Chapter 3: Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development PDF

# Chapter 3: Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development **Introduction:** The study of human development requires a set of explanations to guide understanding of the complex changes that occur in each stage. These theories offer description, prediction, rationalization, and just...

# Chapter 3: Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development **Introduction:** The study of human development requires a set of explanations to guide understanding of the complex changes that occur in each stage. These theories offer description, prediction, rationalization, and justifications for these changes, crucial for developing instructional materials and conducting assessments. **Similarities and Differences:** - Theories may have different premises and assumptions but share similarities, forming schools of thought. - For example, some theories explain how people develop cognitive abilities, the changes between stages, and the elements contributing to this development. - These theories are helpful in identifying expectations, like when a particular change is expected to occur. - They provide possible means to understand a particular phenomenon, requiring critical and reflective actions regarding their suitability and applicability. **Types of Theories:** - **Empirical evidence:** Some theories have empirical evidence supporting their applicability, like in classrooms. - **Untested theories:** Others have not been tested and should not be taken as conclusive. - **Cultural validation:** Some require validation through cultural validation. **Discussion of Perspectives:** - This chapter discusses perspectives in the study of human development, particularly in children and adolescents. - Each perspective identifies its implications in the learning process. **Intended Learning Outcome (ILO):** Associate human development perspectives and approaches with specific learning principles. ## **Engage** - Perspectives on the science of human development have evolved over the past 50 years. - Factors such as culture and human agency are given more attention, shifting the focus of research. - Cross-cultural validation of knowledge and identification of context are priorities for human development scientists. - Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches are becoming more prominent. - Understanding human development requires considering psychological aspects and the influence of other sciences, such as neuroscience, public health, microbiology, biochemistry, dietetics, education, and social sciences. - Collaboration is necessary to understand the individual holistically. ## **Perspectives in Human Development:** ### 1. Learning Paradigm - **Assumption:** People undergo stages of development through interactions with their environment via observation, conditioning, reward, and punishment systems. - **Stimuli association:** The extent to which stimuli are associated with one another leads to the acquisition and modification of behaviors. - **Intentional and unintentional experiences:** Development can occur through both intentional and unintentional experiences. - **Examples:** - Children develop a high level of appreciation for reading books due to rewards from parents. - Teachers may unintentionally convey negative perceptions about mathematics, influencing children's perception. - **Stimulus-response relationship:** Learning theories center around the relationship between stimulus and response. - **Complexity:** This relationship is not always simple and linear, as numerous stimuli can be present in the environment influences behavior change. - **Classroom example:** Cognitively stimulating decorations can facilitate learning, alongside teachers and peer interactions. - **Systematic identification:** To effectively influence learning, teachers must systematically identify stimuli that can influence development. #### a. Classical Conditioning: - **Pairings of Stimuli:** Explains development based on the pairing of two stimuli. - **Association:** One stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response as the first one. - **Observable Responses:** Classical conditioning emphasizes observable responses, downplaying cognitive and affective processes. - **Unconditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Response (US & UR):** - Unconditioned response is a natural, reflexive response. - Example: An infant's sucking reflex when its mouth or lips are touched (US & UR). - **Neutral Stimulus:** A stimulus that initially does not evoke a response. - **Conditioned Stimulus and Conditioned Response (CS & CR):** - **Conditioning:** Repeatedly pairing US with the previously neutral stimulus (CS). - **Conditioned response:** The neutral stimulus (CS) now evokes the same response as the US (CR). - Example: Repeatedly pairing touching the infant's lips with feeding (US) creates an association. Eventually, touching the lips (CS) alone triggers sucking (CR). #### b. Operant Conditioning: - **Association of Responses:** Explains development based on the association of responses. - **Reinforcement:** A consequence that follows a response and increases the probability of its repetition. - **Reinforcement Function:** The intention of reinforcement is for the person to repeat the behavior. - **Positive and Negative Reinforcement:** Reinforcement can be positive (giving something desirable) or negative (removing something undesirable). - **Example:** Tantrums in children may be reinforced by parents giving in to their demands. - **Interest and Motivation for Learning:** Children's interest in learning is influenced by the quality of their experiences. - **Rewarding vs. Detrimental Experiences:** Rewarding learning experiences enhance motivation, while detrimental ones hinder engagement. #### c. Social Cognitive Learning: - **Central Premise:** Development is centered on interaction with other people. - **Imitation and Modeling:** Key processes in social cognitive learning. - **Models:** People who serve as references for behavior. - **Influences:** Models can have varying degrees of influence on individuals. - **Processes of Social Cognitive Learning:** - **Attention:** The extent to which individuals pay attention to the behavior of others. - **Retention:** Storing and recalling observed behaviors. - **Motor Reproduction:** Being able to physically reproduce the behavior. - **Motivation:** The consequence of performing the behavior, which influences future repetition. - **Examples:** - Parents, siblings, classmates, and teachers can serve as models of behavior. - Children's judgments about moral issues are influenced by adult models. - Demonstrating desired behaviors (like helping) encourages children to adopt similar behaviors. ### 2. Socio-Cultural Theories - **Central Influence:** Culture, including language, social norms, and collective experiences, strongly influences individual development. - **Lenses of Development:** Socio-cultural factors act as lenses shaping affective, cognitive, and behavioral experiences. - **Internalization:** Individuals internalize cultural beliefs and practices through interactions with family members, peers, school personnel, and community members. - **Examples:** Parental practices, interpersonal relationships, and political and social preferences shape development. #### a. Socio-Cultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky: - **Key Focus:** Importance of social interaction in cognitive development. - **Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):** The gap between assisted and non-assisted development of children's cognition. - **Scaffolding:** Assistance provided by adults or more competent peers that enables children to perform cognitive tasks they wouldn't be able to do alone. - **Expansion of ZPD:** Providing quality learning opportunities helps expand the ZPD and facilitates development. #### b. Cognitive Theory of Development of Jean Piaget: - **Cognitive Stages:** Individuals progress through cognitive stages, which include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. - **Cultural Influence:** Cultural content, materials, and activities shape these stages. - **Role of Language:** Language plays a crucial role in achieving cognitive milestones, particularly in processing information and making meaning. - **New Connections:** Language is used to create connections between ideas and acquire new information. ### 3. Ethology - Evolutionary and Socio-biological - **Genetic and Environmental Influences:** Human development is influenced by genetics and adaptation to one's changing environment. - **Maturation:** Inherited characteristics unfold according to a predetermined schedule of readiness. - **Normative Development:** Typical developmental milestones observed in most individuals (e.g., walking at 18 months, talking at two years). - **Adaptation:** Changes in development occur due to a need to adapt to environmental demands for survival. - **Examples:** Children learn to walk at about 18 months, and most children begin to talk at two years, despite variations in individual development. #### a. Konrad Lorenz: - **Ethological Perspective:** Pioneer in the ethological perspective. - **Adaptive Values:** Animals develop behavioral patterns that are adaptive for survival. - **Genetic Predisposition:** Species are genetically constructed to respond to specific information, leading to innate behaviors. - **Reflexive Reactions:** Innate reflexes help animals meet their basic needs. - **Human Behavioral Patterns:** Similarities between human and animal behavior patterns. - **Babyishness:** Human infants exhibit features that make them appear cute, triggering caregiving responses. #### b. Attachment Theories: - **Emotional Bonds:** Focus on development of emotional bonds between children and their primary caregivers. - **Prototype for Social Connection:** The attachment relationship with the caregiver serves as a prototype for future social connections. - **Secure Attachment:** A secure attachment bond promotes healthy social relationships. - **Insecure Attachment:** Insecure attachment can lead to challenges in forming healthy social relationships. - **Types of Insecure Attachment:** - Insecure-avoidant: Children exhibit avoidance of caregiver. - Insecure-ambivalent: Children express anxiety and distress when separated from caregivers. - **Mental Representation:** The quality of the infant-caregiver relationship affects the child's mental representation of social relationships, influencing future interactions. ### 4. System Approach - **Integrated View of Development:** Considers the interplay of various factors (genes, culture, learning) in shaping human development. - **Interaction of Nature and Nurture:** Emphasizes that individuals are products of both nature and nurture. - **Contextual Factors:** Development occurs within a specific context, including the social, historical, and cultural environment. - **Holistic View:** Provides a holistic understanding of the individual, considering the influence of multiple factors. - **Subsystems of Development:** Organismic (biological), psychological (cognitive and emotional), and environmental (social and cultural) systems interact to influence development. #### a. Contextualism Theory of Richard Lerner: - **Embeddedness:** Emphasizes the importance of understanding the individual within their context. - **Variations in Development:** Contextual factors contribute to variations in individual development. - **Probabilistic Epigenesis:** Development is not predetermined but rather probabilistic, meaning there is a range of potential outcomes, influenced by ongoing interactions with the environment. - **Importance of Education:** The theory emphasizes the importance of providing learning opportunities and support for individual talents. #### b. Ecological System Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner: - **Systems of Development:** Development is influenced by five interconnected systems: - **Microsystem:** The individual's immediate environment (e.g., family, school, peers). - **Mesosystem:** Interactions between different microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher interactions). - **Exosystem:** External environments that indirectly affect the individual (e.g., community services, workplace policies). - **Macrosystem:** Broad cultural and societal influences (e.g., political systems, cultural values). - **Chronosystem:** Changes in the individual and their environment over time. - **Dynamic Interactions:** The systems interact and influence each other in a dynamic way. **Conclusion:** The perspectives on human development continue to evolve and improve. Theories are continually tested to enhance their understanding of individual differences and the complex interplay of factors that impact human development. It is essential to consider the limitations of these theories and to acknowledge that human development is a multifaceted and ever-changing process.