewards (get a raise in pay)– or threats of punishment  Must be desired by the person to be a motivator  Locus of control – the extent of belief that an individual can control or cannot control certain events Social-Cognitive Theories Mischel’s cognitive-affective theory  Behaviour is an interaction of persons and situations (depends on a number of person variables and situational variables) – goes beyond traits – comprised of 5 cognitive affective units Social-Cognitive Theories Mischel’s cognitive-affective theory  Behaviour an interaction of persons and situations (depends on a number of person variables and situational variables) – goes beyond traits (CAPS Model) Social-Cognitive Theories Bandura also believed self-efficacy was central in personality Self-efficacy is an individual's beliefs about their abilities and/or expectations about achieving success based on abilities Social-Cognitive Theories Based on: Mastery experiences/Actual accomplishments Vicarious experience Verbal Persuasion Emotional/Physiological arousal The importance of expectations and self-efficacy based on self and environmental perception WHAT INFLUENCES SELF-EFFICACY? Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories  Social-cognitive theories have been criticized on the basis of: - Theories overlook emotion & impact of unconscious motivation - Vague explanations of development of personal constructs & competencies - Only focus on current behaviour  Has led to major contributions to psychology, education, and treatments - people are different across situations/experiences  Multiple perspectives coming together, as well being well defined and researched