3Ronald E. Riggio, Stefanie K. Johnson - Introduction to Industrial_Organizational Psychology-Routledge (2022)-186-215.pdf

C h a pt e r 6 Employee Training and Development Inside Tips ISSUES OF TRAINING AND TRAINING METHODS Tis chapter concludes the focus on personnel processes by looking at how employees are trained and developed over their careers. We will...

C h a pt e r 6 Employee Training and Development Inside Tips ISSUES OF TRAINING AND TRAINING METHODS Tis chapter concludes the focus on personnel processes by looking at how employees are trained and developed over their careers. We will also touch on topics that were introduced in several of the earlier chapters. We return to methodological issues (particularly experi- mental design issues) when considering the evaluation of training programs. Te section on assessing training needs is in some ways related to the discussion of job analysis procedures in Chapter 3, except that now we are assessing what knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) workers need to perform their jobs, rather than analyzing the jobs themselves. Analyses of employee performance data (Chapter 5) can also assist in training needs analysis. When going through the discussion on employee training, you should see some similarities to the sort of “training” and education you are receiving in college. After all, learning is learning. You have just graduated from college. You went through the arduous process of applying for jobs, being screened, interviewed, and “courted” to some extent by your employer. You are anxious to get to work—to show them what you can do and to make your mark on the company. However, before you are able to get started, the company sends you to a training center where you will learn the basics of the job, learn company policies and procedures, and learn about the culture of your new organization (we will discuss organizational culture and onboarding in Chapter 11 on Socialization and Working in Groups). employee training Employee training is a planned efort by an organization to facilitate employees’ planned organizational eforts learning, retention, and transfer of job-related behavior. In most organizations, train- to help employees learn job- ing is not limited to new employees, as various types of training and development related knowledge, skills, and programs are ofered at all stages of an employee’s career. other characteristics DOI: 10.4324/9781003143987-8 171  Human Resources Issues In this chapter, we will begin by examining areas of employee training. We will also examine the fundamentals of the learning process and how learning applies to employee training and development. We will then look at factors that afect the suc- cess of training programs. Next, we will look at how employee training needs are assessed and study general training methods. Finally, we will examine how training programs are evaluated. areas of employee training Training, like learning, is a lifelong process. Organizations need to provide for the wide variety of training needs of workers to stay competitive. We will briefy examine some of these specifc focuses of employee training and development pro- grams. One of the most common types of training, new employee training, will be covered in Chapter 11, in our discussion of employee socialization, along with diversity training and team training. Leadership training will be discussed in the leadership chapter (Chapter 14). We will focus here on the fundamentals of train- ing design. Retraining and Continuing Education Programs Considerable evidence indicates that a certain amount of the knowledge and skills of workers either erodes or becomes obsolete during their work careers, and this reality is only increasing with advancements in artifcial intelligence (Ghislieri et al., 2018). To maintain workers’ profciencies, organizations must encourage and support basic “refresher courses,” as well as continuing education programs that provide workers with new information. With rapid technological advancements, it is critical that the skills and knowledge of persons employed in jobs that require the use of advanced technology be constantly updated. Certain professionals, particularly those in licensed health-care professions such as medicine, dentistry, and clinical psychology, require some form of continuing educa- tion to continue to work in the feld. Other professionals, such as managers, lawyers, engineers, and architects, are also increasingly encouraged to participate in continu- ing education programs. Research on employee training/retraining suggests that organizations’ investment in employee training pays of. For example, in one study, employees showed more commitment to the organization after training, and there was a short-term decrease in absenteeism, presumably because employees realize that the frm is investing in them (Kampkötter & Marggraf, 2015). Another study found that training reduced employee turnover, but that the efect was mediated by employee job satisfaction (Koster et al., 2011). 172  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t Retirement Planning and Preparation Te training departments of many organizations ofer employees assistance in planning and preparing for retirement (Figure 6.1). Research suggests that many workers do not prepare well (or at all) for retirement (Kim & Moen, 2001). Seminars are ofered on such topics as making the retirement decision, retirement plans and options, invest- ment and money management, and services and opportunities for retirees and seniors. More general programs aimed at helping retirees adjust to a nonworking lifestyle are also ofered. An increase in preretirement training programs refects a general trend toward more employee training and greater concern for employees’ pre- and post- retirement welfare. One study found that both pre- and postretirement planning were needed for employees to successfully retire (Donaldson et al., 2010). Another study suggested that employees who think about retirement early by contributing to a retire- ment savings plan tended to be healthier than noncontributors—a positive outcome for both employees and organizations (Gubler & Pierce, 2014). Employee Career Development Organizations are becoming more and more aware of the need for greater atten- tion to be given to the development and planning of employees’ careers. Helping Figure 6.1 An employer-sponsored session for retirement planning. Source: Photograph by Amy Hirschi, found on Unsplash (https://unsplash.com/photos/W7aX Y5F2pBo). 173  Human Resources Issues workers plan their careers can help lead to a more productive, more satisfed, and more loyal workforce (Gafney, 2005). Tis may be particularly true for younger workers (Akkermans et al., 2014). Many organizations have developed formal career development systems, which beneft all parties involved, including workers, man- agers, and the organization (Maurer & Chapman, 2013; see Table 6.1). Career development systems typically ofer a variety of programs, including career counseling, courses in career planning, and workshops that provide tools and tech- niques for helping employees manage their careers. For example, career counseling programs might help individuals set career goals and develop a plan for getting the type of training and education necessary to meet those goals. Tey may also assist in fnding jobs for employees who are about to be laid of. With increased job mobility and organizational downsizing, research has demonstrated that it is very impor- tant today for employees to learn to take responsibility for and “self-manage” their careers (Barnett & Bradley, 2007). Moreover, companies that demonstrate they are concerned about employee career advancement are going to be more successful at attracting and retaining employees. Table 6.1 Benefts of a Career Development System For Managers/Supervisors For Employees For the Organization Increased skill in managing own Helpful assistance with career Better use of employee skills. careers decisions and changes Increased loyalty Greater retention of valued Enrichment of present job and Dissemination of information at all employees increased job satisfaction organizational levels Better communication between Better communication between Better communication within manager and employee employee and manager organization as a whole More realistic staf and development More realistic goals and expectations. Greater retention of valued planning Better feedback on performance employees Productive performance appraisal Current information about the Expanded public image as a discussions organization and future trends people-developing organization Increased understanding of the Greater sense of personal responsibility Increased efectiveness of personnel organization for managing career systems and procedures Enhanced reputation as a people developer Employee motivation for accepting new responsibilities Building of talent inventory for special projects Clarifcation of ft between organizational and individual goals Source: Leibowitz et al., 1986. 174  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t Fundamental Issues in employee training Employee training is rooted in basic theories of learning. Designers of good employee Social Learning theory training programs are familiar with learning theories and principles. Te most rel- learning theory that emphasizes the observational evant theories for employee training are social learning theory and cognitive theories learning of behavior of learning. Social learning theory emphasizes the observational learning of behav- ior (Bandura, 1997; Bandura & Walters, 1977). A key process in social learning Modeling theory is modeling. Modeling is imitative learning that occurs through observing learning that occurs through and reproducing another person’s action, such as when an employee learns to oper- the observation and imitation of the behavior of others ate a piece of machinery by watching a supervisor work with the equipment and imitating the supervisor’s actions. Cognitive theories of learning view workers as Cognitive theories of information processors, focusing on how new information is stored and retrieved and Learning how that information is used to produce work behavior (Cooke et al., 2003). Cogni- learning theories that emphasize that humans are tive theories are particularly useful in understanding complex thought processes, such information processors as how workers can go beyond learned information and come up with novel and creative solutions or ideas. Key Issues in the Success of Training Programs If employee training programs are to be successful, a number of key issues should be considered. For example, we must take care to see that learning achieved during the training sessions actually transfers to new behaviors at the worksite. We also need to consider the trainees’ willingness and readiness to learn. In addi- tion, we need to look at the structure of the training program in terms of when, where, and how training will take place. Let’s look more closely at these key train- ing issues. Transfer of Training An important concern is the transfer of training (Ford et al., 2018). How well does transfer of training learning transfer from the training situation to the actual work environment? Because concept dealing with whether training is actually applied in training transfer is infuenced by the degree of similarity between the training tasks the work setting and the actual job tasks, the most useful training programs directly address the actual tasks that are performed on the job. Positive transfer of learned tasks has been found to be maximized when the training mirrors the job and when the job environment allows for and is supportive of practicing newly acquired skills (see Grossman & Salas, 2011, for a review). Given this fact, organizations need to consider the very real 175  Human Resources Issues problem of developing training in one culture and then utilizing the same training design globally or in diferent cultures (Sarkar-Barney, 2004). Tere are numerous other factors that can increase transfer of training. Training transfer is also more likely to occur if the employee voluntarily chooses to enroll in the training program, as opposed to being required to attend the training (Curado et al., 2015). Setting training goals positively afects training transfer (Johnson et al., 2012). Goals are just one piece of creating accountability for transfer of train- ing (Grossman & Burke-Smalley, 2018). Other types of accountability, such as feedback from supervisors and positive reinforcement of utilizing new skills, also help to maintain transfer of training. One study found that, when trainees set goals for implementing the training strategies and feedback was given concerning the achievement of those goals, the trained behaviors tended to stay in place (Wexley & Baldwin, 1986). Without feedback and reinforcement, learned skills or procedures may deteriorate as workers forget some of their important elements, pick up bad hab- its that interfere with their application, or lapse into using old work strategies (Marx, 1982). Tus, attention should be given to the maintenance of newly learned work behaviors. It is also important that workers see the connection between the learning of new behaviors and how the use of the new learning will enhance their working lives. “Brush-up” or reminder training sessions should follow a few months down the line. In short, training should take place on a regular basis, be thorough, and continue throughout an employee’s career. For efective transfer and maintenance of learning, employees must see that learning new work skills helps them to be better, more productive workers, which in turn can lead to promotions and other forms of career advancement. A P P LY I n g I / O P S Y C H O L O g Y Diversity and Sexual harassment training One of the common ways that industrial/organizational demonstrating changes in behavior. Hayes et al., (2020) psychologists have worked to improve diversity and argue that diversity and sexual harassment training has inclusion in organizations is through diversity training. utilized relatively poor training design and evaluation. With internationalization and increased access to jobs, Although meta-analyses show positive efects for diver- work groups are becoming increasingly diverse, with sity training, at least on attitudes, and particularly when greater national and cultural diversity and more women combined with other diversity initiatives (Bezrukova et in the workforce. This has prompted organizations al., 2016), there is still much room for improvement. to allocate resources to diversity training programs For example, the benefts of training can be enhanced and eforts to prevent harassment, including sexual by doing a needs analysis (Brummel et al., 2019), by harassment. However, from a training perspective, ensuring that training is ongoing rather than a one-time many of these programs have fallen short in terms of event (Robinson et al., 2020), by using training sessions 176  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t A P P LY I n g I / O P S Y C H O L O g Y (Continued) that last over 4 hours and involve social interaction bystanders in training eforts (Lee, Hanson & Cheung, (Kalinoski et al., 2013), and by increasing accountabil- 2019). Yet, others still suggest that training is not the ity for transfer of training back on the job (Sachdev et full answer. Hernandez et al. (2020) argue that I/O psy- al., 2019). Other suggestions include extending diversity chologists should consider as well how recruitment, training from a focus on perpetrators to also focusing selection, and performance management systems could on creating allies (gardner & Alanis, 2020) and engaging also be used to reduce discrimination and harassment. Trainee Readiness A second consideration is what could be termed trainee readiness. A great deal of trainee readiness research indicates that positive employee attitudes toward training programs are the individual’s potential for successful training critical for training success (Noe, 1986). Is the trainee prepared to learn? Does the trainee feel the need for training and see the usefulness of the material that will be learned? Trainee ability, or “trainability,” is another important factor to consider (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). For example, does the employee possess the basic prerequisites to be a good candidate for learning these new behaviors? In other words, does the trainee have the aptitude to learn? Finally, if a training program is going to be successful, we must consider the trainee’s motivation (Tarenou, 2001). If a learner has no desire to learn new tasks, it is unlikely that much learning will take place (see Kraiger & Ford, 2021, for a review). Or if a trainee feels unable to master the material—if he or she feels the material is “beyond reach”—learning will be adversely afected (Mathieu, Hofmann et al., 1993; Mathieu, Martineau et al., 1993). Te concept of readiness is particularly important when looking at the training and development of higher-level positions in management and leadership (Day, 2013). Moreover, research has indicated that both giving employees a realistic pre- view of what the training program is about and providing them with the personal and career-related benefts have positive efects on both trainee reactions to the program and their learning (Smith-Jentsch et al., 1996). An important issue in some highly skilled, highly specialized jobs, such as sur- geon or air trafc controller, is the readiness for a trainee to move from working in a simulated environment to actually performing the job. Tis sort of trainee readiness has been studied in the medical profession, where simulations are used extensively before the doctor is allowed to practice on an actual patient (Gorman et al., 2020). 177  Human Resources Issues Training Program Structure A third issue concerns the structure of the training program. When and how often does training take place? How long are the training sessions? How much opportunity is there for trainees to practice or apply what they have learned? How much guidance and individual attention does each trainee receive? Te bulk of research evidence does indeed support the old adage that “practice makes perfect.” In fact, evidence indicates that practice should continue to the point of overlearning, or where practice continues even after the trainee has established that the material has been learned (Driskell et al., 1992). Should the practice be continu- ous, in what is called massed practice, or should practice sessions be spaced over time? Nearly all evidence supports spaced over massed practice, particularly if the practice involves retrieval-type learning (such as a recall test) rather than recognition learning (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). Students are probably familiar with this. Studying course material in continuous, spaced sessions over the semester beats intense, last-minute “cramming” nearly every time! Training research has also looked at whether it is better to segment the material into parts, in what is called part learning, or to present the material as a whole (whole learning). Te research evidence suggests that whole learning is better than part learn- ing, particularly when the trainees have high levels of cognitive abilities (Adams, 1987). For example, teaching a worker to operate a bulldozer would be more suc- cessful if presented as a whole task, such as learning to manipulate the controls that both drive the vehicle and operate the shovel, as opposed to learning the two tasks separately, particularly because operating a bulldozer requires driving while simulta- neously controlling the shovel. Another critical element is providing trainees with feedback about learning accomplishments. To be efective, feedback must be immediate rather than delayed. If the feedback is delayed, it will be less efective, because workers tend to distance themselves from past actions. More feedback is generally better, although there is a point where too much feedback may only serve to overload and confuse trainees. Research has also shown that positive feedback—information about what a trainee has done right—is more efective than negative feedback, which focuses on what the trainee has done wrong (Martocchio & Webster, 1992). Finally, evidence indicates that, to be efective, training programs should be highly structured to increase the meaningfulness of the material to be learned (Fantuzzo et al., 1989). Adding structure to training programs may involve presenting a general overview of the material to trainees before actual training begins and imposing a logi- cal or orderly sequence on the presentation of the training material. Trainees should also be made aware of the importance and goals of practicing newly learned skills (Cannon-Bowers et al., 1998). A review of various meta-analyses on training program structure identifed sev- eral key best practices of training design: active learning, training techniques that 178  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t encourage errors (so that trainees can learn how to deal with them), prompting trainees to continue paying attention, and the use of technology-delivered instruc- tion (Kraiger et al., 2015). Common Problems in Employee Training Programs Estimates of the cost of personnel training in the U.S. alone range from the tens of billions to the hundreds of billions of dollars per year. Yet, one problem with many personnel training programs is that, although organizations make a major commit- ment to training in terms of time, money, and other resources, training programs are not as efective as they could be, partly because they do not adequately follow sound learning principles. Another problem is that employee training programs in some companies are not well organized. Perhaps you have even experienced such “haphaz- ard” training in one of your jobs, where you received little formal training and were expected to learn “on-the-job,” with little guidance. a Model for Successful training programs Teories and principles of learning should be taken into account in the design and implementation of any good employee training program (Bisbey et al., 2020). In addition, to be successful, training programs need to follow a structured, step-by-step model (see Figure 6.2). A successful training program should begin by assessing train- ing needs. In other words, the organization must frst have some idea of what workers need to know to perform their jobs. Te next step is establishing training objectives—goals for what the training is supposed to accomplish. Training objectives need to be specifc and related to mea- surable outcomes because they are used both to set a course for the training program and to help later in determining if the training was indeed successful (Goldstein & Ford, 2002). Te next step in the training program involves the development and testing of training materials. A variety of factors must be taken into account in develop- ing training materials, such as the trainees’ educational and skill levels, whether the training material focuses on the areas that are directly related to successful job performance, and what training methods will provide the best cost–beneft trade-of. It is also important that training materials be thoroughly tested before they are put into regular use. Figure 6.2. A model for suc- Te actual implementation of the training program is the next step in the train- cessful employee training ing model. Important considerations in implementing the training program include programs. 179  Human Resources Issues when and how often the training will take place, who will conduct the training, the assignment of trainees to sessions, and where the training will be conducted. Te fnal step is the evaluation of the training program to determine if the train- ing was efective. Tis step involves a detailed analysis of whether training objectives were met and whether the training translates into trainees using the newly learned behaviors on the job. Let’s look more closely at some of the issues related to successful personnel train- ing programs, starting with a discussion of training needs assessment. Assessing Training needs A successful training program should begin by assessing training needs (Ferreira Stop & Review et al., 2015). In other words, the organization must have some idea of what work- List and defne four key ers need to know to perform their jobs. Typically, an assessment of training needs issues that are impor- should include analyses on many levels: the organizational level (the needs and goals of the organization), the task level (the requirements for performing the task), and tant in determining the person level (the skills and knowledge required to do the job). An additional the success of training analysis can be done at the demographic level (determining training needs for spe- programs. cifc demographic groups). Organizational Analysis Te organizational level of needs analysis considers issues such as the long- and short- term organizational goals and their implications for training, the available training resources, and the general climate for training (that is, the workers’ and supervisors’ commitment to participation in the training program). In addition, organizational analysis considers training needs that are the result of internal and external factors afecting the organization. For example, the introduction of a new manufacturing system and technology would require the organization to plan the kinds of technical skills, managerial skills, and support that workers will need to use the new machines and processes (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). An organization might also make a commitment to improving issues around diversity and inclusion and make that a training priority for the organization. Support from peers, supervisors, and the organization all increase transfer of training (Hughes et al., 2020). In an organiza- tional analysis, a strategy for assessing the training climate might involve surveying employees regarding their perceptions of training needs and their attitudes toward participation in training programs. Te organizational level of needs analysis would also want to determine whether managers’ expectations regarding training needs were consistent with organizational goals. 180  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t Task Analysis Te task level of analysis is concerned with the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that a worker requires to perform a specifc job efectively. Te starting point for obtaining this information is the job descrip- tion derived from a detailed job analysis. (As you may recall from Chapter 3, a job analysis is the starting point for just about any personnel operation.) Te next and most difcult step involves translating the specifc task requirements of the job into the basic components of knowledge and skill that can be incorporated into a training program. For example, a job as department store assistant manager might require the worker to handle customer complaints efectively. However, it may be difcult to determine the specifc skills required to perform this task to train pro- spective employees. Person Analysis Te person analysis of employee training needs examines the current capabilities of the workers themselves to determine who needs what sort of training. Person analysis usually relies on worker defciencies outlined in performance appraisals for incumbent workers and information derived from employee selection data, such as screening tests, for new workers. Another important source of information is job incumbents’ self-assessments of training needs (Ford & Noe, 1987), which may also help build employee commitment to the training program. Te use of the three levels of training needs analysis—organizational, task, and person—can help determine which workers need training in which areas and provide information to guide the development of specifc training techniques. It has been argued that efective training programs should be based on an analysis of training needs on many levels, rather than simply focusing on one level of analysis (Ostrof & Ford, 1989). In addition, the organization must consider the impact of a proposed training program in terms of both the potential benefts, such as increased efciency and productivity, and the potential costs of the program itself. Demographic Analysis It has been suggested that training needs analysis may have to be conducted on a fourth level, demographic analysis (Latham, 1988). A demographic analysis involves determining the specifc training needs of various demographic groups, such as 181  Human Resources Issues women and men, certain ethnic minorities, and workers of diferent age brackets. For example, a study of the perceived training needs of workers 40 years of age and older found that the younger workers (aged 40–49 years) believed that they needed training in management skills, and the middle-aged group (aged 50–59 years) pre- ferred training in technological skills, whereas the oldest group (60 years and older) showed little interest in any type of training, perhaps because they felt that they had little to gain from additional training (Tucker, 1985). We will discuss training for special groups later in the chapter. Establishing Training Objectives Te second step in a successful training program, after assessing needs, is establishing training objectives. As mentioned earlier, it is important that objectives be specifc and that they be associated with measurable outcomes. Training objectives should specify what the trainee should be able to accomplish on completion of the training program (Goldstein & Ford, 2002). For example, objectives for a training program for cashiers might be that the trainee will be able to operate and maintain the cash register and make change on completion of training. Training objectives are important in guiding the design of the training program Stop & Review and the selection of training techniques and strategies. Moreover, the emphasis What are the fve steps on establishing training objectives that are specifc and measurable is particu- in a good employee larly important in eventually evaluating the efectiveness of the training program training program? (Kraiger et al., 1993). Developing and Testing of Training Materials: Employee Training Methods Te next step in our employee training model involves developing and testing the training materials. A wide variety of employee training methods are available, ranging from the relatively simple and straightforward to the fairly complex and sophisticated. In actual practice, most comprehensive training programs utilize a combination of several training methods and techniques. It is important to pilot test the training materials, perhaps by using a group of workers who can provide their reactions to the materials and the program. Tis pro- cess leads to a refnement of the training materials and improvement in the program. Let’s look at some of the more common training materials and methods. Employee training methods can be grouped into two broad categories: the on-site methods—those conducted on the job site—and the of-site methods—those con- ducted away from the actual workplace. 182  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t On-Site Methods On-site training methods may be further divided into several categories, including on-the-job training, apprenticeship, vestibule training, and job rotation. On-the-job training—One of the oldest and most widely used training methods, On-the-Job training on-the-job training consists simply of putting an inexperienced worker in the work- an employee training method place and having a more experienced worker teach that person about the job. Tis of placing a worker in the workplace to learn frsthand technique thus relies on principles of modeling, with the experienced worker serving about a job as the role model. Also, because actual hands-on learning is involved, the worker can receive immediate feedback, be reinforced for successful eforts, and have a chance to learn how to correct errors. Reasons for the popularity of on-the-job training are obvious: it requires little preparation and has few costs to the organization, aside from the time invested by the experienced worker. Moreover, because the trainee is actually working while learn- ing, certain small levels of output ofset the costs of the supervising worker’s time. However, problems occur when the organization neglects to consider the abilities and motivations of the experienced workers who serve as trainers. If these trainers do not see the personal benefts of serving as trainers (especially when there are no obvious benefts!), they will not be motivated to do a good job. Also, being a good trainer requires certain qualities, such as patience and an ability to communicate. If the trainer lacks these characteristics, this can interfere with trainees’ learning. For Stop & Review example, one study found that experienced trainers often presented ideas abstractly Describe the four or spoke “over the heads” of trainees (Hinds et al., 2001). Problems can also arise if levels of training needs the trainer does not know or follow proper work procedures. In this case, the trainer analysis. may teach the new worker wrong or inefcient methods. On-the-job training is best used when the trainers have been carefully selected because of their ability to teach and when they have received systematic training to help them be more efective. Trainers should also receive some type of reward or recognition for performing their training duties, and the best trainers tend to be committed and take pride in the work they do (Choi et al., 2015). Finally, the orga- nization must accept the fact that, during the on-the-job training period, production rates will sufer. It is impossible to expect the trainer–trainee team to do a good job of training while simultaneously maintaining high output rates. It has been suggested that, to be efective, on-the-job training should be used with other training methods, including of-site methods such as seminars and programmed instruction (Wexley & apprenticeship Latham, 2001). a training technique, Apprenticeship—Skilled trade professions, such as carpentry, printing, usually lasting several years, masonry, and plumbing, use a very old type of training program called appren- that combines on-the-job ticeship. A typical apprenticeship can last for several years and usually combines experience with classroom some supervised on-the-job training experience (usually at least 2,000 hours) with instruction classroom instruction. Te on-the-job experience allows the apprentice to learn the mechanics of the profession, whereas the classroom training usually teaches specifc cognitive skills and rules and regulations associated with the profession 183  Human Resources Issues (Harris et al., 2003). For example, an apprentice in the housing construction industry will learn the mechanical skills of building a house while on the job and will learn about building codes and how to read blueprints in the classroom. Te obvious advantage of apprenticeship programs is the detailed, long-term nature of the learning process. Tere is good evidence of the business benefts of apprentice- ships in terms of increased productivity and lowered turnover (Kenyon, 2005; Smith & Smith, 2005). It is important to mention that the term apprenticeship has been used to describe a number of training programs that are quite diferent from traditional, formal appren- ticeships. Tese informal “apprenticeships” might be better labeled “mentorships,” because they typically do not have the strict combination of hands-on learning and classroom training required by formal apprenticeships. We will discuss mentoring a bit later when we look at the use of mentoring in managerial training. Vestibule training Vestibule training—Vestibule training is another on-site training method. Tis training that uses a separate method uses a separate training area adjacent to the actual work area to simulate area adjacent to the work area that setting, complete with comparable tools and equipment. In vestibule training, to simulate the actual work setting professional trainers teach the new workers all aspects of the job, allowing them hands-on experience in the work simulation area. Te main advantage of vestibule training is that there is no disruption of actual production, because trainers rather than experienced workers provide instruction, and the novice workers are not in the actual work setting. Te major drawback to this method is its costs in terms of the trainers, space, and equipment needed. In recent years, some large supermarkets have set up vestibule training areas at closed check-out stations to teach prospective checkers how to operate laser scanners and cash registers to ring up goods. Vestibule training is used to eliminate the delays to customers that inevitably occur when using on-the-job training. Job rotation Job rotation—A fnal on-site training method is job rotation, in which workers a method of rotating workers are rotated among a variety of jobs, spending a certain length of time (usually sev- among a variety of jobs to eral weeks to 2 months) at each. Te basic premise behind job rotation is to expose increase their breadth of workers to as many areas of the organization as possible so they can gain a good knowledge knowledge of its workings and how the various jobs and departments ft together. Job rotation can also be benefcial to the organization because of “cross-training” of workers. Tus, if a worker is absent or quits, another worker has already been trained to perform the job. Most commonly, job rotation is used to help entry-level manage- ment personnel fnd the positions for which they are best suited. It can also be used to groom managers for higher-level positions, presumably making them more efective by enabling them to see the organization from a variety of perspectives. Research has shown that job rotation not only increases learning, but also has positive efects on employees’ career progression and development (Ortega, 2001). Job rotation has also been used in various team approaches to work-task design to increase worker fexibil- ity, eliminate boredom, and increase worker job satisfaction and commitment to the organization (Wexley & Latham, 2001). When done within a team, job rotation can also enhance team performance by helping team members understand each other’s work (Marks et al., 2002). 184  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t It is important to mention, however, that job rotation does not consist of simply moving workers from task to task with little or no preparation. A careful analysis of training needs should be done for each position to which a worker is rotated. It is also important to orient and train the worker adequately on each task. Finally, an evaluation should be done of the worker’s performance at each task, assessment of the efectiveness of the overall job rotation training experience should be conducted, and feedback to the worker should be provided. Of-Site Methods Training that takes place in a setting other than the actual workplace uses of-site methods. Because of the greater fexibility and control over the situation they aford, of-site methods are more varied and diverse than the on-site techniques. We will con- sider several of-site methods: seminars/webinars, audiovisual instruction, behavior Seminar modeling training, simulation techniques, programmed instruction, and computer- a common training method assisted instruction. in which an expert provides Seminars/webinars—A common method of employee training, and one that job-related information in a is likely familiar to students, is the seminar, which typically involves some expert classroom-like setting providing job-related information orally in a classroom-like setting. An online form Webinar of seminar, or webinar, allows for greater reach to workers in multiple locations, an online training method typically with an opportunity to ask questions live or via online text. Although these similar to a lecture or seminar methods of training allow a large number of workers to be trained simultaneously at relatively low cost, there are some drawbacks. First, because the seminar/webinar is primarily a one-way form of communication, employees may not become highly involved in the learning process. Also, it is unclear whether workers will be able to translate the information they receive from seminars/webinars into actual perfor- mance of work behaviors. Finally, the seminar/webinar method is often only as good as the presenter. A training program presented by a speaker who is unprepared and speaks in a monotone is unlikely to lead to any signifcant learning. In fact, one early study found that the seminar was one of the least efective of various employee training methods (Carroll et al., 1972). On a more positive note, however, seminar methods of instruction have been shown to be an efective learning strategy, par- ticularly when used with more educated workers, such as when seminars are used in managerial and leadership training (Avolio et al., 2009). Another study found a positive impact of an employee health promotion program on healthful behaviors of employees and reduced absenteeism (Mills et al., 2007). A large study of webinars across 419 trainees in 48 webinars, focusing on four content areas (early childhood education, supply chain management, industrial management, and mathematics), demonstrated that trainees generally had positive reactions toward webinar train- ing, but those reactions were particularly positive in sessions that involved greater trainer interaction (such as questions and answers) and those that were shorter (about 90 minutes) in length (Gegenfurtner et al., 2020). 185  Human Resources Issues audiovisual Instruction Audiovisual instruction—Audiovisual instruction uses videos to train workers. the use of pre-recorded In efect, audiovisual instruction is a seminar or webinar provided in a pre-recorded videotapes and other electronic media to convey training format—this would include training podcasts. Although there may be some fairly material large initial costs for purchase or development of training materials, the audiovisual method can be even more cost-efective than traditional seminar or webinar tech- niques if large numbers of employees are going to be trained. As in seminars or webinars, the quality of audiovisual instruction determines its efectiveness as a training tool. In many instances, a video can be more entertaining than a seminar and may do a better job of attracting the audience’s attention. An obvious problem occurs, however, when the informational content is sacrifced for entertainment value. Audiovisual presentations are especially efective when the information is pre- sented visually rather than verbally. A few minutes of video can visually demonstrate manual operations (with instant replay, stop action, or slow motion) or can expose workers to a number of diferent locations and settings, both of which would be impossible in a seminar presentation. Moreover, the pre-recorded nature of audio- Behavior Modeling training visual programs can ensure uniformity of training by exposing all workers to the a training method that same information. For example, one company has prepared a video presentation giv- exposes trainees to role models ing new employees information about company policies, procedures, and employee performing appropriate and rights and benefts in a thorough, graphic, and cost-efective manner. inappropriate work behaviors Behavior modeling training—Another employee training technique is behavior and their outcomes and then allows trainees to practice modeling training (Decker & Nathan, 1985). In behavior modeling training, modeling the appropriate which is based on social learning theory, trainees are exposed to videotaped or live behaviors role models displaying both appropriate and inappropriate work behaviors as well as their successful or unsuccessful outcomes. Trainees are then allowed an opportunity to try to replicate and practice the positive work behaviors. Research indicates that behavior modeling training, if used correctly, can efectively improve employee job performance (Mann & Decker, 1984). Behavior modeling training was also shown to be efective in computer software training (Gist et al., 1989) and in training U.S. gov- ernment employees for work in Japan (Harrison, 1992). In another interesting study, behavior modeling training was found to be more efective than either seminars or programmed instruction (see discussion later in the chapter) in training computer operators (Simon & Werner, 1996). Behavior modeling may be a particularly efec- tive strategy for ethics training, where models can demonstrate complex ethical and moral decision making and actions (Kaptein, 2011a). Simulation training Simulation training—Simulation training is a method of replicating job training that replicates job conditions to instruct employees in proper work operations without actually conditions without placing putting them in the job setting (Marlow et al., 2017). Jet pilots, astronauts, and the trainee in the actual work setting nuclear power plant operators are all subjected to intensive simulation training before they are allowed to control the complex and dangerous machinery that they will operate on the job. Simulation training allows the worker hours of practice under conditions that are quite similar to the actual work setting, without allow- ing the possibility of damaging the equipment, the product, the environment, or themselves. 186  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t Figure 6.3 CPR (cardio pulmonary resuscitation) training involves hands on training methods using CPR training mannequins. Source: Image by Manseok Kim, from Pixabay (https://pixabay.com/users/manseok_kim-1005494/). Most commonly, simulation training uses replications of complex machinery or equipment, such as jet cockpit fight simulators or mock-ups of the control panels used by nuclear power plant operators. Other simulations may be designed to give trainees exposure to what would normally be very hazardous working conditions. For example, a Southern California police department has constructed a mock city (complete with a bank and a convenience store!) for use in training police personnel in simulated emergency conditions. Police trainees attempt to foil simulated robbery attempts and rescue hostages from terrorists using the mock city and blank ammu- nition. According to the police authorities, the realism of this simulation has led to better preparation of new ofcers in dealing with actual life-threatening situations. As you can imagine, simulation training is often quite expensive. However, the chance for hands-on experience, immediate feedback, and repeated practice makes it a highly efective technique. Web-based training—More and more, employee training is being done virtu- ally through web-based, interactive programs, including the previously discussed webinars and podcasts (Gurtner, 2015). Some time ago, Whalen and Wright (2000) argued that much of future training will be web-based owing to the fexibility and scope of the training programs that can be delivered via the web, the convenience of having training “on demand” when employees need it, and the relatively low cost of web-based training in comparison with “live” employee training programs. Little 187  Human Resources Issues did they know that, essentially, all training would become online training amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Te World Economic Forum reported that 1.2 billion children in 186 countries around the world experienced school closures as a result of the pandemic (Cathy & Farah, 2020). In many cases, this meant turn- ing to remote learning through online education. Although there is evidence that e-learning can be just as efective as face-to-face instruction (Paul & Jeferson, 2019), it had not been normalized until the pandemic. As a result, many organizations were not ready for online education. One study on ophthalmologist training showed that COVID-19 had greatly impacted doctors’ training. In a feld where much is learned through clinical hours under supervision, 55% of doctors said that they were doing less than 25% of their normal clinical training hours because of COVID-19 (Ferrara et al., 2020). Te ophthalmologists also reported that they would fnd web-based case presentations, web-based discussion of surgical videos, and simulation-based training efective additions to their training. Web-based training has incorporated an older form of learning known as pro- grammed instruction. programmed Instruction Programmed instruction involves the use of self-paced individualized training. self-paced individualized Each trainee is provided with either printed materials or, more commonly, web-based training in which trainees content to learn and then answers a series of questions that test how much learning are provided with training materials and can test how has taken place. When test answers are substantially correct, the trainee is instructed much they have learned to move on to the next unit. If the questions are answered incorrectly, some review of the previous unit is required. Most of the student study guides that accompany college textbooks are examples of programmed instruction. Te benefts of programmed instruction are that it is efcient, because indi- viduals proceed at their own pace, and that it provides immediate feedback. In addition, programmed instruction is an “active,” involved form of learning. Fur- thermore, although the development of such programs is time-consuming, the initial cost diminishes greatly over time if large numbers of employees are trained. A problem can arise, however, in keeping the programs up-to-date, especially in felds where there are rapid changes in technology or in the types of products produced or services performed, requiring that new instruction programs be con- tinually created. Computer-assisted Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is a more sophisticated approach to Instruction individualized employee training. Although CAI is actually a form of programmed programmed instruction instruction, CAI systems ofer the fexibility to change and update the instruc- delivered by computer that adapts to the trainee’s learning tional programs continually. CAI also allows for immediate testing of the trainee’s rate learning, because the computer can ask questions and instantly score the correct- ness of responses, automatically returning the trainee to an earlier lesson if the answers are incorrect and quickly presenting the next unit when the answers are correct (recall the computer-adaptive and web-based testing discussed in Chapter 4). Typically, training organizations ofer web-based courses that can also generate detailed data on each trainee’s performance across all the lessons. One problem with individualized instruction such as CAI is that some employees may not have the self-motivation to learn, although interventions that help students plan their 188  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t learning schedule and remind them to pay attention to the material can increase their efectiveness (Sitzmann & Johnson, 2012). A recent development in CAI is computerized, interactive programs that combine audiovisual techniques, programmed instruction, and simulation techniques. With these programs, a trainee may be presented with a video representation of a work situation, and the computer asks questions about which course of action the trainee would like to take. Te response is then used to choose the next video segment, where the trainee can see the results of the choice played out. One such program used for management training exposes the trainee to a variety of difcult interpersonal and decision-making situations. Te trainee is brought into a simulated work situation with actors portraying the roles of coworkers. In one setting, the trainee might need to deal with a subordinate who is angry about having been given a negative per- formance appraisal. In another situation, the trainee may be asked to play the role of leader of a decision-making group and choose one of several possible courses of action. Choosing the correct management strategies leads to a positive outcome. If an incorrect choice is made, the trainee will view the disastrous results played out in the subsequent scene. Tere has also been some use of online gaming platforms to develop teams— putting team members through simulated environments in order to build coordi- nation and cooperation among team members. We will discuss team training in Chapter 12. As the Millennial generation becomes more prominent in the work- force, it is likely that we will see a large increase in web-based training, including the use of gaming platforms for training (Grossman et al., 2015). For example, in one study, it was found that gaming-based training led to better employee perfor- mance than when employees were trained using non-gamifed training (Alcivar & Abad, 2016). Management/Leadership Training Methods Because managers and organizational leaders are considered to play such a cen- tral role in administrative functions, coordinating organizational activities, and motivating workers, and because managerial skills are abstract and difcult to learn, a large share of training resources goes into the training and development of managers. In fact, a variety of special techniques are used almost exclusively in management training. One common and popular management training technique is the problem- problem-Solving Case Study solving case study, which presents trainees with a written description of a real or a management training technique that presents a real hypothetical organizational problem. Each trainee is allowed time to study the case or hypothetical organizational individually and come up with a solution. Te trainees then meet in small groups problem that trainees attempt to present and critique their solutions and discuss the problem further, helping to solve trainees recognize that there is not always a simple answer—or one correct answer. 189  Human Resources Issues Analyzing real company decisions helps trainees apply management theories to organizational problems, providing a concrete application to enhance learning (Hack-Polay, 2018). role-playing An extension of this method is to have trainees engage in role-playing a certain a management training management situation. For example, in a role-playing exercise to develop managers’ exercise that requires trainees abilities to handle difcult interpersonal situations, a trainer may play a subordi- to act out problem situations nate who has chronic performance problems. Te trainee plays the manager, and that often occur at work the trainer may later ofer feedback concerning how the situation was handled. In role-playing, the basic idea is that trainees will become more involved in a problem situation if they act it out. Sometimes, participants will reverse roles to gain a difer- ent perspective on the problem situation. A benefcial side efect of role-playing may be that management trainees simultaneously learn to develop their presentational and communication skills. Another management training technique that is becoming increasingly popular Management Games is the use of simulations of organizations or management games, which are usu- a management training ally scaled-down enactments of the management of organizations (Cruz-Cunha, technique using scaled-down 2012). Tey are, in many ways, similar to some of the more complicated board enactments of the operations and managements of or computer simulation games that people play at home. One example is called organizations “Tinsel Town,” where trainees function as the top management team of a fctional movie studio (Devine et al., 2004). Participants may either play in groups, forming management teams to compete against other teams, or play against one another individually. One concern about management games is that participants may become so caught up in the game that they do not comprehend the management principles that are being taught. An early review of research on management games, however, indicated that they are an efective management training technique (Keys & Wolfe, 1990). action Learning Action learning, a highly complex, involved type of managerial training/develop- teams assemble to work on a ment, consists of teams of employees who are assembled to work on a company-related company-related problem or problem or issue (Volz-Peacock et al., 2016). Rather than being a simulation, action issue to learn by doing learning has the team working on an actual assignment such as developing a new product or solving an organizational problem (O’Neil & Marsick, 2014). Te con- cept behind action learning is that managers learn by doing, while the organization benefts from the results of the action learning team’s project. For example, action learning teams at General Electric have been formed to deal with issues as diverse as investigating markets for leasing locomotive engines, developing new applications for plastic in the design of automobile bodies, and developing marketing plans for foreign markets—with the team members learning as they contribute to expanding GE’s businesses (Dotlich & Noel, 1998). Interest in action learning in organizations is on the rise, with an academic journal, Action Learning: Research & Practice, devoted to the topic. Becoming very popular in management development is the use of 360-degree feedback—the multisource, multi-perspective performance appraisal method that we discussed in Chapter 5. It can be an efective management development tool, but only if the manager is open to and accepting of the potentially critical feedback 190  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t (Fletcher, 2015). Atwater et al. (2003) suggest that 360-degree feedback will be most successful when participants are trained in the technique, when feedback is honest and constructive, when the feedback is combined with other training eforts so that the manager can see how to improve performance, and when there is careful follow-up monitoring and feedback. As in all types of training, there are individual diferences. Some managers may react favorably to 360-degree feedback, but others may not beneft and may have a negative reaction (Atwater et al., 2000). A lon- gitudinal study of managers who received 360-degree feedback suggested that the technique led to improved managerial competence over time (Bailey & Fletcher, 2002). An increasingly popular training program for new managers that combines ele- ments of on-the-job training and a sort of informal “apprenticeship” is mentoring, Mentoring a process by which an inexperienced worker develops a relationship with an experi- a training program in which enced worker to promote the former’s career development (Eby, 2007). Much of the an inexperienced worker develops a relationship with an learning that takes place in these relationships involves the protégé attempting to imi- experienced worker who serves tate the mentor’s work and interpersonal style. Modeling thus appears to be one key as an advisor learning process in mentoring. Mentoring among managers in large organizations is becoming more and more common as young, inexperienced workers typically look to older, more experienced workers to help them to “learn the ropes” of the job (Ragins et al., 2000). It has even been suggested that women executives will have difculty moving up the corporate ladder unless they receive some mentoring from higher-ups (Ragins & Cotton, 1999). Since its appearance as a formal training strategy in the late 1970s (Roche, 1979), there has been extensive research, as well as popular interest, in mentoring as a man- agement training and development technique. For the most part, there are many positive results of good mentoring relationships. For instance, protégés generally advance more quickly in their careers, have greater job and career satisfaction, and have lower turnover than workers without mentors (Allen et al., 2009). Of course, a mentoring program is only going to be successful if there are good relationships between mentors and protégés (Young & Perrewé, 2000), and mentoring programs using more “powerful,” senior mentors seem to be more efective than peer men- toring programs (Ensher et al., 2001). Research, however, suggests that mentoring relationships that develop on their own, informally, are typically more successful than formal, assigned mentoring relationships (Scandura & Williams, 2001). Research has also indicated that a number of factors may infuence workers’ willingness to serve as mentors. For instance, managers are more willing to mentor newer workers if those workers show greater promise and if they are more similar to the mentor in terms of factors such as educational background (Olian et al., 1993). Gender may also play a part in willingness to mentor (Ragins & Cotton, 1993), with women less likely than men to volunteer as mentors, particularly if the protégé is a man, than men to volunteer as mentors, particularly if the protégé is a man. Mentoring as a management development technique is quite popular in organiza- tions today (Figure 6.4). Although the benefts of mentorship to protégés are obvious, there are also some payofs for the mentor and for the organization (Fagenson, 1989). 191  Human Resources Issues Figure 6.4. Formal mentoring programs are common in organizations today. Source: Found on Allgo, an app for plus-sized people found on Unsplash (https://unsplash.com/ photos/rvbOhjX1ugc). Te mentor, who may be at a midlife career standstill, may become energized by the chance to assist in the development of an eager young worker’s career. Te organization also benefts, because mentoring leads to a better-trained and more satisfed young workforce. On the other hand, mentors may fnd mentoring time-consuming and burdensome (Ragins & Scandura, 1993). Protégés may also react negatively if they feel forced into participating in mentorship programs (Chao et al., 1992; Ensher & Murphy, 2005). Ensher and Murphy (2005) looked at various alternatives to formal mentoring programs, including “virtual mentoring” and the use of multiple individuals as men- toring role models. Coaching a one-on-one relationship One management development technique that is becoming wildly popular with where a consultant helps an high-level executive leaders is “executive coaching” (McLaughlin & Cox, 2015). executive improve performance Coaching is typically a one-on-one relationship between a consultant and a key execu- tive/manager that is designed to help develop and improve the executive’s professional performance (Van Coller-Peter & Burger, 2019). Although coaches use a wide range of techniques, perhaps their most important function is providing frank feedback to managers and executives and helping in setting developmental goals. Tere is very limited research on the efectiveness of coaching, but its use is on the rise, and a few studies suggest that it is efective (e.g., Williams & Lowman, 2018). A review of the literature suggests that coaching does positively impact the development of leaders and positively impacts organizational outcomes (Athanasopoulou & Dopson, 2018). 192  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t Given the “counseling” nature of executive coaching, issues regarding the ethics of psychological practice are extremely important. For example, in a study of over 1,000 Stop & Review sales representatives in a pharmaceuticals company receiving coaching, managers’ coaching skill was related to annual sales goal attainment, highlighting the importance Give three examples of ensuring that coaches are well trained and highly skilled if they are to have a positive each of of-site and on- impact (Dahling et al., 2016). site employee training methods. Implementation of the Training Program Once the training materials and methods have been selected and pilot tested, the next step in the training model is the implementation of the training program. When implementing the training program, factors such as trainee readiness, trainee expec- tations, and the climate for training—whether the employees and the organization feel positively about the training and encourage it—need to be considered. It is also important to provide trainees with a “rationale” for training—to let them know how the training will beneft them and the organization (Quiñones, 1997). As training progresses, it is important that trainees be given feedback about their learning and opportunities to practice newly learned techniques or behaviors. Evaluation of the Training Program A crucial component of any employee training program is the evaluation of train- ing efectiveness, for there is no use in investing money and resources in training programs unless they do indeed work. As such, researchers suggest that companies engage in much deeper evaluation of training efectiveness, including individual-, group-, and organization-level outcomes and return on investment (Sitzmann & Weinhardt, 2019). Yet, many experts suggest that greater rigor is needed in the evaluation of training programs (Garavan et al., 2019), potentially including both standard surveys and qualitative responses (Harman et al., 2015). Sometimes, train- ing programs are not evaluated because the organization’s trainers lack the expertise to conduct the evaluations or the administration does not support evaluation eforts (Marshall & Rossett, 2014). Te evaluation of a training program should frst outline the criteria that indicate the program’s success and develop the means for measuring these criteria. One very useful framework suggests that there are four types of criteria for evaluating a pro- gram’s efectiveness (Kirkpatrick, 1959): 1 Reaction criteria—measure the impressions of trainees, including their assess- ments of the program’s value, the amount of learning they received, and their enjoyment of the program. Reaction criteria are usually assessed via training 193  Human Resources Issues evaluation rating surveys given to trainees immediately after training sessions or workshops. It is important to note that reaction criteria do not measure whether any learning has taken place. Rather, they assess trainees’ opinions about the train- ing and their learning. 2 Learning criteria—measure the amount of learning that has taken place. Typi- cally, these take the form of some sorts of tests assessing the amount of informa- tion retained from the program. 3 Behavioral criteria—measure the amount of newly learned skills displayed once the trainee has returned to the job. Observational methods of measurement are typically used to assess behavioral criteria, with supervisors recording the use of newly learned behaviors. 4 Results criteria—measure the outcomes that are important to the organization, such as increased trainee work output as expressed by production rates, dollar sales fgures, or quality of work. Using the results criteria, a cost–beneft analysis can be performed by comparing the costs of the program with the dollar value of the results. Tis is usually the most important evaluation of a program’s efectiveness. However, it is sometimes difcult to translate training outcomes into dollars and cents. For example, if one of the goals is to improve employee attitudes, it may be hard to place a dollar value on such results. Te important question in the evaluation of programs is whether any measured changes in criteria are indeed the result of training. Te methods used in the proper evaluation of a training program are those used to determine the efectiveness of any other type of program introduced into an organization. For a formal evaluation to demonstrate conclusively that training has caused certain outcomes, it should be based on experimental designs. Unfortunately, many evaluations use what might be posttest-Only Design a program evaluation that called “pre-experimental designs,” which do not allow for proper assessments (Camp- simply measures training bell & Stanley, 1963; see Figure 6.5). One example, the posttest-only design, simply success criterion following measures criteria following the completion of a training program. However, this does completion of the training not tell us anything conclusive about its efectiveness because we have no basis for program any sort of comparison. pretest–posttest Design A pretest–posttest design—measuring behavior before and after training—is a design for evaluating a also an inadequate experimental design. Although this approach compares the cri- training program that makes terion measures collected before and after the training program, we cannot be sure comparisons of criterion measures collected before and that the diferences from pretest to posttest were due to the program. Consider the after the introduction of the example of a training program designed to teach customer service agents to be more program friendly and attentive to customer needs. With a simple pretest–posttest evaluation, we can never be sure that later observed increases in the quality of customer service were due to training or to other factors, such as a recent pay raise or change in management. Although these limited designs do not allow us to draw clear conclu- sions, even such limited evaluations are better than no evaluation at all (Sackett & Mullen, 1993). To be sure of the efectiveness of a training program, one should apply a more sophisticated, true experimental design that uses at least one treatment group, which 194  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t receives the training, and one control group, which does not undergo any train- ing. Te simplest and most common experimental design for evaluation research uses one training group and one control group, both of which are measured before and after the program. To ensure that there are no unexpected diferences in mem- bers of the training and control groups, employees are randomly assigned to the two groups. Te pretest and posttest scores are then compared. Tis experimental design makes it clear that any positive changes in the criterion measures of the training group, relative to the control group, are most likely due to the training program. A more sophisticated experimental design is the Solomon four-group design Solomon Four-Group Design (Solomon, 1949). Tis method of evaluation uses four groups, two that are trained a method of program and two that are not. In the Solomon design, two of the groups are identical to those evaluation using two treatment groups and two control groups in the basic experimental design mentioned earlier. Tat is, one training group and one control group are measured both before and after the training program. How- ever, the additional training and control groups are measured only after the program, which is intended to help rule out the fact that administering a pretraining measure might sensitize employees to what the program is designed to do and might thus produce certain changes in the criterion measures that occur without the beneft of training. For example, if our customer service agents are given a pretraining test of their customer service knowledge, they might realize that management is very inter- ested in this issue, which might cause all agents to give greater attention to customers, regardless of whether they later receive customer service training. Although the Solo- mon four-group design is an efective design for evaluating training programs, it is underused, primarily because of the large number of participants and groups required (Braver & Braver, 1988). Te Solomon four-group design can be used, however, for more than just an evaluation of training programs. One study used the design to evaluate employee reactions to a major organizational restructuring (Probst, 2003). Figure 6.5 summa- rizes the various evaluation designs. A comprehensive evaluation of a training program must be well designed and executed to ensure that the training is indeed efective. Tis means careful consid- eration must be given to the selection and measurement of criteria, an experimental design with adequate control groups must be used, and the costs versus benefts of the program must be assessed (Arvey et al., 1992). An obvious problem in evaluating the efectiveness of training programs is the inability to use a true experimental design owing to constraints imposed by the par- ticular work organizations. However, quasi-experimental designs can be used, such as lagged-intervention studies (Schwatka et al., 2019). As discussed in Chapter 2, quasi-experiments are approximations of experimental designs. One example is the nonequivalent control group design. Tis design is typically used when it is impossible to assign trainees randomly to experimental and control groups. A nonequivalent con- trol group might consist of similar employees from another company location that is not undergoing the new training program. Te training and control groups are “non- equivalent” because they may difer systematically on variables such as experience, 195  Human Resources Issues Figure 6.5 There are many diferent training evaluation designs. previous training, supervisory methods, or any other factor that would be controlled Stop & Review for via random assignment in a true experimental design. Illustrate the four types of criteria for evaluat- ing employee training equal employment Opportunity Issues programs. in employee training Because training is linked to job performance and can lead to personnel actions such as pay increases, promotions, and terminations, several equal employment oppor- tunity concerns are related to personnel training (Russell, 1984). One such issue 196  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t deals with educational or training prerequisites for certain jobs. Because members of underprivileged groups are likely to have less education and formal job training than members of more privileged groups, setting certain levels of education or training as job prerequisites may be considered discriminatory. As mentioned in Chapter 3, equal employment opportunity legislation protects against discrimination against specifc groups in providing access to jobs. If access to some jobs requires certain training, employers must take steps to guard against any discrimination in this area by providing remedial education or training for groups of workers who lack the educational prerequisites. For example, some employers are supporting agencies that will train chronically unemployed or underemployed individuals in basic job skills, either by making fnancial contributions or by hiring persons who have undergone the training. Te methods used in employee training programs may also create instances of potential discrimination. For example, the lectures ofered in many seminar pro- grams may lead to diferent rates of learning in diferent groups of trainees. If certain groups lack the education needed to process the information and to per- form well on any examinations administered, using the results of such training classes to screen or place workers can lead to unintentional discrimination. A simi- lar case occurs in training courses that require certain strenuous activities, such as lifting and carrying heavy materials, in which women may be at some disadvantage. One example was a training course for frefghters that demanded that trainees lift and carry a 150-pound dummy over their shoulders for several yards or down a fight of stairs to simulate carrying an unconscious person from a burning build- ing. A question arose as to whether this part of the course discriminated against women. Critics stated that frefghters rarely carried a person out of a burning building, and that the ability to do this was not a critical requirement for adequate performance of their job. Because of the possibility of discrimination and because the fre department could not prove that this was a necessary skill for the position, the training task was eliminated. Similarly, organizations that require workers to attend and complete some type of training program to gain a position or a promotion must demonstrate that completion of the program is predictive of success in the jobs that trainees will be holding. If not, there is the possibility that certain disadvantaged groups of train- ees may not do as well in the program because of unfamiliarity with the training procedures and format. In other words, because of their lack of experience with the classroom situation, they may not learn as well as members of the majority group, which can lead to discrimination. For example, if being promoted to a frontline supervisory position in a factory requires attending classes in supervisory skills and passing an examination to complete the course, the organization must prove that completion of the training is related to later success as a supervisor, and that the program itself does not discriminate in terms of ability to pass the course. In these cases, the training program is just like any other selection tool. It must be shown to be valid, fair, and job-related. 197  Human Resources Issues On THE CuTTing EDgE training for the 21st Century: adaptability, Creativity, and proactive thinking Today’s organizations exist in a rapidly changing envi- on innovation (think Silicon Valley). As a result, training ronment. Likewise, jobs are constantly changing in terms employees to use and manage the knowledge already of structure, technology, and tasks. Your job today might existing in the company—knowledge management— be completely diferent 6 months from now. As a result, is becoming popular (nisula & Kianto, 2016). Another I/O psychologists and human resources professionals are approach is to develop workers to be more entrepre- giving greater attention to training the skills required in neurial and innovative. This approach is labeled “agile ever-changing jobs and work environments. management” (Adkins, 2010) and involves developing One model suggests that the skills needed for adaptive employees to behave like entrepreneurs—to try new performance include solving problems creatively, dealing ideas and nurture those that look promising, but quickly with uncertain work situations, handling emergencies, and abandon those that aren’t working and move on to being interpersonally and culturally adaptable (Pulakos et another innovative idea (i.e., to learn to “fail quickly”). al., 2000). Other research suggests that efective, adapt- Another area that is receiving a great deal of atten- able workers need to develop what is called “proactive tion is training workers to be more creative. Special atten- thinking,” which involves a willingness and ability to take tion has been given to developing creative and innovative action to change a situation to one’s advantage (Kirby et workers and organizational leaders (Birdi, 2020). A meta- al., 2002). There is evidence that both adaptive perfor- analysis of 70 studies suggests that creativity training is mance and proactive thinking can be trained. generally efective in getting people to be more creative Organizations are realizing that the greatest source and innovative in approaching tasks (Scott et al., 2004). In of information and ingenuity is in the company’s own all likelihood, work-related training in the future will focus employees. This is particularly true in technology- more on strategies to be creative and adaptive, rather oriented organizations and companies that rely heavily than learning specifc tasks and procedures. Summary Employee training is a planned efort by an organization to facilitate the learn- ing, retention, and transfer of job-related behavior. Training is not limited to new employees, but often involves various types of training and development pro- grams ofered throughout an employee’s career. Specifc areas of employee training include new employee orientation; employee retraining and continuing education; retirement planning and career development; and worker training for international assignments, for diversity, to reduce sexual harassment, and to increase ethical behavior at work. An understanding of learning theories is fundamental in the design of employee training programs. For example, the concept of modeling, which is imitative of 198  E m p l o y ee T r a i n i n g a n d De v e l o p m e n t learning, is expressed in social learning theory. If training programs are to be suc- cessful, a number of key issues will afect their efectiveness. For example, transfer of training, or how the learning translates into use of the newly learned behaviors, and the job characteristics of the trainees, such as trainee readiness, must be taken into account. Finally, concern must be given to how training programs are structured and how they are conducted. Te frst step in a successful employee training program is assessing training needs, which occurs on several levels. Organizational analysis considers the orga- nization’s goals