CP 2.pdf: Comparative Politics Lab 16.10.2024

Comparative Politics Lab 16.10.2024. The political system of the United Kingdom. The term Great Britain includes England, Wales, and Scotland, but not Northern Ireland. We use the term Britain as shorthand for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Fusion o...

Comparative Politics Lab 16.10.2024. The political system of the United Kingdom. The term Great Britain includes England, Wales, and Scotland, but not Northern Ireland. We use the term Britain as shorthand for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Fusion of powers is A constitutional principle that merges the authority of branches of government, in contrast to the principle of separation of powers. Cabinet government is A system of government in which most executive power is held by the cabinet, headed by a prime minister. A constitutional monarchy is A system of government in which the head of state ascends by heredity but is limited in powers and constrained by the provisions of a constitution. A judicial review is the ability of courts to decide if the laws are constitutional. History 1650. Glorious revolution, the establishment of the parliament 1750. Ca. industrial revolution in Britain 1832. Reform Act, voting rights 1837-1901. Queen Victoria, height of the British Empire 1945-1979. establishment of the British welfare state, dismantling of British Empire 1973. Britain joins the European Economic Community 1979-1990. Margaret Thatcher and the enterprise culture 1997-2007. Tony Blair and Gordon Brown lead the New Labour Party 2001. Cooperation with the US in the war against terror 2007. Brown becomes the prime minister, quickly loses support and worsens the economic situation 2010. Conservative-liberal coalition 2014. Scotland defeats the referendum on Scottish independence 2016. Brexit, Theresa May elected as the prime minister In the 16th century, England and Wales were unified. Scotland and England remained separate kingdoms until the Act of Union in 1707, after which there were two parliaments: one for Scotland and one for England and Wales. In 1215, King John of England was forcing the feudal barons to pay higher taxes. When they refused, he misused his power by imprisoning them or seizing their land. This led to the barons occupying London and forcing the king to negotiate their rights. As a result, the Magna Carta, meaning "the Great Charter," was written. The Magna Carta is one of the most famous documents in history and served as an inspiration for constitutions around the world. It essentially protects citizens from the misuse of power, establishing that the government is not above the law. Afterward, the Pope declared it invalid, which led to a civil war. The document had to be rewritten three times before it finally became part of English law. The term "parliament" was first used to describe gatherings of feudal barons. By the 15th century, Parliament had gained the right to make laws. By the 1500s and 1600s, Britain was dealing with religious conflicts, national rivalries, and power struggles between the rulers and Parliament. These tensions led to civil wars in the 1640s and forced removal of King James II in 1688, Britain’s last successful revolution The “Glorious Revolution” of 1688: Ended many religious conflicts, replaced Catholic King James II with Protestant rulers William and Mary, confirmed the Church of England as the country’s official church, a status it still holds. By around 1700, Britain had developed a basic form of parliamentary democracy. A parliamentary democracy is a system of government in which the chief executive is answerable to the legislature and may be dismissed by it. Parliamentary sovereignty is the doctrine that grants the legislature the power to make or overturn any law and permits no veto or judicial review. Industrial Revolution a period of rapid and destabilising social, economic, and political changes caused by the introduction of large- scale factory production, originating in England in the middle of the eighteenth century. It had a great impact on the British state and society. One of the main reasons for Britain's power and how they managed to colonise such a large part of the world is trade. The leaders worked to secure markets overseas and expand the empire. They had a powerful navy, which enabled them to have a huge impact in international trade and with that become one of the most dominant military and economic world powers. They had the ability to travel through the suez canal and the gibraltar, and the persian gulf. Britain also ruled as a hegemonic power, which means they controlled the pattern of alliances and terms of international order also shaping the domestic political developments in countries around the world. Voting ​The Reform Act of 1832 gave voting rights to some middle-class men, raising the voting population from under 5% to about 7%. The Representation of the People Act of 1867 expanded voters to 16%, though cities remained underrepresented. The Franchise Act of 1884 nearly doubled the number of voters. The Representation of the People Act of 1918 granted voting rights to nearly all adult men and women over 30. After World War two, the government decided on the laissez faire system, which means that the state is limited to enforcing contracts and protecting property rights, while private property forces are free to operate with minimal state intervention. The collectivist consensus also happened after WW2 where they decided to work on narrowing the gap between the rich and the poor as well as provide basic necessities, the concept known as the welfare state. The parties Tony Blair led the Labour Party from 1997 to 2007, aiming to modernise it as "New Labour." This “new” party sought a "third way" between Thatcherism and traditional Labour values. It moved beyond interest-based politics, appealing to a broader range of voters. In 1997, Labour won with support from various social and economic groups. Blair and Gordon Brown initially allied as Labour’s rising stars. Blair focused on modernising the party and broadening its base. Brown became shadow chancellor, focusing on economic policy. After Labour took office, Blair and Brown became rivals. Blair won a third term in 2005 but lost seats due to his support for the Iraq War. In 2007, Blair resigned, and Brown became prime minister. Brown faced challenges, struggling with the unpopularity of the Iraq War. His achievements, including economic stabilisation during the 2008 Great Recession, were overshadowed. Public anxiety over terrorism remained high after the 7/7 London bombings in 2005. The Hung Parliament Since the Conservatives took power in 1990, many New Labour principles have influenced the broader political spectrum. In 2005, David Cameron became Conservative leader and focused on modernization and pragmatism. Engaging youth and promoting issues like climate change, citizen activism, and reducing wealth inequality and expanding the Conservative appeal beyond traditional party lines In 2010, a "hung parliament" led to a coalition government between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats. The coalition aimed to combine Conservative free-market beliefs with Liberal Democrat decentralisation goals. Their main vision, called the "Big Society," sought to empower citizens by allowing parents to start schools, enabling citizens to run post offices and elect police commissioners and providing a way to recall MPs who broke public trust. The Big Society failed to gain strong public support, partly due to unpopular cuts from the 2008 Great Recession, challenges from globalisation and issues better suited to Labour policies Major challenges followed: 1. In 2014, the UK narrowly avoided Scotland’s secession in a referendum.  2. The UK Independence Party (UKIP), led by Nigel Farage, pushed for the UK to leave the European Union. 3. Labour, still affected by Blair’s Iraq War support, struggled to regain influence under Jeremy Corbyn (leader from 2015), who faced difficulty competing with the rise of right-wing populism in Europe. Brexit Brexit is the most famous referendum in their politics, it was on the 26th of June 2016. 52% of people voted for it. The turnout was almost 72%, more than 30 million people voted to leave the EU. David Cameron argued that the UK shouldn’t leave the EU. Conservative leader Theresa May took office as the second female prime minister in the country’s history. It was, however, for the precise purpose of managing Britain’s exit from the European Union effectively that May unexpectedly called for an early election, held in June 2017, hoping to increase her majority in Parliament. Referendum- direct vote from the citizens. Through gradual decolonization, Britain fell to second-tier status among the world’s nations. Its formal empire shrank between the two world wars (1919–1939) as the so-called white dominions of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand gained independence. The process of decolonization ended Britain’s position as a dominant player in world politics. Through the immigration of former colonial subjects to the United Kingdom, decolonization created a multiracial and multiethnic society. Issues of race, ethnicity, and cultural identity have challenged the long-standing British values of tolerance and consensus. Britain was the first nation to industrialise. Britain was also the first nation to develop an effective parliamentary democracy. British politics is often studied as a model of representative government. Named after the building that houses the British legislature in London, the Westminster model emphasises that democracy rests on the supreme authority of a legislature—in Britain’s case, the Parliament. Resulting from its role in World War II, Britain sits as a permanent member of the United Nations (UN) Security Council and is also a leading member of the world’s select club of nuclear powers. What will happen to Britain’s special relationship with the United States—one that has often helped stabilise a chaotic and increasingly uncertain global order. The Economy Neoliberal Influence: British economic policy became heavily influenced by neoliberal principles starting in the 1980s under Thatcher. The focus was on minimal state intervention, encouraging free-market competition, and creating an environment attractive to foreign investment. These principles continued through the New Labour governments of Blair and Brown. Economic Landscape Pre-2008: The UK economy enjoyed relative stability and growth from the mid-1990s until the 2008 recession. This growth was largely due to a strong service sector, particularly financial services, offsetting a weaker industrial sector. Key economic indicators such as low unemployment, low inflation, and sustained growth positioned the UK economy favorably compared to other EU countries. Impact of the 2008 Recession: The global financial crisis highlighted vulnerabilities within the UK economy. As the crisis unfolded, Gordon Brown advocated for global coordination to address these issues. The 2008 recession marked a shift in focus towards balancing budgets and addressing fiscal responsibility. Coalition Government's Austerity: When the Conservative-Liberal coalition came to power in 2010, it prioritized deficit reduction through austerity, cutting spending but protecting areas like health and education. This approach faced criticism, particularly from Labour, which under Corbyn advocated for increased infrastructure spending to stimulate growth and raise tax revenues. Macroeconomic policy is a policy intended to shape the overall economic system by concentrating on policy targets such as inflation and growth. Historical Economic Approaches: Postwar Consensus: The post-WWII collectivist consensus saw the state assume ownership of key industries, aiming for full employment and economic stability, influenced by Keynesian economic principles. Thatcherite Monetarism: Thatcher abandoned Keynesianism, adopting monetarism, which limited government intervention, focusing on controlling inflation and reducing state influence in the economy. New Labour Adjustments: Gordon Brown emphasised economic stability, balancing budgets before increasing spending on social services. His approach included improving workforce skills to boost British industry’s competitiveness. Ongoing Challenges: By the mid-2010s, Labour leaders faced difficulty positioning themselves as credible alternatives to austerity policies. Theresa May, as Prime Minister, inherited pressing challenges, including Brexit and the continued management of austerity policies. Ethnic minorities in the UK, increasingly UK-born, experience discrimination and social exclusion. Though employment rates have improved, significant inequalities persist in education, housing, and wages. Women face a persistent gender pay gap and workplace inequalities, further amplified by an increased reliance on the private sector for employment, which generally offers fewer protections against gender-based pay discrepancies. Initiatives for early childcare and family support aim to alleviate some pressures on working women. Environmental issues have also become contentious, with rising pollution levels and extreme weather incidents sparking debates over Britain’s climate policy. While there is cross-party support for environmental measures, effective policy-making is challenged by pro-business priorities, leaving sustainable progress slow. Economically, the UK attracts substantial foreign direct investment (FDI) due to low costs, a favourable political climate, and reduced trade union power, making it a key European investment hub. However, reliance on market-driven economics made the UK vulnerable during the 2008 financial crisis. The Brexit decision further increased economic uncertainty, with the UK now seeking new trade agreements to counterbalance its departure from the EU. These issues collectively illustrate the complex interplay between social policy, economic dependency on FDI, and environmental challenges within the UK’s evolving political economy. Policies British Constitution: The British constitution is a combination of statutory law, common law, conventions, and authoritative interpretations. It lacks a single written document like the U.S. Constitution but is instead "part written and uncodified," dating back to foundational documents such as the Bill of Rights of 1689. This constitution operates based on conventions and accepted practices, which hold significant cultural and legal weight. Parliamentary Sovereignty: At the core of British governance is parliamentary sovereignty, meaning Parliament holds supreme legislative authority, without veto or judicial review from other branches. This authority was partially limited when the UK joined the European Economic Community (EEC), though Brexit reversed many of these limitations. Unitary State with Devolution: The UK operates as a unitary state, with no constitutionally reserved powers for regional governments. However, devolution has granted Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland certain legislative powers, creating a quasi-federal system. Political tensions continue, as seen in Scotland's 2014 independence referendum. Fusion of Powers: Unlike the U.S. separation of powers, Britain merges legislative, executive, and judicial authority within Parliament. The cabinet, composed of ministers from Parliament, holds substantial executive power. This structure, called cabinet government, enables collective decision-making but varies based on the leadership style of the prime minister. Prime Minister and Cabinet: The prime minister, leader of the majority party in the House of Commons, wields substantial influence over the cabinet, which traditionally operates through collective responsibility. The cabinet is supported by committees and the civil service. Recent leaders like Thatcher and Blair concentrated decision-making power, while others like Cameron reverted to a more consultative approach. Prime Minister and Cabinet Prime Minister (PM): Holds significant power in the UK’s parliamentary system. They must maintain the support of the majority in the legislature (House of Commons) to stay in office. Cabinet: A group of senior government ministers who head different government departments. The PM and Cabinet are central to policymaking in the UK, enjoying a more unified executive compared to systems with checks and balances (like the U.S.). Bureaucracy and Civil Service Permanent Secretary: The senior career civil servant in charge of running a government department. They assist ministers and ensure the smooth functioning of the department. Civil Servants: Professional, non-political staff that assist in policy creation, preparation, and implementation. They play a large role in refining and drafting legislation. Special Advisers: Political appointees who influence policy. Their growing role raises concerns about the neutrality and impartiality of the civil service. Nationalised Industries and Quangos Nationalised Industries: State-owned industries (e.g., coal, steel) that were privatised in the late 20th century. These were sold to private investors under Thatcher’s government.  Quangos (Quasi-Non Governmental Organizations): Semi-public bodies with government funding and functions, but they operate at arm's length from ministers. They combine government and private-sector expertise. Military and Police Military: The UK’s military is an important global force and operates primarily through NATO commitments. While British foreign policy can involve military action (e.g., Iraq), it generally maintains public support when justified. Police: Traditionally decentralised, but since the 1980s, there has been increasing central control. The police have been used in political contexts, such as the 1984–85 miners' strike, raising concerns about impartiality. Judiciary Parliamentary Sovereignty: In the UK, Parliament has supreme legal authority. Courts do not have the power to declare laws unconstitutional (no judicial review). They can only assess whether laws align with existing legislation or common law. UK Supreme Court: The highest court in the UK, created in 2009, it replaced the House of Lords as the court of final appeal. European Court of Justice (ECJ): As an EU member, the UK was bound to follow rulings from the ECJ, which influenced laws like the Human Rights Act (1998). Subnational Government Devolution: The process by which power has been transferred from the central government in Westminster to regional governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. This grants them authority over certain domestic issues (e.g., health, education). Asymmetry in Voting Rights: The devolution of powers has created situations where MPs from Scotland can vote on issues that affect England, but English MPs have limited influence on decisions affecting Scotland. London’s Governance: The creation of an elected mayor in 2000 marked a step toward decentralizing power in England. Other major cities have followed suit. Policymaking Process Whitehall: Refers to the heart of the UK executive, where key decisions and policies are shaped. While Parliament is sovereign, policymaking primarily occurs within the executive branch. Policy Communities: Informal networks of ministers, civil servants, and experts who collaborate closely to draft and implement policies. These groups often have significant influence on policymaking.  Lack of Direct Parliamentary Involvement: Parliament plays a minimal role in directly creating policies. Instead, policymaking is dominated by the executive, particularly through Whitehall. Participation Bicameral- a government structure involving two houses, or two legislative bodies, that are separate in deliberation from one another. The House of Commons is the lower house of the UK Parliament, with 650 seats, constituencies Constituency - a group of voters in a specified area who elect a representative to a legislative body. (izborna jedinica) Main Functions: Passes laws, approves taxation and provides finances for the state, reviews and scrutinises government policies and public administration. Legislative Role: Although it has a limited legislative function, the Commons plays a key role in democratic processes, offering a platform for policy debate and partisan conflict. Political Drama: Debates in the Commons are often dramatic due to the rhetorical skills of MPs, but the outcomes are usually predictable. MPs are reluctant to risk their positions by pushing for a general election, making it rare for the government to be defeated in the Commons. Power Shift: Over time, the balance of power has shifted from Parliament to the executive and governing party. Since 1924, only one government (in 1979) has been brought down by a defeat in the Commons The House of Lords, not a fixed number of seats, was 804 in 2024. Traditionally composed of hereditary peers (nobility), life peers (appointed by the prime minister or House of Lords Appointment Commission), and bishops from the Church of England. Functions: The House of Lords serves mainly as a chamber of revision, offering expertise to amend and refine legislation, which it can suggest but not block. It can delay bills but cannot stop them outright. ➔ Example: In 2006, the Lords helped amend a bill limiting free speech to protect British Muslims' civil liberties. The Lords has been subject to reform, with debates over making it an elected chamber. Recently, the House of Lords has become more vocal, engaging in heated debates and resisting government reforms, such as those to the NHS and welfare benefits. Members seem determined to be more active in challenging government actions, potentially marking the final phase of its current role. Political Parties The Labour Party: Historically, the Labour Party was aligned with manual workers, while the Conservative Party represented the middle class. However, since the 1970s, class-based voting has declined, and the party system has become more complex. Labour struggled with internal divisions, especially between trade unionists and parliamentary elements, and foreign policy debates. In the 1980s and 1990s, Labour became a more moderate, centre-left party under the leadership of Tony Blair, rebranding as “New Labour.” After the 2010 defeat, Ed Miliband, who sought to shift the party back to the left, became leader, though with limited success in rallying the base. In 2015, Jeremy Corbyn became leader, steering the party sharply to the left. Under his leadership, Labour gained 30 seats in the 2017 election, surprising many and challenging the Conservative majority. The future direction of the party remains uncertain. The Conservative Party: Dating back to the 18th century, the Conservative Party is one of the oldest and most successful center-right parties in Europe. Under leader Michael Howard (2003-2005), the party faced challenges in opposition to New Labour, and his leadership ended in resignation after electoral defeat. David Cameron succeeded Howard, modernizing the party and repositioning it to compete with New Labour. Cameron emphasized issues such as social justice, poverty reduction, and climate change. In 2016, Theresa May took over as leader, adjusting the party’s stance in response to the Brexit vote, with a mix of right-wing policies on immigration and education, and left-leaning views on business excesses and inequality. Liberal Democrats (Lib Dems): Formed in the 1980s from a merger between the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party, the Liberal Democrats aimed to challenge the dominance of Labour and Conservative parties. They gained prominence in the 2000s, especially in opposition to the Iraq War. The 2001 election saw the party achieve significant success, winning 52 seats. After a leadership change in 2007, Nick Clegg rejuvenated the party, bringing it closer to voters with an emphasis on civil liberties and reaching out to ordinary citizens. Post-Brexit, the Lib Dems have increasingly focused on the business community’s needs. They participated in a coalition government in 2010 but faced challenges in maintaining influence as a third party in a two-party system. The Elections Turnout- how many people voted in general. The system functions with: the winner takes all or first past the post The position with the most political power is the prime minister, who is not directly elected by the citizens but he is voted for as an MP. Culture and Society They also have kind of a problem with immigration, 8% of the population is african or asian, and those people are being constantly segregated in the society. There are tensions with the Brits and the Muslims after the terrorist attack in 2005. Also when it comes to gender equality they are not as progressive, as one country should be and still, most of their MPs are white men. Geographically and as we see it now culturally they never considered themselves a part of Europe which is also why Brexit happened. We can also say that the country’s politics is a bit rocky because Scotland wanted independence in 2014. Which they did not get through the referendum, and the country consists of four different people living in it.