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Human Development: systematic study of Vulnerability to environmental change and stability in people. It is messy and influences should be explained using multiple disciplines Development of response to like anthropology, sociology, and etch...

Human Development: systematic study of Vulnerability to environmental change and stability in people. It is messy and influences should be explained using multiple disciplines Development of response to like anthropology, sociology, and etch stimuli BEFORE: Researchers only study infant NOW: From womb to tomb (Life span development) and individual differences. Infancy and Toddlerhood FOUR TYPES OF GOALS: Complex brain Motor skills D escribes Language, memory and learning develops E xplain Interests in other children P redict increase Autonomy and self- I ntervine awareness Early childhood THREE DOMAINS: Steady growth, slender Cognitive: Pattern of change in mental abilities, Sleep problems such as learning, attention, memory, language, Fine and motor skills thinking, reasoning, and creativity Cognitive immaturity but language and memory Psychosocial: Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships. improve Self-concept and gender Physical: Growth of body and brain, including Ego centric patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor Family is focus but peers skills, and health. are important These Domains are interrelated Middle Childhood Division of the life span is a social construction: a concept or practice that is an invention of a Growth slows and particular culture or society. athletic skills Respiratory disease Division of adolescence emerged because of Coregulation industrialization and comprehensive high school Peers are central as well as extended education. Self-esteem Language and memory PRENATAL: increase Physical growth is rapid Adolescense  Immaturity persists in Two types of family are extended and nuclear attitude and behaviors family. Whereas nuclear are more normative Relationship of parents but there is no dominant form of family due to increasing complexity in the family. Family now is good but friends is more diverse. may exert negative influence Extended family is due to Young adulthood a) Late marriage b) Immigration Physical c) Longer lives of grandparents development peaks Socioeconomic status (SES) Combination of Moral economic and social factors describing an development individual or family, including income, Personality traits education, and occupation stable but can have changes Race and ethnicity are related to Socioeconomic status and poverty has negative effects to Middle adulthood children. Immigrants are most likely to experience poverty due to discrimination. But Dual responsibilities they have contributions to American’s richness Mental peak due to their workforce in food services, Slow health manufacturing, and construction, deterioration and Ethnic gloss: overgeneralization about an ethnic menopause or cultural group that obscures differences Sense of identity within the group. Example: race like asian Late Adulthood Risk factors: conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental Most are healthy outcome. Being rich doesn’t guaranteed less risk but has decline due to availability of resources. Girls that are Meaning in life affluent are more likely to use illegal substances. Compensation and Culture: A societies or group’s total way of life, strategies to cope including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, with losses. language, and physical products—all learned Hereditary: Inborn traits or characteristics behavior, passed on from parents to children. inherited from the biological parents. Ethnic group: A group united by ancestry, race, Environment: Totality of nonhereditary, or religion, language, or national origins, which experiential, influences on development. contribute to a sense of shared identity. Maturation: Unfolding of a natural sequence of Normative: Characteristic of an event that physical and behavioral changes like walk and occurs in a similar way for most people in a talk. group. Historical generation: a group of people strongly 3. Development is multidirectional. As people influenced by a major historical event during gain in one area, they may lose in another, their formative period. sometimes at the same time. Cohort: same age group 4. Relative influences of biology and culture shift over the life span. The process of Normative age-graded influences: are highly development is influenced by both biology and similar for people in a particular age group. For culture, but the balance between these example, people don’t experience puberty at influences’ changes. Biological abilities, such as age 35 or menopause at 12. sensory acuity and muscular strength and Normative history-graded influences are: coordination, weaken with age, but cultural significant events (such as the Great Depression supports, such as education, relationships, and or World War II) that shape the behavior and technologically age-friendly environments, may attitudes of a historical generation: help compensate. Imprinting Instinctive form of learning in which, 5. Development involves changing resource during a critical period in early development, a allocations. Individuals choose to invest their young animal forms an attachment to the first resources of time, energy, talent, money, and moving object it sees, usually the mother. social support in varying ways. KONRAD LORENZ named this phenomenon. 6. Development shows plasticity. Many abilities, A critical period is a specific time when a given such as memory, strength, and endurance, can event, or its absence, has a specific impact on be improved significantly with training and development. If a necessary event does not practice, even late in life. However, even in occur during a critical period of maturation, children, plasticity has limits that depend in part normal development will not occur; and the on the various influences on development. resulting abnormal patterns may be irreversible. 7. Development is influenced by the historical Does not have fixed period. and cultural context. Each person develops Plasticity: range of modifiability of performance within multiple contexts—circumstances or conditions defined in part by maturation and in Sensitive periods: Times in development when a part by time and place. person is particularly open to certain kinds of experiences. SEVEN DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHES 1.Development is lifelong. Development is a lifelong process of change. Each period of the life span is affected by what happened before and will affect what is to come. 2. Development is multidimensional. It occurs along multiple interacting dimensions— biological, psychological, and social. Theory: Coherent set of logically related Organismic theorists see development concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and as discontinuous and has qualitative predict data. Theories inspire further research changes in structure and organization. and predict its results Because this is influence by emerging phenomena not predicted by past Theory and research are interwoven strands in functioning. Organismic theories are the seamless fabric of scientific study. opponents of stage theories. Hypotheses: Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of Five major perspectives: research. (1) psychoanalytic, which focuses on unconscious emotions and drives; Developmental scientist is not always objective (2) learning, which studies observable because theory and research is product of behavior. Learning holds that changes in human individuals influence by their own values and experiences. So, we must scrutinize their behavior result from experience or from adaptation to the environment. work for potential biases. (3) cognitive, which analyzes thought Noble savages: natural tendencies uncorrupted processes. by society. According to Jean Jacques Rosseau. (4) contextual which emphasizes the impact of the historical, social, and cultural context. TWO ISSUES OF DEVELOPMENT (5) evolutionary/sociobiological, which considers evolutionary and biological a) Reactive or non-reactive underpinnings of behavior. Psychologists who believe in reactive development conceptualize the Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual developing child as a hungry sponge Development Freud, believed that that soaks up experiences and is shaped people are born with biological drives by this input over time. This is that must be redirected to make it mechanistic model. possible to live in society. Also believe that early experience influence later Psychologists who believe in active functioning. He proposed three development argue that people create hypothetical parts of the personality: experiences for themselves and are motivated to learn about the world I.D: Pleasure principle around them. Organistic model ED: reality principle b) Continues or non-continuous. SUPEREGO: conscience principle Mechanist theorists see development as continuous: as occurring in small Fixation: an arrest in development that incremental stages. Because like can show up in adult personality. machines they work in continuous and cooperative ways. This is called quantitative change.  of John B. Watson is executed using this condition. O ral Operant conditioning Learning based on A nal association of behavior with its consequences.: P hallic: attachment in other sex, SKINNER superego. L atency; shifts sexual impulses to Two types of operant conditioning: pursuits Reinforcement, the process by which a behavior G enital: sexual impulses are shifted to is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that genital areas. the behavior will be repeated. Punishment, the process by which a behavior is Erikson’s theory of psychosocial weakened, decreasing the likelihood of development covers eight stages across repetition. the life span. Each stage involves what Behavioral modification, a form of operant Erikson originally called a crisis in conditioning used to shape behaviors, has been personality*—a major psychosocial widely used as a therapeutic approach for challenge that is particularly important children with special needs. at that time and will remain an issue to some degree. It is an organismic view Social learning theory: theory that behaviors are because of the particular stages that learned by observing and imitating models. Also occurs. He believes in life-long process called social cognitive theory by Albert bandura. unlike Freud. However, his theory Reciprocal determinism—the person acts on the doesn’t emphasize room for world as the world acts on the person. improvement to unsuccessful stages. Observational learning, or modeling refers to people who tend to choose models who are Behaviorists saw development as prestigious, who control resources, or who are continuous, quantitative, and reactive. rewarded for what they do—in other words, Behaviorism is a mechanistic theory those whose behavior is perceived as valued in that describes observed behavior as a their culture. It can occur even if a person does predictable response to experience. not imitate the observed behavior. For example, Clara sees her sister get disciplined for eating a TWO TYPES OF ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING: cookie cooling on the counter and thus restrains : mental link is associated in two events herself from doing the same thing. Social Cognitive theory is the updated version Classical conditioning: IVAN PAVLOV whereas learning through chunks of behavior devised experiments in which dogs and mentally put those chunks together to form learned to salivate at the sound of a bell complex behavior. that rang at feeding time. Learning based on associating a stimulus that Cognitive-stage theory Piaget’s theory that does not ordinarily elicit a response children’s cognitive development advances in a with another stimulus that does elicit series of four stages involving qualitatively the response. Little Albert experiment distinct types of mental operations. Organization: piaget’s term for the creation of Mesosystem is the interlocking influence of categories or systems of knowledge. microsystems. It may include linkages between home and school (such as a parent-teacher Schemes: piaget’s term for organized patterns of conference) thought and behavior used in particular situations. The exosystem consists of interactions between a microsystem and an outside system or Adaptation: piaget’s term for adjustment to new institution. For example, countries differ with information about the environment, achieved respect to what type of parental leave, if any, is through processes of assimilation and available. Whether or not a parent can stay accommodation. home with a newborn is a substantial influence Assimilation Piaget’s term for incorporation of on development. Thus, government policies new information into an existing cognitive trickle down and can affect a child’s day-to-day structure. experiences. Accommodation Piaget’s term for changes in a The macrosystem consists of overarching cognitive structure to include new information. cultural patterns, such as dominant beliefs, Equilibration: Piaget’s term for the tendency to ideologies, and economic and political systems. seek a stable balance among cognitive For example, individuals are affected by the elements; achieved through a balance between type of political system they live in, and they assimilation and accommodation. might reasonably have different experiences Sociocultural theory: Vygotsky’s theory of how Last, the chronosystem represents the social and contextual factors affect children’s dimension of time. Time marches on, and as it development. It is a collaborative process. does, changes occur. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky’s Ethology: Study of distinctive adaptive term for the difference between what a child behaviors of species of animals that have can do alone and what the child can do with evolved to increase survival of the species. Due help to natural selection, we have cognitive adaptations. Scaffolding temporary support to help a child master a task Quantitative research: research that deals with objectively measurable data information-processing approach: Approach to the study of cognitive development by Scientific method: system of established observing and analyzing the mental processes principles and processes of scientific inquiry, involved in perceiving and handling information. which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested Bioecological theory Bronfenbrenner’s approach by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, to understanding processes and contexts of forming tentative conclusions, and human development that identifies five levels of disseminating findings. environmental influence. Qualitative research: research that focuses on The microsystem consists of the everyday nonnumerical data, such as subjective environment of home, work, school, or experiences, feelings, or beliefs. neighborhood. FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION dependent variable: in an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a Self-Report result of changes in the independent variable. Observation Behavioral and performance measures Operational definition A definition stated solely in terms of the operations used to measure a phenomenon. For example, measuring the BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS heart if its healthy by observing the standard beat per minute. It is like specifying the terms. Case Study: Case studies are particularly useful when studying something Three types of Experiments relatively rare. Cannot generalized Laboratory phenomenon. Field experiment: everyday life like Ethnographic study: seeks to describe home or school. Variables can still be the pattern of relationships, customs, manipulated. beliefs, technology, arts, and traditions Natural experiment: compares people that make up a society’s way of life. In a who have been accidentally “assigned” way, it is like a case study of a culture. to separate groups by circumstances of Ethnographic research can be life—one group who were exposed, say, qualitative, quantitative, or both. It uses to famine or HIV or superior education, a combination of methods. and another group who were not. Correlational study seeks to determine whether a correlation, or statistical Cross-sectional study: Study designed to assess relationship, exists between variables, age-related differences, in which people of phenomena that change or vary among different ages are assessed on one occasion. people or can be varied for purposes of Longitudinal study: study designed to assess age research. changes in a sample over time. Experiment is a controlled procedure in Sequential study: study design that combines which the experimenter manipulates cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques. variables to learn how one affects another “p-hacking.”: manipulating variables to enable a Ethics of Research: favorable result. Beneficence: obligation to maximize potential Experimental group: in an experiment, the benefits to participants and to minimize group receiving the treatment under study. potential harm. Control group: in an experiment, a group of Respect: for autonomy and protection for people, similar to those in the experimental people unable to exercises judgement group, who do not receive the treatment under Justice: inclusion of diverse groups and study. appropriate materials for them. independent variable: In an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control. Fertilization or conception: union of sperm and It has negative effects that leads to the ovum to produce a zygote; also called downturn of this trend. conception. Sometimes a mistake in copying is made, and a Zygote: One-celled organism resulting from mutation may result. Mutations are permanent fertilization. alterations in genetic material. The “fertile window”— the time during which The sperm may carry X or Y chromosomes. conception is possible—can be highly All embryo has the same reproductive system unpredictable. early in life, thus, sex differentiation is not Women has over 2 million immature ova in its automatic. Certain hormone triggers the SRY small sac or follicle. gene that cause formation of testes and the testes will produce testosterone for formation Ovulation is the rupture of mature ova and of male sex parts. swept by the cilia from fallopian tube to the uterus. In female, they are HOX genes and wnt-4. A variant of wnt-4 creates mutation of female Sperm are produced in the testicles (testes), or organs. reproductive glands, of a mature male at a rate of several hundred million a day and are Gregor Mendel: genetics ejaculated in the semen at sexual climax. They Alleles: Two or more alternative forms of a gene swim through cervix to fallopian tube. that occupy the same position on paired A) Genes: small segments of DNA located chromosomes and affect the same trait. in definite positions on particular Homozygous: Possessing two identical alleles for chromosomes; functional units of a trait. heterozygous Possessing differing alleles heredity. for a trait. B) Genetic code: sequence of bases within dominant inheritance: pattern of inheritance in the DNA molecule; governs the which, when a child receives different alleles, formation of proteins that determine only the dominant one is expressed. R the structure and functions of living cells. Recessive inheritance: pattern of inheritance in C) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Chemical which a child receives identical recessive alleles, that carries inherited instructions for resulting in expression of a nondominant trait the development of all cellular forms of life. Polygenic: inheritance Pattern of inheritance in D) Chromosomes: Coils of DNA that consist which multiple genes at different sites on of genes. chromosomes affect a complex trait. Meiosis: sex cell Phenotype: Observable characteristics of a person. genotype Genetic makeup of a person, Mitosis: autosomes containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. Multiple birth is due to a. Late child rearing b. Vitro fertilization Multifactorial transmission: Combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits: height, weight, attention Fragile: Minor-to-severe mental retardation; deficit disorder, intelligence. more severe in males; delayed speech and motor development, hyperactivity; the most common inherited form of mental retardation. Epigenesis Mechanism that turns genes on or Genetic counseling can help prospective parents off and determines functions of body cells. assess their risk of bearing children with genetic refers to chemical molecules (or “tags”) or chromosomal defects. People who have attached to a gene that alter the way a cell already had a child with a genetic defect, who “reads” the gene’s DNA. It is triggered by the have a family history of hereditary illness, who environment. suffer from conditions known or suspected to be inherited, or who come from ethnic groups at higher risk of passing on genes for certain incomplete dominance Pattern of inheritance in diseases can get information about the which a child receives two different alleles, likelihood their children being affected. resulting in partial expression of a trait Behavioral genetics: Quantitative study of sex-linked inheritance Pattern of inheritance in relative hereditary and environmental which certain characteristics carried on the X influences on behavior. chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female Reaction range Potential variability, depending offspring. A female can have the disease if both on environmental conditions, in the expression mother and father have bad allele (25 percent). of a hereditary trait. Male has 50 percent chance because they don’t Canalization: limitation on variance of have an extra X chromosome to be expressed expression of certain inherited characteristics. unlike female. Lower canalization is personality and cognition. Chromosomal Abnormalities Chromosomal genotype-environment interaction: the portion abnormalities typically occur because of errors of phenotypic variation that results from the in cell division, resulting in an extra or missing reactions of genetically different individuals to chromosome. Down Syndrome is the most similar environment. common one. Risk increases as the mother age. Brains affected are hippocampal area, Genotype-environment correlation: tendency of cerebellum, pre-frontal cortex. certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other. It is the tendency of genes to a person’s influence to what environment XYY syndrome: male, tall, low iq specially verbal. they want and the environment reinforces those genetic differences. Triple X: Female, normal, menstrual irreg, learning disorders. nonshared environmental effects: the unique environment in which each child grows up, Klinefelter: sterile, underdeveloped secondary consisting of distinctive influences or influences sex organs, learning disorders that affect one child differently than another. Turner: No menstrual, webbed neck, underdeveloped sex organs. Why siblings differ? At 5 months, the baby has its lanugo and immature respiratory system. a) Have different genetic differences b) Have different parental treatment from At 6 months, it can open eyes. parents At 7 months, fully developed reflex patter where Obesity is measured by body mass index, or BMI she can cry. (comparison of weight to height). Children 8 months, layer of fat in the body for between the 85th and 95th percentiles are temperature regulation. classified as overweight, and those above the 95th percentile as obese. Multifactorial. Spontaneous abortion: natural expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that cannot survive Intelligence has strong heritability but also has outside the womb; also called miscarriage. environmental factors that could improve the intellect of an individual. So, heritability on intelligence is lower on poor people. Temperament: Psychologists call babies’ unique and characteristic ways of approaching and reacting to environmental stimuli temperament. Temperament is largely inborn and is relatively consistent over the years, although it may respond to special experiences or parental handling. Schizophrenia: Mental disorder marked by loss of contact with reality; symptoms include hallucinations and delusions. Has strong heritability but can also be affected by environmental factors such as paternal age and famine during pregnancy. Gestation: period of development between conception and birth. Women give birth 37-41 weeks after their first day of last period. Gestational age: age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle. Digestive system: like kidney, liver and digestive track including the brain are the first to form. Teeh buds and tongue buds at 7 weeks including the little fingers to little toes. While, full head form at 4 months with a kicking (quickening) action and muscular development. Placenta is also completely developed.  E mbryonic Stage G erminal stage: implantation- 2 weeks 2-8 weeks, formed major organs called organogenesis. Respiratory, nervous and Seventy-two hours after digestive system. Embryonic stage is the fertilization, it has divided first critical stage for environmental into 16 and then into 32 cells; a influences like smoking, drinking, and day later it has 64 cells. While etch. As it can affect the baby’s the fertilized ovum is dividing, development. 20 weeks is considered it is also making its way still birth. through the fallopian tube to the uterus, a journey of 3 or 4 days. Its form changes into a F etal stage blastocyst, a fluid-filled sphere, 8 weeks to birth. which floats freely in the Right up to birth, “finishing touches” uterus until the sixth day after such as fingernails, toenails, and eyelids fertilization. continue to develop. Some cells around the edge of Pain receptors and memory develop at the blastocyst cluster on one 30 weeks side to form the embryonic 12th week, a fetus swallows the amniotic disk, a thickened cell mass fluid that makes its taste celss mature at from which the embryo begins 14th weeks. to develop. This mass will Fetus responds to the vibration at 26th differentiate into three layers. week. The ectoderm, the upper layer, will become the outer layer of Teratogen: Environmental agent, such as a skin, the nails, hair, teeth, virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere sensory organs, and the with normal prenatal development and cause nervous system, including the developmental abnormalities. Substance can be brain and spinal cord. The teratogenic depending on the genes or endoderm, will become the vulnerability of the fetus. digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, and Maternal Health and Nutrition: respiratory system. The Women should have additional 300-500 mesoderm, will develop and calories per day and should gain weight differentiate into the inner to only 16-40 pounds. Underweight layer of skin, muscles, skeleton, should gain 28-40 pounds and and excretory and circulatory overweight should gain 15-25 pounds systems. only. Other parts of blastocysts form Pregnant women should drink DHA and amniotic sac, placenta, and 5 millligrams of folic acid each day. As umbilical chord for protection well as Vitmain A and D. of fetus. Inidvidual especially mothers should eat foods with micronutrients.  Micronutrients are vitamins or minerals Caffeine: current recommendations on limiting that are needed in small quantities but caffeine to 200 milligrams or less (about one have a profound negative effect if cup of coffee) are still in place. absent. Marijuana doesn’t cause birth defects but only Physical Activity: Moderate exercise any time problem-solving skills and cerebral flow. during pregnancy does not seem to endanger Cocaine and Methamphetamine, cause brain the fetuses of healthy women. Regular exercise damage and risk for fetal growth. prevents constipation and reduces back pain, and it may reduce the risk of complications such An infection called toxoplasmosis, caused by a as gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, or parasite harbored in the bodies of cattle, sheep, cesarean delivery. They recommended that and pigs and in the intestinal tracts of cats, women in low-risk pregnancies get at least 150 typically produces either no symptoms or minutes of moderate to intense aerobic exercise symptoms like those of the common cold. a week, making sure to drink plenty of water and to avoid becoming overheated. Contact Rubella (German measles), if contracted by a sports or activities that might result in a fall woman before her 11th week of pregnancy, is should be avoided. Work is not hazard but almost certain to cause deafness and heart shouldn’t be strenuous. defects in her baby. Medication: Pregnant Women shouldn’t have Moderate anxiety sprout brain growth and medication unless prescribe or necessary, anti- stress but self-reported stress of mother’s lead psychotic drugs, naproxen, antibiotics like to negative behavioral disorders and irritability Accutane, and several hormonal medications temperament of the infant. Chronic stress leads like diethylstilbestrol has negative effects to to preterm labor as well as depression. fetus. Opioid cause neonate abstinence Depression also causes behavioral disorders and syndrome, a condition in which newborns may developmental delays. show sleep disturbances, tremors, difficulty Women 30-35 are more likely to suffer due to regulating their bodies, irritability. Child of high blood, diabetes, severe bleeding. Young opioid addicts are more likely to be addict only. mothers are more likely to have premature baby Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is characterized by because a young girl growing body consume a combination of retarded growth, face and vitamins that a fetus needs. body malformations, and disorders of the Pregnant Women and Fathers who are exposed central nervous system. Education or to chemicals has negative impact to the baby. environment doesn’t always help the effects to Paternal factors such as advance age contribute the individual. But recent interventions, shows to bipolar disorder, autism, and etch. promise. Minorities, uneducated, unmarried women, Nicotine: maternal smoking during pregnancy teenage women, are less likely to receive has been identified as the single most important prenatal care. factor in low birth weight in developed countries. Tabacco use cause respiratory, TYPES OF MATERNAL SCREENING: neurological problem and increased Amniocentesis: can detect ethnic abnormalities miscarriage. like tay sachs disease, sex link disease and chromosomal abnormalities. Embryoscopy: non-chromosomal genetic The first stage, dilation of the cervix, is the disorders and blood transfusions as well as bone longest, typically lasting 12 to 14 hours for a marrow transplant. woman having her first child. During this stage, regular and increasingly frequent uterine Chronic Villus Sampling: early diagnosis of birth contractions—15 to 20 minutes apart at first— defects. cause the cervix to shorten and dilate, or widen, Umbilical Cord Sampling: For fetal DNA and in preparation for delivery. Toward the end of blood disorders. the first stage, contractions occur every 2 to 5 minutes. This stage lasts until the cervix is fully Maternal Blood Test: Brain and spinal cord, can open (10 centimeters, or about 4 inches) so the predict down syndrome and other baby can descend into the birth canal. abnormalities like low birth weight or still birth. This is used for alpha fetoprotein and fetal DNA. Stage 2: Descent and Emergence of the Baby The second stage, descent and emergence of the baby, typically lasts up to an hour or two. It What brings on labor is a series of uterine, begins when the baby’s head begins to move cervical, and other changes called parturition. through the cervix into the vaginal canal, and it Parturition is also the process of giving birth, ends when the baby emerges completely from labor is just the apt. term. the mother’s body. At the end of this stage, the baby is born but is still attached to the placenta Childbirth has often been “struggle with death” in the mother’s body by the umbilical cord, and there are customs surrounding child birth. which must be cut and clamped. Death of childbirth decrease due to maternity hospitals and the use of medical treatments. Stage 3: Expulsion of the Placenta The third Childbirth is still risky many still had stage, expulsion of the placenta, lasts between complications. 10 minutes and 1 hour. During this stage, the placenta and the remainder of the umbilical Due to the costs of medical procedures and cord are expelled from the mother. treatment, many women prefer to labor at home, but with the help of trained and certified Electronic fetal monitoring Mechanical nurse mid-wife and speedy transfer to the monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and hospital if necessary is as safe as hospital birth. delivery. Drawbacks: Costly, limits movement of mother, false-positive rate. Today hospitals are finding ways to humanize childbirth. Labor and delivery may take place in Cesarean section a comfortable birthing room. Rooming-in a) Fetus has troubled position policies allow a baby to stay in the mother’s b) Mother is bleeding vaginally room much or all of the time. These changes c) Slow progress of labor allow hospitals to allay concerns about an overly d) Mother’s decision or physician fear of medicalized experience while still providing a malpractice safe environment in the event of complications. e) Multiple birth or preterm STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH This method has negative effects such as Stage 1: Dilation of the Cervix hemorrhage, infections, damaged pelvic organs, post-operative pain. Natural birth has good effects as hormones like oxytocin and other hormones helped nourish cells, send blood to In their first few days, neonates lose as much as brain, and remove excess fluid to lungs. VBAC is 10 percent of their body weight, primarily recommended but not for sensitive mothers. because of a loss of fluids. They begin to gain weight again at about the 5th day and are generally back to birth weight by the 10th to the Natural childbirth: method of childbirth that 14th day. New babies have distinctive features, seeks to prevent pain by eliminating the including a large head (one-fourth the body mother’s fear through education about the length) and a receding chin (which makes it physiology of reproduction and training in easier to nurse). Have thin skin, lanugo, vernise breathing and relaxation during delivery. caesosa, witch milk because of estrogen. Prepared childbirth: method of childbirth that Babies have fast and irrergular heart beat until uses instruction, breathing exercises, and social 10 days due to increase necessity from oxygen. support to induce controlled physical responses Anoxia, is the lack of oxygen while hypoxia is the to uterine contractions and reduce fear and reduced of oxygen that can cause mental pain. retardation or brain damage maybe death. They must breathe before 10 minutes. Lamaze: Ferdnand Lamaze: breathing exercises and respond voice to the coach. TWO TYPES OF NEONATAL TESTS Leboyer: low lights and gentle massage to baby. Apgar scale Standard measurement of a newborn’s condition; it assesses appearance, Michael Odent: water birth pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration. 4 needs Bradley method: no medical procedures at all immediate life treatment or else baby can have neurological problems. Methods to reduce mother’s pain Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale a) Pudendal block (NBAS) Neurological and behavioral test to b) Pain killers (analgesic) has negative measure neonate’s responses to the effects environment. c) epidural or regional anesthesia State of arousal: an infant’s physiological and all of this has significant risk as it goes to behavioral status at a given moment in the placenta. periodic daily cycle of wakefulness, sleep, and Doula: an experienced mentor who furnishes activity. emotional support and information for a Regular and alert inactivity is better as it is woman during labor. Has positive effects and quiet, no movement, and stability in breathing reduce low weight birth babies and other and activity. complications as well. Duola is cost-effective if funded, however it is not funded. 0-2 months infant sleep 14.5 hours a day and wake up 1.7 times. This decreases months later. The neonatal period, the first 4 weeks of life, is a time of transition from the uterus, where a low-birth-weight babies Weight of less than 5½ fetus is supported entirely by the mother, to an pounds (2,500 grams) at birth because of independent existence. prematurity or being small-for-date. preterm (premature) infants born before infant. Three factor modelt that can explain completing the 37th week of gestation. SIDS. small-for-date (small-for-gestational age) infants a) Infant is vulnerable due to low Infants whose birth weight is less than that of serotonin, heart defects or problems in 90 percent of babies of the same gestational brain stem. age, as a result of slow fetal growth. (Not b) Infant is in critical period because of weight but sa size ata) c) Infant is placed in an exogenous stressor. Birth weight and length of gestation are the two most important predictors of an infant’s survival Using pacifier, not soft pillows, sleeping at the and health back may help prevent SIDS. FACTORS THAT MAKE BABY UNDERWEIGHT Injuries and death of infants happened at home, abuse, motor-vehicle, residential fires are the a) demographic and socioeconomic factors examples. b) medical factors c) prenatal and environmental factors Teething usually begins around 3 or 4 months, d) medical factors associated with when infants begin grabbing almost everything pregnancy in sight to put into their mouths, but the first tooth may not actually arrive until sometime small babies’ challenges: between 5 and 9 months, or even later. By the a) infection due to invasive procedures 1st birthday, babies generally have 6 to 8 teeth; b) weak immune system by age 2½, they have a mouthful of 20. c) inability to suck breasts due to Reason for infant obesity immature nervous system d) less body fat a) Solid food before 4 months e) less surfactant that coats lungs to keep b) Antibiotics air sacs from collapsing. c) Higher bmi of mother and easy weight gain of new born Even if they survived, they grow with higher risk d) Enrollment to childcare of hypertension, diabetes, motor and behavioral e) Inappropriate bottle used problems, and mental and cognitive problems that full term infants. Environmental factors Protein supplements are effective under the age such has Higher SES, parental, and maternal 3 or the first 1000 days of life because this is a education contribute to better outcomes. critical period for growth and development of cognitive and physical development. POST-TERM babies are born longer than 31 weeks. Mother and infant are still at higher risks The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is due to less blood supply and less oxygen due to divided into right and left halves, or aged placenta. They are also too big for delivery hemispheres, each with specialized functions. that will cause hemorrhage, shoulder dystocia, This specialization of the hemispheres is called and cesarean section to the mother. lateralization. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) Sudden Joining the two hemispheres is a tough band of and unexplained death of an apparently healthy tissue called the corpus callosum, which allows them to share information and coordinate Reflex behaviors Automatic, involuntary, innate commands. Reach adult size at 10 years old. responses to stimulation Parts of Cerebral hemisphere: Types of reflex: a) Occipital lobe is the smallest of the four Primitive: sucking, rooting, lobes and is primarily concerned with Moro: response to being startled visual processing. Postural reflex: reaction in changes to b) The parietal lobe is involved with position or balance (2 months) integrating sensory information from Locomotor reflexes: such as the walking the body. It helps us move our bodies and swimming reflexes, resemble through space and manipulate objects voluntary movements that do not in our world. appear until months after the reflexes c) The temporal lobe helps us interpret have disappeared. smells and sounds and is involved in memory. Most of the early reflexes disappear during the d) The frontal lobes, the newest region of first 6 to 12 months. Reflexes that continue to the brain, are involved with a variety of serve protective functions—such as blinking, higher-order processes, such as goal yawning, coughing, gagging, sneezing, shivering, setting, inhibition, reasoning, planning, and dilation of the pupils in the dark—remain. and problem solving. Touch and pain are the first sense to develop for but the areas of the frontal cortex responsible 32 weeks of gestation. for abstract thought, mental associations, Vision is the last to develop because the womb remembering, and deliberate motor responses is dark, Visual acuity at birth is approximately grow very little during this period and remain 20/400 but improves rapidly, reaching the 20/20 immature for several years. level by about 8 months. Binocular vision—the Brain is composed of neurons and glial cells. use of both eyes to focus, enabling perception Neurons, or nerve cells, send and receive of depth and distance—usually does not information. Glia, or glial cells, nourish and develop until 4 or 5 months. protect the neurons. They are the support Systems of action Increasingly complex system for our neurons. combinations of motor skills, which permit a Integration: process by which neurons wider or more precise range of movement and coordinate the activities of muscle groups. more control of the environment differentiation Process by which cells acquire Denver Developmental Screening Test Screening specialized structures and functions. test given to children 1 month to 6 years old to determine whether they are developing cell death: in brain development, normal normally. It measures language, gross ang fine elimination of excess brain cells to achieve more motor skills. efficient functioning. The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Occipital lobe is myenalized before temporal Development is a developmental test designed and frontal. to assess children from 1 month to 3½ years. Scores on the Bayley-III indicate a child’s competencies in each of five developmental areas: cognitive, language, motor, social- Dynamic systems theory (DST) Esther Thelen’s emotional, and adaptive behavior. A theory, which holds that motor development is a dynamic process of active coordination of Head control: starts at 2-3 months, all infants multiple systems within the infant in relation to can do it at 4 months. the environment. neurotypical babies tend to Locomotion: They can roll over at 3 months. Sit develop the same skills in the same order without support by 6 months. And sit without because they are built approximately the same help in 8 months. way and have similar challenges and needs. Moreover, Infant and environment form an They walk shortly after their first birthday and interconnected, dynamic system. Opportunities crawl at 6-10 months, as well as pick up tiny and constraints presented by the infant’s objects between 7 and 11 months and can pick physical characteristics, motivation, energy tiny object using pincer grasp. Because they can level, motor strength, and position in the see unseen objects by sounds and memory. environment at a particular moment in time They begin to reach at 4-5 months but not good affect whether and how an infant achieves a at it. goal. Visual guidance: use of the eyes to guide COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT APPROACH movements of the hands or other parts of the a. behaviorist approach: approach to the body. However, more recently, researchers have study of cognitive development that is realized that in younger infants, clumsy concerned with basic mechanics of corrective movements are more likely to be learning. illustrating immature cerebellar development. b. psychometric approach: approach to Rather than use their eyes to correct their the study of cognitive development that movements, infants reach first, then the eyes seeks to measure intelligence follow. quantitatively. Kinetic cues are produced by movement of the c. Piagetian approach: approach to the object or the observer, or both. To find out study of cognitive development that whether an object is moving, a baby might hold describes qualitative stages in cognitive his or her head still for a moment, an ability that functioning. is well established by about 3 months. d. information-processing approach: approach to the study of cognitive Ecological theory of perception: theory development that analyzes processes developed by Eleanor and James Gibson, which involved in perceiving and handling describes developing motor and perceptual information. abilities as interdependent parts of a functional e. cognitive neuroscience: approach to the system that guides behavior in varying contexts. study of cognitive development that Infants that have experience in slopes are more links brain processes with cognitive likely to succeed in going down the slope than ones. novel infants. This is not a stage approach, and f. social-contextual approach: approach to thus does not imply that locomotion develops in the study of cognitive development that functionally related, universal stages. Rather, focuses on environmental influences, the baby is somewhat like a small scientist particularly parents and other testing out new ideas in each situation. caregivers. INFANT MEMORY: (3) are center-based, providing direct educational experiences, not just parental 2 months old infant can hold memories for 2 training; days. While 18 months can hold memory for 16 weeks. But all of this is context-dependent. (4) take a comprehensive approach, including health, family counseling, and social services; Psychometric Approach (5) are tailored to individual differences and Intelligent behavior: is presumed to be goal needs. oriented, meaning it exists for the purposes of SENSORIMOTOR SUBSTAGES ( ilahang gap sa attaining a goal. It is also presumed to be adaptive in that it helps an organism adjust to months is 4) the varying circumstances of life. 1. Use of reflexes birth to 1-month Alfred Binet and Thedore Simon is the 2. Primary circular circulation: repeats forerunner of psychometric tests. IQ pleasurable behaviors by chance, (intelligence quotient) tests consist of questions limited to the own body of the or tasks that are supposed to show how much infant. Coordinate actions and of the measured abilities a person has by adapt. comparing that person’s performance with 3. Secondary circular circulation: norms established by a large group of test- interested in environment but not takers who were in the standardization sample. purposeful Using the Home Observation for Measurement 4. Coordination of secondary schemes: of the Environment (HOME): observers purposeful as they learn from past interview the primary caregiver and rate on a exploration. Can anticipate events. yes-or-no checklist the intellectual stimulation 5. Tertiary circulation: they experiment and support observed in a child’s home. and use trial and errors. Early intervention: systematic process of 6. Mental presentations: they are providing services to help families meet young hypothetical before using trial and children’s developmental needs. This shows error. effectivity but depending on the control group. They show improvement if compared to children that were not Sensorimotor Piaget’s view Findings enrolled in day-care. Early behavior intervention has lasting effects Imitation Invisible: 9 months Invisible: 6 weeks depending if these conditions are Deferred: 18- Deferred: 6 months followed: 24months Object permanence 18-24 months 3 ½ months (1) start early and continue perceptual first like throughout the preschool years; color and size then (2) are highly time-intensive (that is, conceptual like occupy more hours in a day or more furniture, vehicle. days in a week, month, or year); Symbolic 18-24 months 19 months representations categorization 18-24 months 3 months causality 4-6 months 4 ½ months numbers 18-24 months 5 months  mother’s language and novel language and memory. representational ability: Piaget’s term for capacity to store mental images or symbols of Cross-modal transfer: ability to use information objects and events. gained by one sense to guide another. Piaget said that this is unconnected at birth, but LIMITATIONS ON SYMBOLIC information processing says it begins almost REPRESENTATIONS immediately. They are mostly good at tactile to Symbolic representation of 2 years under visual cross modal. They are able to visually children are limited only via traditional book recognize what they previously held than and not e-book or televisions. tactilely recognize they have previously seen. There is also scale error where they are unable Joint attention: A shared attentional focus, to misperception the size of an object. These typically initiated with eye gaze or pointing. (10- 12 months. reasons are: a) Immature brain systems including the Violation-of-expectations: Research method in which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts categorization, recognition, and, perceptual. If these break down, they with experience is taken as evidence that an infant recognizes the new stimulus as surprising. treat the object as diff size. b) Dual representation: objects have its Information Processing critics that those early own rights and a symbol. They can’t form of cognitive abilities are just perceptual focus on both of them so they are abilities but not conceptual abilities. But confused. information processing researchers said that we have innate learning mechanisms and core INFORMATION PROCESSING knowledge that helps us make sense of our They based their research on habituation. world and organize our perception and Monitoring responses such as heart rate, experience at birth. sucking, eye movements, and brain activity. NEUROCOGNITIVE SCIENCE APROACH Habituation is shown later in intellectual performance. implicit memory: unconscious recall, generally of habits and skills; sometimes called procedural Habituation: Type of learning in which memory. familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response. explicit memory: intentional and conscious memory, generally of facts, names, and events. Visual preference: tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another. 6 months of life is where prefrontal cortex develop the capacity of working memory. Visual recognition memory: ability to distinguish Working memory is responsible for the slow a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar one process of object permanence. By 12 months, when shown both at the same time. this is fully developed. Information processing research use visual preference in infant to determine their memory. SOCIO-CONTEXTUAL APPROACH Fetuses also have auditory preference to Guided participation Adult’s participation in a child’s activity that helps to structure it and bring the child’s understanding of it closer to others. the adults. Inspired by Vygotsky’s view of 8-10 months Anticipatory smiling learning as a collaborative process. Guided 9 months First gestures participation often occurs in shared play and in 9-12 months Stranger anxiety ordinary, everyday activities in which children 10-14 months (end of First words. The same informally learn the skills, knowledge, and first year) time with gestures values important in their culture, much as an 12-18 months Social referencing as apprentice would. they explore their environment. 12-15 months Communicating about objects LANGUAGE 13 months Representational Prelinguistic speech: forerunner of linguistic gestures speech; utterance of sounds that are not words. 18-24 months Social cues, one idea Includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental into two words 16-24 months Naming explosion and deliberate imitation of sounds without 20-30 months Growing of syntax understanding their meaning. 30 months Learn words almost If babies are exposed to native language, the everyday brain develops neural networks to learn the language and constraints non-native language. Gestures helps baby learn how to talk and a However, exposure to one or two languages prediction of vocabulary size, but it does not during pregnancy will enable the infant to accelerate language development. recognize these two languages. Holophrase: single word that conveys a 6-7 months: sensitive to phenomes of their complete thought native language. Using native language helps a kid to advance in word production and sentence Telegraphic speech Early form of sentence use complexity. consisting of only a few essential words. LANGUAGE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Syntax: rules for forming sentences in a particular language. months Actions 6weeks-3 months Crying, cooing, and Overregularization occurs when children babbling inappropriately apply a syntactical rule. For 3-6 months Anticipate events and instance, when children say sentences such as have reciprocal “Daddy goed to the store” or “I drawed that,” relationship with they are applying the English language rule “add caregiver. They show –ed to a verb to make it past tense.” disappointment by crying. CHOMSKY Nativism: theory that human beings 6-7 months Sensitive to phenomes have an inborn capacity for language of their own native acquisition. language 6-9 months Have emotions like joy, language acquisition device (LAD) In Chomsky’s fear, and sadness. Play terminology, an inborn mechanism that enables and socialize with children to infer linguistic rules from the Self-conscious emotions: emotions, such as language they hear. embarrassment, empathy, and envy, that depend on self-awareness. language exposure helps shape the developing brain, and then the developing brain helps the Self-awareness: realization that one’s existence infant learn language. In toddlers with large and functioning are separate from those of vocabularies, brain activation tends to focus on other people and things. the left temporal and parietal lobes, whereas in Self-evaluative emotions: emotions, such as toddlers with smaller vocabularies, brain pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both activation is more scattered. Cortical regions self-awareness and knowledge of socially associated with language continue to develop accepted standards of behavior. altruistic until at least the late preschool years or behavior Activity intended to help another beyond—some even until adulthood. person with no expectation of reward. Children with no social interaction do not empathy Ability to put oneself in another develop language normally, specially through person’s place and feel what the other person television. A strong relationship exists between feels. the frequency of specific words in mothers’ speech and the order in which children learn these words. Personality: the relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that makes a person unique. FOUR TYPES OF CRYING Basic hunger cry: rhythmic cry Anger: in the vocal cords Pain: sudden onset of loud crying, sometimes holding the breath. Frustration: two or three drawn out cries A higher pitch and a more monotonic vocalization are associated with autonomic system activity during stressful procedures in infants. social smiling: beginning in the 2nd month, newborn infants gaze at their parents and smile at them, signaling positive participation in the mirror neurons: neurons that fire when a person relationship. does something or observes someone else doing the same thing. Lacks empirical support. anticipatory smiling: infant smiles at an object and then gazes at an adult while still smiling. “easy” children: children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a readiness to accept new experiences.  “difficult” children: children with irritable Less externalizing temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and behaviors intense emotional responses. better than boys at “slow-to-warm-up” children: children whose regulating their temperament is generally mild but who are distress during and hesitant about accepting new experiences. quicker to recover from still-face Goodness of fit: appropriateness of procedures than environmental demands and constraints to a child’s temperament. Behavioral inhibition has to do with how boldly or cautiously a child approaches unfamiliar SEX-TYPED TOYS PREFERENCES objects and situations. Babies high in behavioral They have preferences at 3 months (this inhibition is aroused. Amygdala, prefrontal preference is not result to gender cortex, and basal ganglia are the brain part socialization; testosterone level predict responsible for this behavior. Behaviorally sex type preferences). inhibited children are more likely to have social At 2 ½ years old they preferred color anxiety. However, parenting and environmental pink and boys avoid it. (social influence) factors can buffer. Parenting styles often makes internalized Harry Harlow experiment shows that baby stereotype about gender behaviors through monkeys cling more to cloth mothers and their treatment. Culture also plays a role. showed more natural interest in exploring. Nonetheless, both didn’t develop normally. Gender-typing Socialization process by which Mother’s role is central development. children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles. Father’s frequent and positive involvement with his child, from infancy on, is directly related to Attachment is a reciprocal, enduring emotional the child’s well-being and physical, cognitive, tie between an infant and a caregiver, each of and social development. whom contributes to the quality of the relationship. FEMALE MALE secure attachment: pattern in which an infant is quickly and effectively able to obtain comfort Less reactive to stress More reactive to from an attachment figure in the face of during infancy stress and less likely distress. Infant sometimes cry when caregiver to survive leaves but is often seeking comfort when Cuddlier Bigger and taller than caregiver returns. Easily comforted and always girls prefer the caregiver. Better at recognizing Bigger brain avoidant attachment: ignores caregiver and faces and doesn’t care if caregiver leaves at all. discriminating facial expressions ambivalent (resistant) attachment: Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset self-concept Sense of self; descriptive and during his or her absence, and both seeks and evaluative mental picture of one’s abilities and resists contact on his or her return. traits. Disorganized attachment: pattern in which an EMERGING SENSE OF SELF infant, after separation from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory, repetitious, or self-concept: sense of self; descriptive and misdirected behaviors on his or her return evaluative mental picture of one’s abilities and traits. Attachment also has neurobiological basis. Mother’s brain response to infant’s smile as well self-coherence, the sense of being a physical as the child’s heart rate is associated with whole with boundaries separate from the rest irritability that seems to vary on insecurely of the world. attached infants. Pretend play is an early indication of Stranger anxiety: Wariness of strange people their own mental states and others; and places, shown by some infants during the As well as use of pronouns second half of the 1st year. May reflect cognitive Having older sister helped develop self- development as child can recognize faces. understanding Separation anxiety Distress shown by someone, Erickson autonomy vs. shame and doubt starts typically an infant, when a familiar caregiver at 18 months to 3 years: virtue is will. leaves. Negativism: the tendency of the toddler to say Secularly attached children has positive no. cognitive, social, and emotional development Caregivers who view children’s expressions of when they grow. They have positive relationship self-will as a normal, healthy striving for with others and has more peers. Disorganized independence, not as stubbornness, can help attached children are more likely to have them learn self-control, contribute to their psychiatric problems and behavioral problems. sense of competence, and avoid excessive Adult Attachment Interview: shows that conflict. mothers who look at their infant’s faces shows activation in rewards areas why mothers with insecure attachment shows activation in ventral striatum and amygdala with pain and disgusts feeling. Mutual regulation: process by which infant and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately. Mothers or caregivers who responds or interact synchronously affects infant’s regulating behaviors. Social referencing Understanding an ambiguous situation by seeking another person’s perception of it. Usually at 12 months.  committed compliance: kochanska’s term for wholehearted obedience of a parent’s orders age description without reminders or lapses. Situational compliance: toddler need extra 4-9 months old Prefer to look at assistance and reminder for the rules. images of others receptive cooperation: kochanska’s term for rather than eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously themselves with a parent in daily interactions, including 15 months above Can recognize routines, chores, hygiene, and play. themselves The way parents go about the job of socializing 2 years peak at 3 Negativism a child and the quality of the parent-child years cooperativity relationship may help predict how hard or easy socialization will be. However, not all children respond in the same way. Others respond 3 years Self-regulation differently to different parenting styles. Warm, secure, and supportive parenting may help the socialization to be successful. Emotional talk is 4 To conform with also helpful for emotional development. In peers addition, constructive conflict—a type of bargaining or requesting with children helped them resists to temptation than giving them in, teasing or threatening. Siblings’ disputes and disagreements are Socialization: development of habits, skills, socialization opportunities. values, and motives shared by responsible, Another arena for socialization is joint dramatic productive members of a society. play. Siblings who frequently play “let’s pretend” Internalization: during socialization, process by develop a history of shared understandings that which children accept societal standards of enable them to more easily resolve issues and conduct as their own not because of build on each other’s ideas. punishment or rewards. Conflict is not the most common but affection, Self-regulation: a child’s independent control of companionship and influence is much more of a behavior to conform to understood social pattern. Because older siblings tend to expectations. It involves cognitive awareness, dominate younger ones, the quality of the emotional control and attentional process. This relationship is more affected by the emotional parallels the growth of self-evaluative and self- and social adjustment of the older child than conscious emotions. the younger one. Older sibling who bullies its own younger sibling may also became bully as Conscience: internal standards of behavior, well as the younger sibling may also be which usually control one’s conduct and victimized by bullying outside the home. produce emotional discomfort when violated. Friendship helps a positive relationship between siblings before the birth of the younger one. A study that the showed negative effects on depression, or antisocial behavior. A cognitive development at 15 months to 3 years disproportionate number of abused and when mothers worked 30 or more hours a week neglected children are in large, poor, or single- by a child’s 9th month. However, maternal parent families, which tend to be under stress sensitivity, a high-quality home environment, and to have trouble meeting children’s needs. and high-quality child care lessened these Culture also impacts the rate and belief of negative effects. Mother should work part time abuse. only in the first years of an infant. Why do some abused children grow up to The impact of early child care depends on a become antisocial or abusive, while others do variety of factors, including the child’s not? Many maltreated children show temperament and gender, the quality of care, remarkable resilience. Optimism, self-esteem, and characteristics of the caregiver. intelligence, creativity, humor, and independence are protective factors. physical abuse: action taken deliberately to endanger another person, involving potential TODDLER bodily injury. Children grow rapidly between ages 3 and 6, but Neglect: failure to meet a dependent’s basic less quickly than before. At about 3, children needs. normally begin to lose their babyish roundness sexual abuse: Physically or psychologically and take on the slender, athletic appearance of harmful sexual activity or any sexual activity childhood. As abdominal muscles develop, the involving a child and an older person. toddler potbelly tightens. The trunk, arms, and legs grow longer. The head is still relatively emotional maltreatment: rejection, large, but the other parts of the body continue terrorization, isolation, exploitation, to catch up as body proportions steadily degradation, ridicule, or failure to provide become more adultlike. Their muscular and emotional support, love, and affection; or other skeletal system develop faster. Average weight action or inaction that may cause behavioral, of a 3-year-old is 34 pounds and 36 inches. cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders. Sleep problems or disturbances are more nonorganic failure to thrive: slowed or arrested prevalent as brain’s motor system is activated, physical growth with no known medical cause, incomplete arousal from deep sleep is common, accompanied by poor developmental and and disordered breathing or restless leg emotional functioning. movements. shaken baby syndrome Form of maltreatment in It runs in the family which shaking an infant or toddler can cause Separation anxiety brain damage, paralysis, or death. Nasal abnormalities Infant under 3 years old are the highest rate of Overweight abuse among ages. Parenting style Others are nature like refusing to go to Maltreatment by parents is a symptom of bed or sleep walk extreme disturbance in child rearing, usually aggravated by other family problems, such as poverty, lack of education, alcoholism, Sleep talk, sleep walk, and night terrors they can do. Preschool children make great happened during slow wave sleep and can be advances in gross motor skills, such as running due to these factors: and jumping, which involve the large muscles. Medication Motor coordination in childhood tends to be a Sleep deprived relatively stable trait over time and a predictor Conditions are noisy of participation in sports. Has fever In this age, children should join in unstructured Nightmares are common during early childhood free play as organized games or sports exceed but frequent nightmares that cause stress their motor ability. during day has negative effects. systems of action: increasingly complex age combinations of skills, which permit a wider or 2 1/2years old Night terrors more precise range of movement and more Cardinality principle control of the environment. (the total number Handedness: preference for using a particular doesn’t change even when things are hand. rearranged) Boys are likely to be left-handed 3 years old Brain achieved 90 Polygenetic inheritance percent of adult brain volume Left-handed has factors: Ability to do simple lies Formal education 3-4 years old Ability to distinguish Low birth weight appearance from Difficult birth reality via actions Females of opposite sex 3-5 years old Enuresis Knowledge about Obesity is prevalent in early childhood due to mental states these factors: 3-6 Frontal area grows High-calorie and poor-nutrient foods 4 years Density of prefrontal cortex Television 5 years oldc Children can count 1- Obese parents 20 Low-income households Second false belief Obesity during early childhood is best treated tasks 6 years old Myelin sheath peak earlier because the child’s diet is still subject to volume parental influence. Permanent teeth Stunted: children appear to be of normal weight but are shorter than they should be for their age and may have cognitive and physical deficiencies. This is caused by chronic, persisted Development of the sensory and motor areas of hunger. the cerebral cortex permits better coordination between what children want to do and what Wasted: Appropriate height but thinner than reasoning they should be. Understanding of Focus on states rather These three types are an effect of numbers transformations undernutrition and a worldwide cause of death Empathy Egocentrism(form of under age 5. centration) children as young as 3 years old Food allergies cause physical and psychosocial has egocentrism but problems to the child. Researchers suggest that only limited beyond the timing of food introduction, decreased of their experience. vitamin D from the sun, changes in diet, and Theory of mind Animism (they how fo