Comparative Politics of the United States PDF

and in Comparative Politics SECO N D EDITION PATRICK H. O'NEIL I KARL FIELDS I DON SHARE ~ W.W. NORTON & COMPANY Independent Publishers Since 1923  I Why Study This Case? Some re...

and in Comparative Politics SECO N D EDITION PATRICK H. O'NEIL I KARL FIELDS I DON SHARE ~ W.W. NORTON & COMPANY Independent Publishers Since 1923  I Why Study This Case? Some readers may believe that the United States is the standard to use in mea- suring advanced industrial democracies. After all, the United States is governed by the oldest written constitution still in effect, and it remains the world's great- est military and economic power. Nevertheless, compared with other advanced capitalist democracies, the United States is best viewed as an anomaly filled with paradoxes. It is a large and wealthy nation with a relatively weak state. The United States has a highly legitimate political regime and enjoys widespread adherence to the rule of law despite having a political system deliberately designed to pre- vent decisive and coherent policy making. U.S. citizens are deeply proud of their state but distrust it and its bureaucracy in far greater numbers than the citizens of other industrialized democracies distrust theirs. Its political system has long been dominated by two political parties, but those parties are themselves relatively weak and at times undisciplined. It has a vibrant civil society but very low voter turnout. The United States is a secular democracy in which religion continues to play a comparatively large role in politics and society. It began as a society of immigrants, and national and regional identities are still in flux because of migra- tion and geographic mobility. The United States has more wealth than any other democracy but is plagued by persistent, even growing, inequality and the pres- ence of an impoverished underclass more characteristic of developing countries. Americans cherish their freedom and individual liberty, yet 2.4 million American citizens are behind bars-an incarceration rate many times higher than those in other advanced democracies. The United States leads the world in medical tech- nology but has more citizens without medical insurance than any other advanced democracy. Although the country boasts 17 of the world's top 20 universities, lit- eracy rates in the United States are below the world average and well below the 251  :-~·..'. ( ~. l~ -:; f ~ ✓ ' '--"· ,l~ ! ' '.....)'·\ f ,'.f.✓7 ,· Y.'~ ~~ A....I \ 'l.. , ,,..· ,:.a,.,r l. ' _ I :\. \\ -\l ~~ - ~ \1 CANADA @.\-? t o y-·.,.._ ,.,:;· :-_c:,. ,. ;,-;.--:.~~I. I ~,,,, u. {,\\ o,I-·~ - -- - - 7 l J ~ I ·..~,. - Minneapolis. 1 0 oston ;~ - %~ % r I - d~ ~ -~. --..... \ · -~-'-h"la ',I ) " ' ~York '\. ,:- - - ~-' / I' '.' Colurbu~ a1u ore 01 \_ ~,r ,. 0 I " ~ \ 0 Denver \ , ''i''=P ~!c'lJ'.INGTON, D.C. _l::J OOklahom & St.Louis 0 ~ _f- '· ; ?:' · l ·, Black Lives Matter. formed in 2013 to protest institutionalized racism against African Americans, is an example of the plethora of groups that compose the vibrant civil society in the United States. Fourth, a deep-seated aspect of U.S. political cul- tend to oppose state policies aimed at redistribut- ture, rooted in the frontier mentality of early Amer- ing income to benefit the poor. ica, is the belief that all Americans have, and should Fifth, although the U.S. public has historically have, an equal opportunity to become prosperous viewed its federal state with relatively high levels of and successful. In the nineteenth century, Tocque- trust and pride, a paradoxical, deep-seated liberal ville observed that the United States had a far more distrust of "excessive" central state power is also egalitarian class structure than did Europe. Although a prominent feature of the political culture. The assessments of economic equality and social mobility American Revolution began as a rebellion against were certainly exaggerated even in early America, the a powerful British state that was seen as abusing notions of equality of opportunity and social mobility its authority through the unjust taxation of its have endured as part of a fundamental ethos. citizens. The United States is unique in that anti- Opinion research confirms that Americans statism became a founding principle of the new today hold true to the notion of equality of oppor- regime. tunity but place less value on equality of actual As already discussed, the Founders of the economic outcomes. They are likely to believe that U.S. regime consciously sought to embed in the sys- success is a funcr.ion of individual effort. Today dis- tem myriad checks on the power of the central state parities of income are greater in the United States through the devolution of much power to state and than in most of Europe, and they are growing local governments, the establishment of a power- quickly. However, compared with r.heir counter- ful and independent judiciary, and the separation parts in other advanced democracies, Americans of powers. As a result, Americans remain skeptical 268 U NITED STATES of state efforts to promote social welfare, an out- likely co believe chat clear guidelines differentiate look that largely explains the relatively small size good and evil. of the U.S. welfare state. Compared with citizens in The importance of religion in the United Scates other advanced democracies, far fewer Americans has been linked to what has been called utopian hold the state responsible for providing food and moralism, the tendency of Americans to view the housing for every citizen. world in terms of good versus evil. At the same Finally, the United Scates also stands out time, anti-scacism and the "free market" for religion among advanced democracies in the importance often complicate the quest for moral clarity. On it continues to place on religion. A far higher per- many moral issues, such as abortion, Americans are centage of its citizens belong to a church or ocher uncomfortable both with scare sanctions on behav- religious organization than do the citizens of ocher ior they may see as immoral and with state-imposed advanced democracies, and Americans are more restrictions on personal behavior. Political Economy The United States remains the most prosperous health care, to name a few. As a result, some observe and technologically powerful country in the world. that the notion of a weak U.S. welfare system is mis- With just over 4 percent of the world's popula- leading; rather, benefits are often supplied through tion, the United States produces nearly as much of the private sector and supported by a complicated the world's economic output as China, which has system of tax breaks targeting specific groups of nearly 20 percent of the world's population.13 In the Americans. Such a system, however, tends to bene- past decade, while many of the world's economies fit the middle class much more than the poor, who have struggled, the United States enjoyed the lon- lack the resources to take advantage of ca.x exemp- gest period of sustained economic growth in its his- tions and might more easily benefit from public tory, breaking its own record, set during the decade goods, such as nationalized health care.15 of the 1990s. For most of the decades since the Although private enterprise is the main engine 1970s, inflation and unemployment also remained of the U.S. economy, the state does play a signifi- relatively low. However, the global financial crisis cant role. Starting with the New Deal reforms of and subsequent economic recession chat originated the 1930s, the state's role in the economy increased with a banking crisis in the United States in 2008 significantly co prevent a market collapse, promote had long-term negative consequences for the Amer- equity, and shield the American political-economic ican economy and profoundly influenced its poli- system from fascism on the right and communism tics as well. on the left. Since the 1980s, governments have In general, the U.S. state plays a smaller role implemented neoliberal policies at times to scale in the market than do the governments of most back the role of the state in the economy. The Rea- other industrialized democracies. The proportion gan administration, for example, deregulated many of gross domestic product (GDP) spent by the state sectors of the economy (including telecommuni- has hovered around 35 percent, less than in most cations and the airlines) co make them more com- European countries, a figure that has not varied petitive; under the Clinton administration in the much over time.14 The United States also has some 1990s, reforms also devolved many welfare respon- of the lowest tax rates among the industrialized sibilities to the states. The 2008 financial crisis democracies (see "In Comparison: Taxes as a Per- once again brought the state into the marketplace centage of GDP," p. 271). However, what the United on a dramatic scale in the form of fiscal stimuli, States does not provide by way of d irect state expen- corporate bailouts, direct government ownership, ditures is often less visible or "submerged," such as and tougher government financial regulations. various tax breaks for home ownership, children, or Over the course of the 2000s, an enormous boom student loans and subsidies for employer-provided took place in the U.S. housing market, facilitated Political Economy 269  by low interest rares backed by the Federal Reserve levels, complicating efforts to fund government and large inflows of foreign funds seeking to profit programs and sharpening political debate. In 2011, from the boom. This easy money made cheap Standard & Poor's downgraded the U.S. credit rating loans available to American consumers and fueled for the first time in the country's history, citing con- a housing construction frenzy and, ultimately, a cern about both the growing debt and the protracted housing bubble. Unrestrained by government reg- political struggle over raising the debt ceiling. ulators, financial institutions issued risky loans to Despite its wealth and generally impressive record increasingly indebted consumers and then bundled of economic growth, the United States faces numer- these mortgages together into complex securities ous political and economic challenges in the twenty- and sold them to investors at great profit. first century. Perhaps the most serious of these For a season, this bubble kept everyone aloft and challenges has been that of persistent and growing happy. Americans were living the American dream income inequality. The globalization of trade and of home ownership, jobs were plentiful, and banks rapid technological transformation have led to a were extremely profitable. But when the inflated "two-tiered" labor market in the United Stares (and housing bubble popped and housing prices declined, among all advanced industrial economies). Med- so too did the value of these mortgage-backed secu- ical and pension costs have soared, while wages for rities. The Wall Street financial institutions that had lower-income families have remained stagnant even invested heavily in these securities began co suffer as higher-income households have reaped substan- huge losses, prompting investors co flee. As inter- tial increases in wealth. Since the Social Security Act est rates climbed and property values plummeted, of 1935, the U.S. state has provided a safety net of more and more Americans found themselves unable welfare measures, but the provisions have been less to make mortgage payments and were forced into extensive than those of other advanced democracies. foreclosure. The federal government stepped in to The United States spends about 15 percent ofits GDP bail our banks, shore up key businesses, calm trou- on social expenditures, a lower share than that of bled financial markers, and jump-scare the economy. almost any other advanced democracy (only Ireland's These steps were designed to increase employment, is lower). Legislation in the 1960s expanded welfare stimulate investment, lift the economy our of reces- measures to include some health care coverage for the sion, and prevent the kinds of market failures that poor and the elderly, but it stopped short of provid- had led to the crisis in the first place. ing universal health care for all citizens. During the In addition, the U.S. state's intervention in the Reagan administration, welfare spending per recipi- economy has been aimed at improving the business ent fell by one-fifth. Under President Clinton, there climate. Over the past 40 years, the tax burden has was bipartisan support for measures aimed at cutting shifted from corporations to individuals, and the welfare expenditures, and with some notable excep- state has granted huge subsidies to agribusiness and tions (such as prescription benefits for the elderly), given generous tax breaks to corporations. In 2018, social expenditures remained flat or declined. The President Trump and the Republican-led Congress economic downturn in 2008 caused a spike in wel- implemented tax reforms that substantially low- fare expenditures, which rose to nearly 5 percent of ered tax rates for both corporations and individu- GDP by 2010, nearly double the proportion of just als. At the same time, in contrast to many European three years previous. But once the economy regained countries, the state has done little to support trade its footing, welfare expenditures returned to less than unions. Even during a Republican administration, 3 percent of GDP in subsequent years. under George W. Bush, the size of the state grew As a result, income inequality in the United faster than at any time since the 1970s, though this States has become a serious and growing problem. growth largely involved military and national secu- While the main measure of inequality, the Gini rity spending_l 6 Declining state revenues (it is esti- index, has remained relatively flat in many countries mated that the 2018 tax reforms will raise the federal around the world, the United States has seen a dra- deficit by$ 1.5 trillion in a decade) and high military matic increase over the past two decades. In 1980, expenditures (direct costs of the wars in Iraq and the U.S. Gini index stood at 34, where it had been Afghanistan have tallied over $2 trillion through since the late 1960s. Since the 1980s, the U.S. Gini 2020) have raised government debt to dangerous number has risen to 41, similar to that of China and 270 UNITED STATES  Labor Force by Occupation Some scholars believe chat growing inequal- ity has a corrosive effect on American society. A recent book by political scientist Robert Putnam illustrates the growing social consequences of eco- Agriculture nomic inequality, which he argues threatens the 1%--,: American dream of social mobility.18 Other schol- ·-- ars have argued chat the U.S. political system is increasingly dominated by large economic interests at the expense of the majority of the population. 19 Services 80% I I These concerns dovetail with alarm over the role of money in policies and the weakness of U.S. cam- paign finance laws. Concern over growing inequality, not usually central to U.S. policies, became a central theme in both the 2016 and 2020 presidential campaigns. In the 2016 Democratic Party primary campaign, Sen- many countries in Africa.17 The United States has ator Bernie Sanders, declaring himself a "socialist," the largest number of millionaires in the world, but mounted a serious challenge to the former sena- it also has a disproportionally large number of poor tor and secretary of scare Hillary Clinton, focused people for a country of its wealth (hence the high almost entirely on the need co stem the growing eco- degree of inequality). About 12 percent of the coun- nomic divide. In the Republican Party primary cam- try's citizens live below the poverty line, including paign, real estate mogul Donald Trump defeated approximately 18 percent of its children {the high- his more mainstream competition by embracing est percentage among the advanced democracies). economic nationalism and attacking free-trade This poverty is particularly concentrated among deals chat he claimed led co the impoverishment African Americans and Latinos, indicating how of the U.S. working class. Four years later, Senator immigration and racism can compound the like- Sanders and Senator Elizabeth Warren both sought lihood of poverty in the United States. Persistent the Democratic nomination, calling for significant racial divisions in the United States remain one of social-democratic reforms, including tax increases the greatest challenges to reducing inequality. for corporations and the wealthy, state-provided Taxes as a Percentage of GDP COUNTRY PERCENTAGE COUNTRY PERCENTAGE France 45.3 Russia 22.2 Germany 37.6 China 17.5 United Kingdom 33.2 Mexico 17.2 Brazil 32.2 Iran 8.0 South Africa 31.3 India 7.2 Japan 30.7 Nigeria 5.2 United States 26.0 Source: Heritage Foundation Index of Economic Freedom, www.heritage.org/index/explore?vlew=by-varlables&u= 637154074022732800. Most recent data available for each country (accessed 11/25/19). Political Economy 271  universal health care, and state-funded university into far greater expenses than state revenues can education. support. This budget deficit has been funded by Related to the problems of inequality and pov- borrowing. As a result, the United States has an erty is the growing national debt over the past two enormous national debt of over $22 trillion; the decades. \'>:' hile U.S. social expenditures are small figure now far exceeds the country's annual GDP compared with those of other advanced democra- and has reached a level not seen since World cies, the low and declining levels of taxation (see War II. If at some point the United States is no "In Comparison: Taxes as a Percentage of GDP," longer able to sustain this debt through borrow- p. 271), growing numbers of elderly, expanding ing (often from foreign sources such as China), the entitlement programs, inability to control health result could be economic decline and the inability care expenses, and costs of defense and waging to sustain military commitments and other obli- wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have translated gations abroad. Current Issues in the United States A DYSFUNCTIONAL DEMOCRACY? limiting the amount ofmoney that the United States POLITICAL POLARIZATION IN THE could borrow. Failure to raise the debt limit likely would have resulted in the United States d efaulting UNITED STATES on its debt and easily could have triggered a global Even before the 2008 election of Barack Obama, economic crisis. In both cases, House Republicans scholars of U.S. politics pointed to the rapidly eventually relented. The partisan brinksmanship growing level of political polarization, or degree in 2013 and again in 2018- 19 resulted in the lon- of political partisanship among members of the gest government shutdowns in U.S. history. In 2016 two major political parties. Recent presidential Senate Republicans took the unprecedented step of elections seemed to highlight a growing divide refusing to consider President Obama's nominee between "red states" (conservative, religious, and for the Supreme Court, and in 2018, Senate Demo- Republican) and "blue states" (more socially liberal, crats subjected President Trump's second Supreme more secular, and Democratic). A number of high- Court nominee to a grueling (but ultimately suc- profile events during Obama's presidency seemed cessful) confirmation hearing. Observers have to underscore this polarization. pointed to these and other instances of political Obama rook power vowing to end the partisan gridlock as examples of how partisan polarization bickering in \Vashington, D.C., but soon found his has threatened the basic operation of the U.S. polit- agenda under fierce attack from the Republican ical system. opposition. Obama's massive economic stimulus A 2014 poll found chat 63 percent of likely package, introduced in February 2010 in response American voters were very disappointed with to the recession, passed without a single Republi- the performance of Congress, an improvement can vote in the House and with only three Repub- from the high of 75 percent negative assessment lican votes in the Senate. Not a single Democrat in reported following the 2013 government shuc- the Senate and only seven in the House opposed it. down.20 The 2013-14 Congress passed fewer bills Obama's 20 IO Affordable Care Act, a centerpiece and enacted fewer laws than any other Congress in of his electoral campaign, faced even more partisan recent history. Noc surprisingly, whether chis lack opposition: not a single Republican in either the of productivity is viewed as a bad thing (govern- House or the Senate voted for it. ments are elected to take action on behalf of the ln 20 I 1 and again in 2013, Republicans in the public) or a good thing (the government that leg- House of Representatives refused to approve an islates lease, governs best) depends on which party increase in the U.S. debt ceiling, thus effectively you belong to. 272 UNITED STATES  Scholars note chat U.S. policies has become the 1960s and 1970s (and especially the creation of increasingly polarized since the 1970s, although party primaries co select presidential candidates) earlier historical periods (during the Civil War, for that allowed political activists co enter mainstream example) have certainly been marked by high lev- politics. Ochers place the blame on lax campaign els of polarization. Evidence of this polarization is finance laws and the explosion of special interest strongest among political elices. 21 Since the 1970s, groups aimed at mobilizing citizens around sin- strict party-line votes have dramatically increased gle issues. Still others point co laws that give the in Congress. Party unity scores, measuring the media access co almost all political deliberations, percentage of legislators voting with their party together with the emergence of commercial media majority, have increased from about 70 percent in outlets fostering and even amplifying highly parti- the 1970s co about 90 percent at present. Measures san positions.27 of the ideology and voting records of members of Can polarization be reversed? Many scholars Congress point co a growing divide between Dem- have suggested political reforms aimed at reduc- ocratic and Republican legislators. In 1970, moder- ing political polarization in the United States. For ates constituted 41 percent of senators, but today example, two experts on Latin American policies they account for only 5 percent.22 In the words of have suggested that the United States consider two leading scholars of U.S. policies, "Conserva- adopting a proportional representation electoral tive Democrats and liberal Republicans, who were system, a feature of most Latin American presi- common in American politics during the 1950s and dential systems that they argue has fostered com- 1960s, are now extremely rare."23 promise among political parties. 28 Others have Scholars have pointed co a number of poten- suggested reforming the rules of Congress and tially corrosive consequences of chis polarization revising political party primaries co better reflect among political elices. 24 They have argued, most views in the political center. 29 With a political obviously, chat growing polarization makes it dif- regime intentionally designed co "check" and "bal- ficult co create legislative coalitions, leading co ance" political power, these kinds of reforms may public policy gridlock. The workings of the federal not come easily. Looming challenges, however, may bureaucracy and the judiciary have been hampered compel the kind of cooperation required to bring because what were once routine legislative approv- about che necessary institutional changes. als of presidential appointees have become long and drawn-out confirmation battles. One scholar has argued that the polarization has made it harder IMPEACHMENT: CONSTITUTIONAL to pass laws co address economic crises, and chat SOLUTION OR CONSTITUTIONAL the gridlock in Congress has contributed co grow- ing inequality in the United States because the leg- CRISIS? islature can't pass measures co protect the poorest In a presidential system, the executive is directly Americans. 25 Many observers have lamented that elected by the public for a fixed term of office. This the political discourse among political elites has means that, unlike a prime minister whose govern- become less civil. ment must retain the confidence of the majority A lively and ongoing scholarly debate questions of che legislature to remain in office, a presiden- whether there has been a similar political polariza- tial executive can face formidable opposition in tion among the U.S. public. Some scholars have the legislature, reach very low levels of popular argued that there is little evidence co suggest that support, and still continue to govern. According mass polarization has increased with elite polariza- co the U.S. Constitution, the only means by which tion.26 Others contend chat mass public opinion to remove a president from office prior co a gen- increasingly mirrors the polarization of political eral election at the completion of a four-year term elites. is through a cwo-step, formal legislative process Scholars are even more divided about the causes of impeachment by the House of Representatives of political polarization in the United Scates. Some (requiring a simple majority of votes) and convic- have attributed it co the "democratization" and tion by the Senate (requiring a two-thirds majority consequent weakening of U.S. political parties in of votes). The constitutional grounds for such an Current Issues in the United States 273  action are outlined as "treason, bribery or other asking the Ukrainian government to investigate high crimes and misdemeanors." corruption and that ultimately the military aid Such measures have been invoked only rarely in was released. Likewise, the Trump administration American history, but perhaps not as infrequently argued that it was justified in withholding docu- as often thought. Though only three presidents ments and blocking administration officers from have been impeached-Andrew Johnson in 1868, testifying in order co preserve the "executive privi- Bill Clinton in 1998, and Donald Trump in 2019- lege" of the president and co maintain the necessary formal impeachment investigations were carried confidentiality of the affairs conducted by the pres- out or resolutions to impeach were introduced ident and his closest advisers. against another 14 presidents (including all of the The articles of impeachment were approved on most recent six presidents). Richard Nixon faced an a near parry-line vote, and the House o f Represen- impeachment investigation in 1973 but resigned tatives passed the process on to the Senate, which is his office before the impeachment process finished. constitutionally charged with conducting a trial to No president has ever been removed from office; consider the removal of the president from office. after being impeached by the House of Representa- This trial convened in early 2020, presided over by tives,Johnson, Clinton, and Trump were all acquit- Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts. Much ted by the Senate. of the same arguments and evidence were presented In 2019, Donald Trump became only the in this trial, with much the same accusations and third president in history to be impeached. The counteraccusations and ultimately a predictable Democrat-controlled House of Representatives near parry-line vote in the Senate. Because the brought two "articles of impeachment," or charges, Republican Parry controlled the Senate, the vote against the president: "the abuse of power" and "the to remove the president from office fell far short of obstruction of Congress." The first charge related the two-thirds supermajoriry necessary for removal. to claims that Trump pressured the president of Like his two predecessors who shared his fate, Pres- Ukraine co publicly declare that the country, was ident Trump was acquitted. pursuing a corruption investigation against for- What were the consequences of this historic mer vice president Joe Bi den, one of Trump's main process? And did it function in the way the Found- Democratic challengers in the 2020 presidential ers and the Constitution they authored intended? election. The president was accused of withholding Trump and his supporters maintain chat the both $400 million in military aid co Ukraine and president had done nothing wrong and that the the offer of a public meeting in the White House impeachment process was nothing more than a as a quid pro quo in exchange for the announced politicized attempt by Democrats to besmirch investigation. These actions, it was alleged, con- the president's character and subvert the will stituted an abuse of power because the president of the people who had duly elected him. If chat is used the power of his office for personal, political the case, the effort clearly failed. Trump's approval gain. The second charge followed from the first, rating reached its highest point to dace (49 per- with his accusers claiming chat the Trump admin- cent) immediately following his acquittal. And yet istration obstructed the House of Representatives' another clear consequence of the highly publicized legitimate impeachment investigation by refusing inquiry was a further polarizing of the American to release subpoenaed documents and by blocking public. With 50 percent of Americans disapprov- deposed witnesses from testifying as pare of the ing of Trump, only 1 percent of those polled were House inquiry. left undecided. Perhaps this is the lesson the President Trump's legal team and Republican Founders would have Americans take from this supporters in the House of Representatives coun- exercise in majoritarian democracy. Voters in the tered that the evidence brought forward in the 2020 general election, exercising their franchise, investigation did not support the claims of abuse will have the final say in determining the face of of power. They argued chat Trump was justified in this, and each, American president. 274 U NITED STATES KEY TERMS American Revolution (p. 254) New Deal (p. 25 6) Articles of Confederation (p. 254) Obama, Barack (p. 258) Bill of Rights (p. 254) political polarization (p. 272) cabinet (p. 258) populism (p. 267) civil rights movement (p. 257) Progressive era (p. 256) Civil War (p. 255) rule oflaw (p. 257) Civil War Amendments (p. 256) Senate (p. 257) Declaration oflndependence (p. 254) separation of powers (p. 257) federalism (p. 257) Tea Party (p. 263) gerrymandering (p. 260) Trump, Donald (p. 261) House of Representatives (p. 257) utopian moralism (p. 269) Latinos (p. 266) Vietnam War (p. 257) Mexican-American War (p. 255) Washington, George (p. 254) Mueller Report (p. 265) Key Terms 275