Odisha Modern History PDF

DDCE/History (M.A)/SLM/Paper-18 HISTORY OF ODISHA (FROM 1803 TO 1948 A.D.) By Dr. Manas Kumar Das  CONTENT HISTORY OF ODISHA (From 1803 TO 1948 A.D.) Unit.No. Chapter Name...

DDCE/History (M.A)/SLM/Paper-18 HISTORY OF ODISHA (FROM 1803 TO 1948 A.D.) By Dr. Manas Kumar Das  CONTENT HISTORY OF ODISHA (From 1803 TO 1948 A.D.) Unit.No. Chapter Name Page No UNIT- I. a. British Occupation of Odisha. b. British Administration of Odisha: Land Revenue Settlements, administration of Justice. c. Economic Development- Agriculture and Industry, Trade and Commerce. UNIT.II. a. Resistance Movements in the 19th century- Khurda rising of 1804-05, Paik rebellion of 1817. b. Odisha during the revolt of 1857- role of Surendra Sai c. Tribal uprising- Ghumsar Rising under Dara Bisoi, Khond Rising under Chakra Bisoi, Bhuyan Rising Under Ratna Naik and Dharani Dhar Naik. UNIT – III. a. Growth of Modern Education, Growth of Press and Journalism. b. Natural Calamities in Odisha, Famine of 1866- its causes and effect. c. Social and Cultural changes in the 19th Century Odisha. d. Mahima Dharma. UNIT – IV. a. Oriya Movement: Growth of Socio-Political Associations, Growth of Public Associations in the 19th Century, Role of Utkal Sammilini (1903-1920) b. Nationalist Movement in Odisha: Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements in Odisha. c. Creation of Separate province, Non-Congress and Congress Ministries( 1937-1947). d. Quit India Movement. e. British relation with Princely States of Odisha and Prajamandal Movement and Merger of the States.  UNIT-1 Chapter-I British Occupation of Odisha Structure 1.1.0. Objectives 1.1.1. Introduction 1.1.2. British occupation of Odisha 1.1.2.1. Weakness of the Maratha rulers 1.1.2.2. Oppression of the land lords 1.1.2.3. Establishment of British factories 1.1.2.4. Military importance of Odisha 1.1.2.5. Capture of Ganjam 1.1.2.6. The contract of 1765 1.1.2.7. Inquiry of Cotsford 1.1.2.8. Contract with Narayanadeva 1.1.2.9. Occupation of Puri 1.1.2.10. Diplomacy of Lord Wellesley on Jagannath 1.1.2.11. Bribe to the Marathas 1.1.2.12. Strategy of Campbell 1.1.2.13. Operation of Harcourt 1.1.2.14. Conquest of Cuttack 1.1.2.15. Capture of Balasore 1.1.2.1.6 Occupation of Sambalpur 1.1.3. Conclusion 1.1.4. Summary 1.1.5. Exercise 1.1.6. Further Reading 1.1.0.Objectives This chapter will discuss the British Occupation of Odisha. After studying this lesson the students will be able to:  know the causes of the British occupation of Odisha  understand the British occupation of Puri  know about capture of Cuttack by the British  evaluate the occupation of Sambalpur and Balasore 1.1.1. Introduction The foundation of British Empire in India with the victory over battle of Plassey and its subsequent confirmation in the battle of Buxar, encouraged them to occupy other parts of India. Orissa (now Odisha) as a part of India and a neighbor of Bengal had attracted the British to occupy it. The mal-administration of the Maratha rulers, their atrocities and exploitation had made the Maratha rule quite unacceptable to the Oriyas (now Odias). Right from the days of the grant of Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha to the East India Company, the British wanted to establish their supremacy on the soil of Odisha. However, the fragile and weak Maratha administration gave the British a good opportunity to fulfill their dream of establishing their authority over Odisha. In this regard, steps were taken to occupy Odisha and finally in 1803 it was occupied by the British. 1.1.2. British occupation of Odisha The following causes were responsible for the British occupation of Odisha 1.1.2.1. Weakness of the Maratha rulers The internal conflict among the Bhonsles of Nagpur after the death of Januji created weakness among the Marathas which had an impact on the Maratha rulers of Odisha. As the decline had started among the Marathas, their powers gradually declined away and for which they could not get sufficient help from Nagpur. Even for suppressing the unruly land lords, they had to look for the British help. 1.1.2.2. Oppression of the land lords Taking the mileage of the weak administration of the Marathas in Odisha, the regional land lords became irresponsible and oppressive. They involved themselves in various lawless activities and their oppression over the subjects knew no bound. The political condition of Odisha was full of chaos and confusion. The zamindars exploited the poor common man of Odisha according to their whims and fancies. Their miserable plights aggravated and they drank tea cup of misery. So, the people were in need of ousting those oppressive Marathas as well as the zamindars. 1.1.2.3. Establishment of British factories The British in order to establish a strong economic and military base in Odisha, established factories in different parts of Odisha. With the grant of Dewan, of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha to the East India Company in 1765, the British realised the importance of Odisha from the economic point of view. When the British built up their factories at Hariharpur, Pipli and Balasore, they felt the necessity of this province from the commercial point of view. The Britishers also obtained permission from the Marathas to have their monopoly over the manufacturing of salt in Odisha. The trade-routes, which passed from Cuttack to Bengal, Madras and Nagpur, facilitated their business to a greater extent. 1.1.2.4. Military importance of Odisha The British authorities felt the importance of Odisha from the military point of view. As stated earlier, Warren Hastings had to give Chauth and loan in advance to the Maratha governors for the passage of British army from Calcutta to Madras through Odisha. With the coming of Lord Wellesley as the Governor-General of India in 1768, the cold touch of the British imperialism was greatly felt by the Indian powers. He took no time to annex Odisha and included it in the British Empire. 1.1.2.5. Capture of Ganjam With the grant of Dewani in 1765, Lord Clive obtained from Emperor Shah Alam the Northern Circars consisting of Chicacole, Rajahmudry, Ellore and Guntur as free gift in which the present undivided Ganjam district was included. The British East India Company also got Midnapur which was a part of Odisha. Thus, the British authorities acquired Oriya speaking tracts, both in South and in the North. This facilitated them to conquer Odisha with ease. 1.1.2.6. The contract of 1765 The firman issued to the British East India Company on 12 August, 1765, was put into practice on 12 November, 1766 when another treaty was concluded between Nizam Ali, the ruler of Hyderabad and Colonel Forde. Accordingly, letters were issued to all zamindars of Northern Circars suggesting them to regard the British East India Company as their sovereign in future. Henceforth, they should pay their rents and show respect to the British authorities. 1.1.2.7. Inquiry of Cotsford In this way, the Northern Circars consisting of the Chicacole circar of which the undivided Ganjam district then formed a part, came under the British occupation. The English administrative officers moved from Madras immediately to secure Ganjam and Icchapur. Cotsford, an English engineer, was appointed as the Resident of Ganjam by an order in the council passed on 2 December, 1766. Cotsford viewed the political situation of the area and found that territories lying north of Visakhapatnam, were in a state of turmoil on account of the grand design of Narayanadeva of Paralakhemindi. He intimated this fact to Madras. 1.1.2.8. Contract with Narayanadeva The Madras Government now wanted to deal with Narayanadeva scorn and contempt. Colonel Peach was sent from Masulipatam to deal with that refractory chief. At this arrival, Narayanadeva became panic-stricken and fled away from Paralakhemundi, after being defeated at the hands of the British troops at Jalmur in May 1768. He then went to Maliahs and was forced to take shelter there. The administration of Paralakhemundi was entrusted upon his Dewan. Cotsford safely arrived and took over his charge as the Resident in July 1768. In this way, Ganjam was annexed to Madras province and came under the sway of the British administration. 1.1.2.9. Occupation of Puri The British then occupied Puri. For that they adopted the following steps. 1.1.2.10. Diplomacy of Lord Wellesley on Jagannath Lord Wellesley wanted to capture Puri and Cuttack by sheer display of his diplomacy. Letters were dispatched to the feudatories of Odisha, conveying them that it was the desire of Lord Jagannath to oust the Marathas from the land by the Britishers who would rule there. The desire of the Governor-General was conveyed to the people that it was the time to free the land from the oppression and tyranny of the Marathas. The priests of the Puri Jagannath temple were also assured that they would be respected by the Britishers and the British authorities would follow the policy of non-intervention so far as the temple administration was concerned. 1.1.2.11. Bribe to the Marathas When the people of Odisha were psychologically won over, it was not a great task for the British authorities to occupy the land. In the next turn, Wellesley resorted to a filthy practice like bribing the Maratha officers handsomely. Letters of commitment regarding the payment of high amount as bribe were sent to Bhanuji Pandit, the Naib of Cuttack, Haribansa Ray, the Dewan, Balaji Kuanr, the Commander-in-Chief and Moro Pandit, the Faujdar for their help to the British force. Being confident of their support, Wellesley entrusted the task of conquering Puri and Cuttack to Lt. Colonel Campbell of 74 Regiment of the Northern division of the army under the Madras Government. 1.1.2.12. Strategy of Campbell As per the strategy, Campbell had to proceed to Puri from Ganjam. After the occupation of Puri, the fort of Barabati, a stronghold of the Marathas in Odisha was to be brought under the British control. Suddenly, after the conquest of the Barabati fort, a detachment was to be sent to Baramul Pass (near Baud) to remain alert for checking the advancement of the Maratha troops from Nagpur. The serious illness of Campbell, before the strategic operation, led Colonel Harcourt of the 12th Regiment to command the army again.st ~uri and Cuttack.. 1.1.2.13. Operation of Harcourt After assuming the responsibility on 11 September, 1803, Harcourt started his operation. He was accompanied by a civil officer named John Melville for organising cIvil administration, immediately after the occupation of the province. When the British troops left Ganjam, it was very difficult on their part to cross a narrow and hazardous path near the mouth of Chilka lake for reaching the Maratha territory in Odisha. It was only because Fateh Muhammad, the Maratha Faujdar was keeping his vigilant eyes over this strategic position. However, he was won over to the side of the British by heavy bribe. Now, the British troop crossed the narrow passage by the help of Fateh Muhammad and occupied Manikpatna. From Manikpatna, Harcourt sent message to the priests of Puri for full protection of the temple of Lord Jagannath and not to infringe the facilities of the priests. The king of Khurda was also pursuaded for renderihg his help to Harcourt on payment of rupees one lakh. The Raja of Khurda and the priests of the temple of God Jagannath were wanting to get rid of the Maratha rule. Unhesitatingly, they welcomed the British troops. Without any resistance, Puri was captured on 18 September, 1803. This encouraged Harcourt to a great extent 1.1.2.14. Conquest of Cuttack The occupation of Puri encouraged the British to process further. They made elaborate plan to occupy Cuttack. Making necessary arrangement to check the possible advancement of the Maratha army from Nagpur, Harcourt planned about his march to Cuttack. He posted Lieutenant Ogilvie and Major Fletcher at Manikpatna and Puri respectively to deal with the Maratha troops. On 24 Septemper, 1803 began the march of Harcourt towards Cuttack. Of course, the Marathas resisted the advancement of the British soldiers and it became toe in Ahmadpur and Mukundapur. However, the mobilisation of Harcourt's artillery force defeated the Marathas and by 10 October, 1803, the entire Cuttack town except fort Barabati was under the British ctutch. The fort of Barabati seemed invincible. Harcourt tried to bribe Shiv Prasad, the Maratha officer in charge of the Barabati fort but that mission failed stupendously. At the night of 13 October, 1803, the British troops set up a battery with one 12-pounder, two 6- pounder and 2 howitzers at a distance of 500 yards from the outer gate of the fort. The operation for the capitulation of fort Barabati began on 14 October, 1803, early in morning with heavy bombardment from all the canons at the outer gate of the fort which cracked. A group of soldiers and artillery-men led by Lt.Colonel Clyton rushed into the fort amidst heavy fire from the side of the Marathas and occupied it. The Marathas fled away from the fort out of fear and many of them were drawned in the ditch while trying to escape from the clutches of the British army. During the operation, only two European and three Indian soldiers were killed, sixteen European and thirteen Indian soldiers were injured. With the capitulation of the Barabati fort, ended the Maratha rule in Odisha. Major Forbes chases the Marathas was retreated to Nagpur through Baramula Pass, captured it by 2 November, 1803 and that closed the entry of the Marathas to Odisha for all time to come. After possession of the Barabati fort, Lord Wellesley appointed a commission consisting of Harcourt, Melville and Earnst (the magistrate of Midnapur) to deal with the local chiefs who were the feudatories of the Marathe chiefs of Nagpur. After due negotiation, the Rajas and zamindars of Khurda. Kujang, Kanika, Aul, Mayurbhanj, Angul, Hindol, Darpan, Sukinda, Madhupur etc. acknowledqed the British suzerainty and promised to pay the annual tribute to the British authority. In this amicable manner, the British power made the solution with the local chiefs at the beginning of its administration in Odisha. 1.1.2.15. Capture of Balasore In the meanwhile, the strategy of Captain Morgan at Balasore met with success in driving away the Marathas. A detachment under his command in seven vessels, namely, Alexander, Anne, George, Fairdie, Lizard, Scourage and a gun boat reached Balaramgarhi after crossing river Budhabalanga. Balaramgarhi was a small Maratha port. Without any resistance, the Marathas allowed the British army to advance towards Balasore town. Although the British vessel sailed up the river with the help of local pilots, but their progress became very slow due to heavy rain. The rumour of the coming of Maratha troops to oppose the British army, prompted Morgan to proceed with two light canons and three hundred soldiers in small boats. The party, while marching inside the town, got feeble resistance from the Marathas. However, Morgan reached the British factory at night. He tried to bribe Moro Pandit, the Maratha Faujdar of Balasore but the Marathas got its small and imprisoned him. Captain Morgan's mobilisation of the British troops, created panic in the hearts of the Marathas who fled away from the town at night on 21 September,1803. In the next morning i.e. 22 September,1803. Captain Morgan occupied Balasore with ease. He stationed the British troops outside the town to face possible Maratha attack. After a week, whe the British posltion in Balasore became stable; Morgan sent reinforcement to Soro under the leadership of Slye to drive out the Marathas. Futher, troops were sent to strengthen his hand. The Marathas were defeated at Soro and fled towards Bhadrak. Now, the path was clear from Balasore to Cuttack. In the meanwhile, Colonel Ferguson marched from Jajeswar and reached Balasore 4 October, 1803. After that, he went Cuttack to join with Harcourt. Then began the operation on the north-east of the river Suvarnarekha. Captain Lamb, by the order of Colonel Fenwick, occupied Pataspur, Kamarda, Bhograi, Shahbandar, Jamukunda etc. and brought the zamindars under British control by applying both conciliatory and coercive policy. However, on 17 December, 1803, by the treaty of Deogaon, Raghuji Bhonsle ceded Cuttack and Balasore to the East India Company. 1.1.2.1.6 Occupation of Sambalpur The occupation of Baramula Pass on 2 November, 1803 by Major Forbes prompted Harcourt to write conciliatory letters to the Rajas of Baud. Sonepur and Sambalpur tom acknowledge the authority of the British which they cordially reciprocated by paying annual tributes. However, Sambalpur remained an exception to it. In January, 1804, Major Broughton,conquered Sambalpur defeating Maratha Governor Tantia Pharnavis. He concluded friendly treaty with queen Ratnakumari of Sambalpur and the local chiefs of Raigarh, Gangapur, Bamara, Bonai etc. Broughton was, of course, ignorant about the treaty of Deogaon. Further, the treaty of Deogaon did not mention anything about Sambalpur. The local chiefs also never wanted to stay under the Maratha suzerainty of Nagpur. When pursuaslon failed in connection with the handing over of Sambalpur to the British authority, Wellesley threatened Ragtiuji Bhonsle for war. This acted as tonic and the Maratha authority of Nagpur handed over Sarnbalpur to the British. With the departure of Lord Wellesley, Governor, General Barlow, a pacifist, restored. Sambalpur to the Marathas. Again, the Maratha rule was reimposed on Sambalpur from 1806 and continued till 1817. Again, the British authority drove away the Marathas from Sambalpur in 1817. From 1818 to 1849, the Chauhans ruled over Sambalpur. It was again annexed to the British authority in 1849 with the application of the Doctrine of Lapse of Lord Dalhousie. 1.1.3. Conclusion Thus, the British occupation of Odisha opened a new era in the history of modern Odisha. It put an end to the long administration of the Marathas under whose administration the people of Odisha were suffering. With the British occupation of Odisha, the English became the sole authority to rule Odisha. It also brought many changes in the existing administrative set up when the British introduced their own system of administraion 1.1.4. Summary  The mal-administration of the Maratha rulers, their atrocities and exploitation had made the Maratha rule quite unacceptable to the people of Odisha.  Right from the days of the grant of Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha to the East India Company, the British wanted to establish their supremacy on the soil of Odisha.  However, the fragile and weak Maratha administration gave the British a good opportunity to fulfill their dream of establishing their authority over Odisha.  With the grant of Dewani in 1765, Lord Clive obtained from Emperor Shah Alam the Northern Circars consisting of Chicacole, Rajahmudry, Ellore and Guntur as free gift in which the present undivided Ganjam district was included.  The British East India Company also got Midnapur which was a part of Odisha.  Lord Wellesley wanted to capture Puri and Cuttack by sheer display of his diplomacy.  Letters were dispatched to the feudatories of Odisha, conveying them that it was the desire of Lord Jagannath to oust the Marathas from the land by the Britishers who would rule there.  The occupation of Puri emboidened the British to process further.   They made elaborate plan to occupy Cuttack. Making necessary arrangement to check the possible advancement of the Maratha army from Nagpur, Harcourt planned about his march to Cuttack.  In the meanwhile, the strategy of Captain Morgan at Balasore met with success in driving away the Marathas.  On 22nd September,1803 Captain Morgan occupied Balasore.  In January, 1804, Major Broughton,conquered Sambalpur defeating Maratha Governor Tantia Pharnavis.  He concluded friendly treaty with queen Ratnakumari of Sambalpur and the local chiefs of Raigarh, Gangapur, Bamara, Bonai etc.  Thus, the British occupation of Odisha opened a new era in the history of modern Odisha. It put an end to the long administration of the Marathas under whose administration the people of Odisha were suffering. 1.1.5. Exercise  Give an account on the British occupation of Odisha.  Discuss the causes responsible for the occupation of Odisha.  Write a note on the occupation of Cuttack by the British.  Make an analysis on the British occupation of Puri.  Write a note on the British occupation of Sambalpur and Balasore. 1.1.6. Further Reading  A.C. Pradhan, A Study of History of Odisha, 2006.  B.C. Ray, New Light on Maratha Odisha, Bhubaneswar, 1963.  K.C. Panigrahi, History of Odisha,2008.  H.H. Panda, History of Odisha, 2008.  D.B. Mishra, Concise History of Odisha,2009.  N K. Sahu, et. aI., History of Odisha, Cuttack, 1979  H.K. Mahtab, History of Odisha, Vol. I, 1960.  R.D. Banerji, History of Odisha, Vol. I, Calcutta, 1930.  A.K. Panda, Four Hundred Years of Odisha: A Glorious Epoch, Calcutta, 1987.  M.N. Das, Sidelights on History and Culture of Odisha.  B.C. Roy, Odisha under the Mughals, Calcutta, 1981.  M.A. Haque, Muslim Administration in Odisha 1568-1751, Calcutta, 1980.  B.C. Ray, Foundations of British Odisha, Cuttack, 1960.  K.M. Patra, Odisha under the East India Company, New Delhi, 1971.  P. Mukherji, History of Odisha in the 19th Century, Vol. VI, Utkal University, 1964.  C.E. Buckland, Bengal under the Lieutenant governors, Vol. II, Calcutta, 1902.  W.W. Hunter, Odisha, Vol. 2, London, 1880.  G. Toynbee, A Sketch of the History of Odisha 1803-1828, Calcutta, 1873.  Andrew Stirling, An Account (Geographical, Statistical and Historical) of Odisha proper or Cuttack, London, 1846.  LEB Cobden-Ramsay, Feudatory, States of Odisha, Calcutta, 1910.  UNIT-1 Chapter-II British Administration of Odisha: Land Revenue Settlements, Administration of Justice Structure 1.2.0. Objectives 1.2.1. Introduction 1.2.2. British Administration of Odisha 1.2.2. 1. Land Revenue Settlement 1.2.2. 1. 1. Zamindari system 1.2.2. 1. 2. Temporary settlements 1.2.2. 1. 3. Zamindaries under regulation 1.2.2. 1. 4. Bad effects of short term settlements 1.2.2. 1. 5. Exploitation of Bengali zamindars 1.2.2. 1. 6. Ryotwari system 1.2.2. 1. 7. Mahalwari system 1.2.2. 2. Administration of justice 1.2.3. Conclusion 1.2.4. Summary 1.2.5. Exercise 1.2.6. Further Reading 1.2.0. Objectives This chapter will discuss the British administration of Odisha. After studying this lesson the students will be able to:  know the causes of the British administration of Odisha  understand the Land Revenue Settlement  know about the administration of justice 1.2.1. Introduction The British occupation of Odisha in 1803 created a new chapter in the history of Odisha. Before that, Odisha had been under an alien rule for such a long period. They introduced British administration in Odisha which brought far-reaching changes in Odisha. In fact, the British administration had changed the life of the people of Odisha to a great extent. 1.2.2. British Administration of Odisha Odisha was divided into three administrative units under British administration.' 'Province of Cuttack' was under Bengal Presidency, Ganjam and Koraput were under Madras Presidency and Sambalpur was under Central Provinces. Besides, there were princely states. The administration under such conditions naturally could not become uniform. Further 'Province of Cuttack' was divided into two divisions viz., Northern and Southern with head quarters at Balasore and Jagannath (Puri) respectively in 1804. Subsequently for administrative reasons, head quarter at Puri was shifted to Cuttack in 1816. Cuttack also became the seat of the Commissioner, the Board of Revenue and the Provincial Appeal Court in 1818. The Commissioner became the Superintendent of Feudatory States. Cuttack Province was divided into Balasore, Cuttack and Puri districts in 1828. 1.2.2. 1. Land Revenue Settlement In the administration, revenue aspects were considered most important. All the three kinds of land settlement, viz., Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari were implemented in different parts to assess and collect land revenue. 1.2.2. 1. 1. Zamindari system  The British occupied Odisha in 1803. At that time permanent Settlement had been in force in Bengal for a decade. The Permanent Settlement recognized the zamindars as the hereditary proprietors of the soil in perpetuity, provided they paid to the government, the latter's share of the revenue, collected from the cultivators. The same system was not introduced in entirety in Odisha. 1.2.2. 1. 2. Temporary settlements The English introduced temporary settlements in most areas and extended Permanent Settlement to some zamindaries of the Maratha period. Under the Regulation XII of 1805, short term settlements were introduced for eleven years in the following order - one year settlement of 1804-5, three years' settlement from 1805-6 to 1807- 8, four years' settlement from 1808-9 to 1811-12 and three years' settlement from 1812-13 to 1814-15. At the end of these short term experiments, Permanent Settlement was proposed to be introduced in such lands which were "in a sufficiently improved state of cultivation to warrant the measure on such terms as the government shall deem fair and equitable". 1.2.2. 1. 3. Zamindaries under regulation Under the above regulation, settlement of land revenue was made with the following zamindaries at a fixed jama in perpetuity - Darpan, Sukinda, Madhupur, Aul, Kanika, Kujang, Harishpur, Marichpur, Bishnupur, Dampara, Patia, Kalkalla, Chhedra and Parikud. East India Company wanted to treat the raja of Khurda as a zamindar on the basis of Permanent Settlement like the zamindars of the above-mentioned estates but due to the rebellion of the raja in 1804 his estate was converted into a government estate. In 1805 the Government promised that Permanent Settlement would be introduced in the temporarily settled areas at the end of eleven years' experimental short term settlements. But the promise could not be actually fulfilled because in 1811 and 1812 the Court of Directors of East India Company, in their despatches to the Government in India, disapproved of the introduction of Permanent Settlement in 'ceded and conquered territories' including Odisha. 1.2.2. 1. 4. Bad effects of short term settlements  The short term settlements proved ruinous to the Oriya tenants as well as zamindars. While the tenures of proprietors of land were frequently changed, no method was devised to protect the rights of the peasants over tile land. Revenue was often fixed and increased without taking into proper consideration the real value and capability of estate. Subsequently S.L. Maddox held that the early revenue settlement in Odisha was an "unfortunate record of assessment on insufficient enquiry and of the enforcement of inelastic rules for the realization of inequitable revenues." The British allowed no reduction or remission of revenue, in the event of the peasants' inability to pay since 1804, there were numerous floods and droughts, causing famine or scarcity of food, but collection of revenue went on as per the Bengal Regulations. The early land revenue policy of the British was considered more repressive than that of the Marathas, because the latter allowed remission or reduction of revenue, when there was loss of crops caused by the natural calamities. Because of heavy assessment and failure of crops, the landlords could not pay revenue to the Government for their estates. The arrears of revenue led to sale of estates. In 1807, 266 estates with a total jama of more than 3 lakhs were sold. Estates with a higher jama of Rs. 5,000/- or more were sold at Fort Wiiliam, Calcutta. Consequently many Odia zamindars lost their estates and those estates were purchased by the Bengali speculators. Since Permanent Settlement was not introduced, many zamindars gave up their estates in 1816-17 to get rid of the troubles, caused by the short term settlements. 1.2.2. 1. 5. Exploitation of Bengali zamindars The Bengali zamindars who purchased estates stayed away from the estates and appointed amlas to collect revenue. Those amlas took advantage of the peasants' ignorance of Regulations and collected more than the legal rent. About their oppression Trower the Collector of Cuttack observed: "This system must have.been most ruinous to the country destructive to the prosperity of the ryots, and one of the greatest evils which the foreign amlas have entailed on the district since it came under the British Government. The short term settlement did not end in 1814-15 as had been originally proposed. There were ten more short term settlements which ended in 1837. A thirty years settlement was introduced in 1837 and the question of Permanent Settlement was finally rejected. This long term settlement was made on the basis of careful field survey and investigation into the individual rights of each landholder and under-tenant but the people had already been subjected to much hardship due to the short term settlement of preceding thirty three years. 1.2.2. 1. 6. Ryotwari system The Ryotwari system was introduced in place of Zamindari in 'Ganjam plains' of Chhatrapur, Berhampur and Ghumsar in early part of 19th century. Under the system, revenue collection was made by officials appointed by the Company. It ensured the tenants of their rights over land on condition of a fixed amount of rent annually. The rent was fixed at half of net production on the basis of assessment. The ryot (peasant-cultivator) felt secured about his possession. He was given a document called 'Patta' containing amount and kind of land and the rent he had to pay. He could deal with his land in any manner without putting any liability on the state. 1.2.2. 1. 7. Mahalwari system The System was introduced in Sambalpur district. It was a modified version of the Zamindari System. Both the Zamindars and the village headmen played an important role in the System. They were standing mid-way between the chiefs of a feudatory state and proprietor of the Mughalbandi area. Sambaipur district was divided into two tracts-Khalsa and Zamindari. Whereas the former refers to such land held by village headmen directly from government, the latter was a feudal organization headed by Zamindars. Khalsa consisted of 119 Malguzari, 870 Gauntia and 16 Ryotwari villages comprising of an area of 1657 sq miles. Whereas Zamindars were 17 in number with 3,248 sq miles. The lease of land was granted to Zamindars or Gauntias or Birtias or Umra, as the ease may be, for collection of revenue. There was some tax-free land called Bhogra, Devottara or Brahmottara. Bhogra was enjoyed by those Zamindars, Gauntias etc. and some classes of village servants like Jhankar (village priest) Chaukidar (watchman) and Nariha (water-carrier) etc. Brahmottara and Devottara were land granted to Brahmins and religious institutions respectively. The System had some demerits. The short term settlement of the System proved to be harassing and expensive for the tenants. Further, the Zamindars and Gauntias exploited tenants in various ways. Free labour known as Bethi- Begar was taken from them. They had to pay Nazarana (present) to secure Zamindar's consent for transfer of land. As Sambalpur district was declared to be "a partially excluded area" under Govt. of India Act of 1935, it was difficult to amend the tenancy laws. 1.2.2. 2. Administration of justice The judicial administration, adopted by the British government in Odisha, was efficient. One judge was appointed to look after the administration of justice. The people of Odisha could not follow the clumsy judicial procedure of the court. Sometimes, laws were tilted in favour of the culprit who bribed the am/as and other servants of the court and even the pleaders of the opposite party. The people of Odisha gradually lost faith from the judiciary, run by the British government in this land. The same judge also acted as magistrate. The conquered territories were divided into several thanas under the control of the darogahs.. The police, to a greater extent, was oppressive. 1.2.3. Conclusion Thus, the introduction of British administration in Odisha brought far-reaching changes in the life of the people of Odisha. Odisha got divided into three administrative units under British administration. In the administration, revenue aspects were considered most important. All the three kinds of land settlement, viz., Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari were implemented in different parts to assess and collect land revenue. The short term settlements proved ruinous to the Oriya tenants as well as zamindars. The Bengali zamindars exploited the tenants of Odisha. The people of Odisha could not follow the clumsy judicial procedure of the court. The police, to a greater extent, was oppressive in nature. 1.2.4. Summary  The British occupation of Odisha in 1803 created a new chapter in the history of Odisha.  Introduction of British administration in Odisha brought far-reaching changes in Odisha.  Odisha was divided into three administrative units under British administration.  'Province of Cuttack' was under Bengal Presidency, Ganjam and Koraput were under Madras Presidency and Sambalpur was under Central Provinces.  Besides, there were princely states. The administration under such conditions naturally could not become uniform.  In the administration, revenue aspects were considered most important.  All the three kinds of land settlement, viz., Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari were implemented in different parts to assess and collect land revenue.  The English introduced temporary settlements in most areas and extended Permanent Settlement to some zamindaries of the Maratha period.  The short term settlements proved ruinous to the Oriya tenants as well as zamindars.  The British allowed no reduction or remission of revenue, in the event of the peasants' inability to pay since 1804, there were numerous floods and droughts, causing famine or scarcity of food, but collection of revenue went on as per the Bengal Regulations.  The Bengali zamindars who purchased estates stayed away from the estates and appointed amlas to collect revenue.  Those amlas took advantage of the peasants' ignorance of Regulations and collected more than the legal rent.  The Ryotwari system was introduced in place of Zamindari in 'Ganjam plains' of Chhatrapur, Berhampur and Ghumsar in early part of 19th century.  The Mahalwari System was introduced in Sambalpur district.  The judicial administration, adopted by the British government in Odisha, was efficient.  One judge was appointed to look after the administration of justice.  The people of Odisha could not follow the clumsy judicial procedure of the court.   The people of Odisha could not follow the clumsy judicial procedure of the court. The police, to a greater extent, was oppressive in nature.  Thus, the introduction of British administration in Odisha brought far-reaching changes in the life of the people of Odisha. 1.2.5. Exercise  Write a note on the British administration in Odisha.  Give an account on the land revenue settlement in Odisha.  Highlight the bad effects of land revenue settlement in Odisha.  Write a note on the administration of justice in Odisha. 1.2.6. Further Reading  A.C. Pradhan, A Study of History of Odisha, 2006.  B.C. Ray, New Light on Maratha Odisha, Bhubaneswar, 1963.  K.C. Panigrahi, History of Odisha,2008.  H.H. Panda, History of Odisha, 2008.  D.B. Mishra, Concise History of Odisha,2009.  N K. Sahu, et. aI., History of Odisha, Cuttack, 1979  H.K. Mahtab, History of Odisha, Vol. I, 1960.  R.D. Banerji, History of Odisha, Vol. I, Calcutta, 1930.  A.K. Panda, Four Hundred Years of Odisha: A Glorious Epoch, Calcutta, 1987.  M.N. Das, Sidelights on History and Culture of Odisha.  B.C. Roy, Odisha under the Mughals, Calcutta, 1981.  M.A. Haque, Muslim Administration in Odisha 1568-1751, Calcutta, 1980.  B.C. Ray, Foundations of British Odisha, Cuttack, 1960.  K.M. Patra, Odisha under the East India Company, New Delhi, 1971.  P. Mukherji, History of Odisha in the 19th Century, Vol. VI, Utkal University, 1964.  C.E. Buckland, Bengal under the Lieutenant governors, Vol. II, Calcutta, 1902.  W.W. Hunter, Odisha, Vol. 2, London, 1880.  G. Toynbee, A Sketch of the History of Odisha 1803-1828, Calcutta, 1873.  Andrew Stirling, An Account (Geographical, Statistical and Historical) of Odisha proper or Cuttack, London, 1846.  LEB Cobden-Ramsay, Feudatory, States of Odisha, Calcutta, 1910.  UNIT-1 Chapter-III Economic Development- Agriculture and Industry, Trade and Commerce Structure 13.0. Objectives 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Economic development 1.3.2.1. Agriculture and Industry 1.3.2.2. Agrarian changes 1.3.2. 3. Land settlement 1.3.2. 4. Introduction of commercial agriculture 1.3.2. 5. Failure of commercial crops 1.3.2. 6. Rent and wages 1.3.2. 7. Agricultural production 1.3.2. 8. Trade and Commerce 1.3.2. 9. Salt Trade 1.3.2. 10. Establishment of trade monopoly 1.3.2. 11. Huge profit out of Salt monopoly 1.3.2. 12. Sufferings of general public 1.3.2. 13. End of indigenous salt factories in Odisha 1.3.2. 14. Trade centers 1.3.2. 15. Trade centers at Balasore and Pipili 1.3.2. 16. Currency Policy 1.3.3. Conclusion 1.3.4. Summary 1.3.5. Exercise 1.3.6. Further Reading 13.0.Objectives This chapter will discuss the Economic Development- Agriculture and Industry, Trade and Commerce. After studying this lesson the students will be able to:  know the causes of the economic development during the Britisha period  understand the development of agriculture and industry during British rule  know about the development of trade and commerce in Odisha under the Brtish rule 13.1. Introduction The British rule was a long story of the systematic exploitation by an imperialistic government of a people whom they had enslaved by their policy of divide and rule. The benefits of British rule were only accidental and incidental, if any. The main motive of all British policies was to serve the interests of England. Thus, in 1947 when the British transferred power to India, we inherited a crippled economy with a stagnant agriculture and a peasantry steeped in poverty. As Jawaharlal Nehru put it, "India was under an industrial capitalist regime, but her economy was largely that of the pre-capitalist period, minus man). Of the wealth producing elements of that pre-capitalist economy. She became a passive agent of modern industrial capitalism suffering all its ills and with hardly any of its advantages. 13.2. Economic development The British economic policy was exploitative in nature. As they had came with the sole purpose to do trade and commerce and to rule by taking the mileage of political disturbance in India, so their intention was not the economic development of the colonies rather the economic exploitation. 1.3.2.1. Agriculture and Industry Starting from the last quarter of the eighteenth century to the end of nineteenth century, the British administration was mainly confined to the revenue administration, and augmentation of land revenue was the first target. Since the land revenue was the major source of income to the British Government, it gave early attention to the question of land ownership and its revenue settlement. Until then, the multiplicative relationships between the tenants and the landowners and between the landowners and the Governemnt were so complicated and confusing that the British Goverement took about half a century to understand the problem especially in Northern Odisha. For this reason, the problem of land revenue settlements, in their diverse manifestations, continued to be baffling till the end of the nineteenth century. All types of experiments were made and many mistakes were committed. 1.3.2.2. Agrarian changes The period 1776 to 1947 was full of many agrarian changes. There were numerous agrarian problems in which Odisha had been suffered a lot. This gives a broad historical overview of the major developments concerning land revenue administration, tenancy system, stratification of peasantry, size of holding and productivity of land, cropping pattern, irrigation, technology, agricultural credit and marketing, rate of rent and wage, etc. Such a review should apprise us of the type of agrarian structure that Odisha inherited on the eve of Independence; in particular, an inventory of the inherited historical problems should become evident from such a review so that the whole gamut of post-Independence policies and programmes could be critically analyzed in the light of historical constraints typically faced by the agrarian economy of Odisha. 1.3.2. 3. Land settlement The British Government in Odisha initiated the first settlement 1n 1804. This was followed by a package of alternative solutions to the inherited problems of land revenue settlement. Out of these alternatives, a few stand out namely: (i) to farm out land to the zamindars under a permanent arrangement as was done earlier in Bengal; (ii) to farm out land to the Zamindars on short- term arrangement and to employ collectors to collect the land revenue and hold the land under direct (Khas) management the land revenue settlement was not less than a farce throughout the British Rule in Odisha. Some of the British experts like Edmonstone, Cecil Beadon, John Lawrence supported the permanent settlement; whereas others like Charles Wood were in a dilemma with respect to its result. Those who were in favour of such a settlement argued that the permanent settlement would create a number of middlemen, in course of time, where the profits of landlords were being distributed among them, and as a result, a large number of affluent groups including zamindars would be subjected to pay income tax and customs, and state would be a net gainer. The argument against the permanent settlement was that the inelasticity of land revenue under such a system would bring a great loss to the government in the future. Soon after the conquest of Odisha, the British found that the cultivated lands of the Mughalbandi areas were tilled by two classes of ryots: 'thani' or resident cultivators, and 'pahi' or non-resident cultivators. The thani ryot had a hereditary right of occupancy in their lands, whereas the pahi ryots were mere tenants-at-will. The thani ryots had many advantages over the pahi ryots. The thani ryots could posses the best land in the areas were allowed to enjoy communal rights to pasture, firewood and thatching grass. They held their homestead and garden land free of rent. They could not be ousted so long rent was paid regularly. The pahi ryots paid a much lower rent than their thani brethren, but on the other hand, they were liable to be turned out of their holding at any moment. 1.3.2. 4. Introduction of commercial agriculture The British Raj had endeavoured to introduce commercial agriculture in Odisha. In addition to rice, sugar-cane was one of the principal food crops. But, due to unsuitable soil, lack of adequate capital investment by the private enterprise and lack of encouragement from government or from the landlords, the sugarcane cultivation remained a crop only for local requirement. For example, by 1883, in Cuttack district, a mere 2,000 acres were sown with cane, and in Sambalpur, it occupied one percent of total cropped area. Towards the end of the 19th century, there was an improvement only in Balasore district due to private initiatives. Grams, pulses and oilseeds were among the principal rabi crops of Odisha in the 19th century. It occupied around 7.0 per cent of total cropped area in Cuttack district in the year 1900. 1.3.2. 5. Failure of commercial crops The cultivation of jute, tobacco and indigo not very popular. A muslim merchant introduced indigo cultivation in Cuttack. The cultivators in Balasore district adopted jute cultivation towards the last decade of the nineteenth century. However, jute cultivation failed to become popular as there was no jute mill to use the raw material. Tobacco cultivation, which required rich alluvial soil, was largely undertaken in Cuttack and Puri districts. In Cuttack, it occupied 200 acres in 1873, which rose to 10, 140 acres in 1891-92.17. But the poor quality of tobacco discouraged capital investment. The soil in Odisha proved unsuitable for extensive cotton cultivation, where largely inferior quality was cultivated. Moreover, with the increasing popularity of imported clothes, because of its fine yarn and cheapness, the cotton cultivation reached the lowest ebb. Besides, failure to irrigate land for commercial crops (in many cases, the zamidars did not allow the tenants to use canal water for cash crops production), it led towards monoculture instead of diversified agriculture. The absence of outside market for agricultural produce except rice and limited internal market, did not provide any incentive to peasants to produce commercial crops on a big scale. 1.3.2. 6. Rent and wages With respect to rent and wages, we notice that between 1837 and 1897, the rent enhancement by the Government was the highest in Cuttack and lowest in Puri districts. For example, the increase in the rate of rent per acre 1n 1897 over the year 1837 was 43.32 per cent in Cuttack district, 26.00 per cent in Puri district and was 37.00 per cent in Balasore district. 18 In response, the zamindars and other in termediaries enhanced the rate of rent per acre arbitrarily and it had no linkage with the Governemnt rates. Since a majority of tenants were poor, the incidence of increased rent rates coupled with various other cesses and fines imposed by the zamindars was much higher than that in most other states. The Governemnt rarely interfered to check the arbitrary enhancement of rent and extraction of different cesses by the zamindars. In the early years of the British rule, remission of revenue was granted to the zamindars in the years of bad harvest with instructions to discontinue collection of rent. But, in spite of Government order, the zamindars continued to collect rent from the cultivators. Not only that, the timid tenants were also compelled to pay a number of extra cesses known as ·awab' on items, such as growing grass, bettlenuts, mango, cotton, and even on celebrating marriage. Then taxes like 'derivalla', 'Najaya' and 'Palatak' worked as penalty taxes imposed on the tenants. Over-burden of such penalty taxes compelled many a tenant to desert his land and migrate to other areas. The wage to the agricultural labour and rural artisans was in the form of kind or in cash. In the rural sector, the most preferred mode of wage was in kind. 1.3.2. 7. Agricultural production Agricultural production was largely based on labour-intensive technology. The farmers were using certain implements such as spade, axe, chopper, cloud breaker and harrow, etc. which were made of iron extracted out of the native charcoal furnance by the local blacksmiths. However, towards the end of the century, due to availability of imported steel, utilisation of native iron declined. During the British period, the traditional money institutions were the source of borrowing for the cultivators. The cultivators borrowed mostly for paying wages to daily labourers, reclamation of land, minor irrigation, purchasing seeds from landlords, payment of rent to the zamindars (especially, during the failure of crop), and so on. The small and marginal tenants resorted to borrowing from the village moneylenders, mahajans, big tenants etc. to defray their family expenditure on food grains and other necessaries for life. 1.3.2. 8. Trade and Commerce As the basic purpose of the British was trade and commerce, so they involved themselves in trade and commerce in the colonies. In case of Orissa, they looked for the enrichment of their treasury rather looking the benefit of the people of Orissa. 1.3.2. 9. Salt Trade Like the British land revenue policy, the British policy of salt monopoly proved ruinous to the economic life of the people. It is the sad story of the systematic destruction of an indigenous industry. During the Maratha period a large quantity of salt was manufactured in the sea coast of Orissa. Salt manufacture was a private concern of the malangis (salt manufacturers). The merchants were purchasing salt from the Malangis and exporting the same to the neighbouring states. The Maratha Government did not interfere with the manufacture of salt but collected duties from the salt merchants. The East India Company had established its monopoly over salt trade in Bengal as early as 1765. Under East India Company's monopolistic salt trade the salt price of Bengal was higher than that of Orissa. Consequently large quantity of salt was smuggled from Orissa to Bengal. So the East India Company had tried to secure control over the salt trade of Orissa by an agreement with the Marathas long before they actually occupied Orissa, but the Marathas had refused to give this concession to them. 1.3.2. 10. Establishment of trade monopoly After the occupation of Orissa the East India Company decided to establish its monopoly over the salt manufacture and trade of Orissa. According to the Regulation of 1804, the manufacture of salt became the monopoly of the Company's Government. The private manufacture of salt was allowed only under license from the Government and the sale of the commodity was made subject to the payment of a duty of twelve annas per maund. The Regulation XXII of 1814 made the manufacture and sale of the salt an exclusive monopoly of the Company's Government. In 1806, James King took charge of the salt department as tile salt agent. Under his supervision salt was manufactured in the aurangs of Balasore, Cuttack and Puri districts by the malangis. Large quantity of salt was exported from Orissa by the East India Company, resulting in securing to the Company huge revenue. At the end of East India Company's rule, the net revenue derived from local sale and export of salt was 45 lakhs of rupees, which was much higher than the income, derived from the land revenue. 1.3.2. 11. Huge profit out of Salt monopoly While the East India Company made huge profit out of monopoly in manufacture and sale of salt, the malangis and common consumers suffered. The malangis who were employed by the British Government were paid low wages, and yet they were required by the zamindars in whose land salt was manufactured to pay the latter's due as was the case before the establishment of the British monopoly. In 1808, the salt agent James proposed that the salt lands within the zamindar's jurisdiction should be transferred to that of the salt department. The proposal was worked out, subject to the payment of 1 1/2 annas per maund of the manufactured salt and certain amount of salt as Khorakee (dietary allowance) to the zamindars in whose estates salt was manufactured. 1.3.2. 12. Sufferings of general public The general public had to purchase salt at a much higher rate under the British monopoly than during the Maratha period because of the higher taxes imposed on salt. The price of salt, manufactured under the monopoly system, was deliberately raised to help the sale of imported salt, and ultimate replacement of indigenous salt by the imported salt. By 1860, the fine and cheap Liverpool salt was being sold in large scale in Ortssa; as by that time the native prejudice against the foreign salt had disappeared. The British Government stopped manufacture of salt and abolished monopoly over salt trade in 1863. The manufacture of salt was hereafter allowed to be carried on through private enterprise under the excise rules of Act VII (B.C.) of 1864. Under these excise rules, a salt manufacturer was required to pay duty to the Government. The salt industry could not be revived any more, because indigenous salt could not compete with the imported salt of superior quality. The indigenous salt industry virtually ended with the abolition of the British salt monopoly and discontinuance of Government manufacture of salt resulted in depriving 26 thousands of malangis of the means of their livelihood. The British Government was not even favourably inclined towards the local manufacture of salt under excise system, and was keen on suppressing illicit manufacture of salt, as it deprived the Government of excise revenue on salt. In 1889 the Government prohibited the manufacture of Panga salt (salt boiled out of salt earth scraped up in saliferous soil). 1.3.2. 13. End of indigenous salt factories in Odisha In 1891 the Government made an attempt to manufacture salt on a monopoly basis by establishing salt factory at Tua and Gurubai on the Chilika lake (in Puri district). The Tua and Gurubai factories were closed in 1902. The failure of these two factories was due to the lack of proper official supervision and inadequate sale. From the stoppage of Government's salt manufacture in 1863 upto the beginning of the twentieth century, Liverpool salt dominated Orissa salt market. From the beginning of the present century, due to the facilities of railway transport the Madras salt became a serious competitor for the Liverpool salt. 1.3.2. 14. Trade centers The Battle of Plassey and Buxar helped the British to establish their colony in India. Thereafter they acquired as much of Indian territories as possible, and Orissa being close to Bengal automatically came under their control. As early as 1633, the British established a trade centre at Hariharpur (present Jagatsingpur district), one of their first settlements in India. 1.3.2. 15. Trade centers at Balasore and Pipili Their subsequent trade establishment at Baleshwar (or Balasore) on river Burhabalanga and at Pipili developed into flourishing centers of trade as well as of power. According to William Wilson Hunter, the English historian, it was those two Orissa harbours which became the basis of the future greatness of the British in Bengal.  Balasore district was part of the ancient Kalinga which later became a territory of Toshala or Utkal, till the death of Mukunda Dev. It was annexed by Moghuls in 1568 and remained as a part of their suzerainty up to the middle of eighteenth century (up to 1750-51). Then the Marahattas occupied this part of Odisha and it became a part of the dominion of the Marahatta Rajas of Nagpur. The East India Company ceded this part through a treaty called treaty of Deogaon in 1803 and it became a part of Bengal Presidency up to 1912. But the first English Settlement came into existence in Balasore region in 1634 while Sahajahan was the emperor at Delhi. The first of English factories was established in this region in 1640. The English settlement of Balasore, formed in 1642, was an early trading port for British, French and Dutch ships in the early age of Enlightenment and became a colonial part of first Danish India, later British India. In 1763 Balasore became a Danish possession, governed from Tranquebar, as part of Danish India. Due to the shallowness of its bay, the trading post was abandoned, leaving behind only a small settlement in the area. Balasore as a separate district was created in October 1828 while it was in the Bengal Presidency. On 7 November 1845, all Danish India was sold to the British, who made it part of British India. 1.3.2. 16. Currency Policy British currency policy adversely affected the economic life of the people of Orissa. In Orissa Kauri currency was prevalent during the Maratha period. But the British Government wanted the payment of revenue in sicca rupee, the standard silver coin, then prevalent in Bengal. The British allowed payment in Kauri currency till the end of 1807-08. Thereafter, they depreciated Kauri to a considerable extent in relation to Sicca rupee. Consequently the price of commodities rose very high in terms of Kauris, causing much distress to the people. At the same time payment of revenue in silver became difficult due to the scarcity of silver which had been caused by the remittance of a huge amount of silver to the Calcutta treasury. The hardship, caused by depreciation of Kauri became a cause of profound mass unrest against the British rule. 1.3.3. Conclusion Thus, the British economic policy was exploitative in nature. As they had came with the sole purpose to do trade and commerce and to rule by taking the mileage of political disturbance in India, so their intention was not the economic development of the colonies rather the economic exploitation. Starting from the last quarter of the eighteenth century to the end of nineteenth century, the British administration was mainly confined to the revenue administration, and augmentation of land revenue was the first target. Thus, British economic policy adversely affected the economic life of the people of Orissa. 1.3.4. Summary  The British rule was a long story of the systematic exploitation by an imperialistic government of a people whom they had enslaved by their policy of divide and rule.  The benefits of British rule were only accidental and incidental, if any.  The British economic policy was exploitative in nature.  Since the land revenue was the major source of income to the British Government, it gave early attention to the question of land ownership and its revenue settlement.  The period 1776 to 1947 was full of many agrarian changes.  There were numerous agrarian problems in which Odisha had been suffered a lot.  This gives a broad historical overview of the major developments concerning land revenue administration, tenancy system, stratification of peasantry, size of holding and productivity of land, cropping pattern, irrigation, technology, agricultural credit and marketing, rate of rent and wage, etc.  The British Government in Odisha initiated the first settlement 1n 1804.  This was followed by a package of alternative solutions to the inherited problems of land revenue settlement.  The British Raj had endeavoured to introduce commercial agriculture in Odisha. In addition to rice, sugar-cane was one of the principal food crops.  But, due to unsuitable soil, lack of adequate capital investment by the private enterprise and lack of encouragement from government or from the landlords, the sugarcane cultivation remained a crop only for local requirement.  The cultivation of jute, tobacco and indigo not very popular.  As the basic purpose of the British was trade and commerce, so they involved themselves in trade and commerce in the colonies.  In case of India, they looked for the enrichment of their treasury rather looking the benefit of the people of Orissa.  Like the British land revenue policy, the British policy of salt monopoly proved ruinous to the economic life of the people.  It is the sad story of the systematic destruction of an indigenous industry.  The East India Company had established its monopoly over salt trade in Bengal as early as 1765.  Under East India Company's monopolistic salt trade the salt price of Bengal was higher than that of Orissa.  According to the Regulation of 1804, the manufacture of salt became the monopoly of the Company's Government.  While the East India Company made huge profit out of monopoly in manufacture and sale of salt, the malangis and common consumers suffered.  The general public had to purchase salt at a much higher rate under the British monopoly than during the Maratha period because of the higher taxes imposed on salt.  By 1860, the fine and cheap Liverpool salt was being sold in large scale in Ortssa; as by that time the native prejudice against the foreign salt had disappeared.  In 1891 the Government made an attempt to manufacture salt on a monopoly basis by establishing salt factory at Tua and Gurubai on the Chilika lake (in Puri district).  The Tua and Gurubai factories were closed in 1902.  As early as 1633, the British established a trade centre at Hariharpur (present Jagatsingpur district), one of their first settlements in India.   Their subsequent trade establishment at Baleshwar (or Balasore) on river Burhabalanga and at Pipili developed into flourishing centers of trade as well as of power.  British currency policy adversely affected the economic life of the people of Orissa.  Thus, the British economic policy was exploitative in nature. It adversely affected the economic life of the people of Orissa. 1.3.5. Exercise  Write a note on the economic development in Odisha during the British period.  Give an account on the development of agriculture and industry in Odisha during the British period.  Make an analysis on the development of trade and commerce in Odisha during the British period.  Discuss how the British economic policies had adversely affected the economic life of the people of Odisha. 1.3.6. Further Reading  A.C. Pradhan, A Study of History of Odisha, 2006.  B.C. Ray, New Light on Maratha Odisha, Bhubaneswar, 1963.  K.C. Panigrahi, History of Odisha,2008.  H.H. Panda, History of Odisha, 2008.  D.B. Mishra, Concise History of Odisha,2009.  N K. Sahu, et. aI., History of Odisha, Cuttack, 1979  H.K. Mahtab, History of Odisha, Vol. I, 1960.  R.D. Banerji, History of Odisha, Vol. I, Calcutta, 1930.  A.K. Panda, Four Hundred Years of Odisha: A Glorious Epoch, Calcutta, 1987.  M.N. Das, Sidelights on History and Culture of Odisha.  B.C. Roy, Odisha under the Mughals, Calcutta, 1981.  M.A. Haque, Muslim Administration in Odisha 1568-1751, Calcutta, 1980.  B.C. Ray, Foundations of British Odisha, Cuttack, 1960.  K.M. Patra, Odisha under the East India Company, New Delhi, 1971.  P. Mukherji, History of Odisha in the 19th Century, Vol. VI, Utkal University, 1964.  C.E. Buckland, Bengal under the Lieutenant governors, Vol. II, Calcutta, 1902.  W.W. Hunter, Odisha, Vol. 2, London, 1880.  G. Toynbee, A Sketch of the History of Odisha 1803-1828, Calcutta, 1873.  Andrew Stirling, An Account (Geographical, Statistical and Historical) of Odisha proper or Cuttack, London, 1846.  LEB Cobden-Ramsay, Feudatory, States of Odisha, Calcutta, 1910.  UNIT-2 Chapter-I Resistance Movements in the 19th century: Khurda rising of 1804-05, Paik rebellion of 1817 Structure 2.1.0. Objectives 2.1.1. Introduction 2.1.2. Resistance Movements in 19th Century 2.1.3. Resistance movements of Khurda 2.1.3. 1. Causes of conflict with the Raja of Khurda 2.1.3. 2. Deceit of the British towards the Raja of Khurda 2.1.3. 3. Difference between Raja of Khurda and the British 2.1.3. 4. Attempt of Jayi Rajguru to restore the Parganas 2.1.3. 5. Efforts made by the King of Khurda and his associates 2.1.3. 6. British measures to suppress the resistance movement 2.1.3. 7. Support of the people and the chiefs to the Raja of Khurda 2.1.3. 8. Results of the Khurda rising 2.1.4. Paik rebellion in 1817 2.1.4. 1. Causes of the Paik rebellion 2.1.4. 2. British exploitative policies 2.1.4. 3. Faulty revenue policy 2.1.4. 4. British salt policy 2.1.4. 5. Difficulties of the Khurda people 2.1.4. 6. The new currency system 2.1.4. 7. Contemporary political condition of Khurda 2.1.4. 8. Displeasure of Buxi Jagabandhu 2.1.4. 9. The beginning of the Rebellion of 1817 2.1.4. 10. Rebellion in Khurda 2.1.4. 11. Steps of Edward Impey 2.1.4. 12. Assaults of the revolutionaries 2.1.4. 13. Proclamation of Mukundadeva as the king 2.1.4. 14. Measures taken by Le Fevre 2.1.4. 15. New tactics of the revolutionaries 2.1.4. 16. Creation of circumstances for Buxi's surrender 2.1.4. 18. Negotiation between the British Government and Buxi agabandhu 2.1.4. 19. Consequences of the Paik Rebellion 2.1.4. 20. Administrative changes in Odisha 2.1.4. 21. Changes in the judicial procedure 2.1.4. 22. Reduction in the price of the salt 2.1.4. 23. Management of the Jagannath temple of Puri 2.1.4. 24. Reduction in the revenue burdens of the local zamindars 2.1.4. 25. Reorganization of the British administrative structure in Odisha 2.1.5. Conclusion 2.1.6. Summary 2.1.7. Exercise 2.1.8. Further Reading 2.1.0. Objectives This chapter will discuss the Resistance Movements in the 19th century- Khurda rising of 1804-05, Paik rebellion of 1817. After studying this lesson the students will be able to:  know the causes of the resistance movement in the 19th century  understand the Khurada rising of 1804-05  know about Paik rebellion of 1817  evaluate the causes and results of the Paik rebellion of 1817 2.1.1. Introduction The 19th century Odisha witnessed a number of resistance movements of the common people, landholders, Zamindars and Feudatory Chiefs against the British Raj. Among those resistance movements, four were very severe and posed great threat to the British rule in Odisha. All those resistance movements occurred in Odisha due to a strong dislike for the new rule, the oppressive revenue system and high rent, threat to traditional privileges of vested landed-interests etc which had endangered the life and property of the people of Odisha. 2.1.2. Resistance Movements in 19th Century Unlike other parts of India, the Birtish occupation of Odisha was immediately followed by sharp public reaction giving rise to resistance movement in the 19th century. 2.1.3. Resistance movements of Khurda The resistance movement started in the form of insubordination against the British authorities by Nilakantha Mangaraj, the Raja of Harispur with whom the special Commissioner for Odisha had signed treaty engagement on December 1803. He was dismissed for defying the British authorities and placed under confinement till April 1805, and released on condition of good behaviour and regular payment of tribute. From the Maratha period the relationship between the British and Raja of Kanika was strained on account of practical activities on the coast of Odisha under the latter's patronage. Very often the British traders had complained against the Raja of Kanika for the harassment they suffered. With the change of authorities governing Odisha in 1803, the Raja entered into an engagement with the British agreeing to pay tribute. There were signs of an improvement in relationship. But in 1804 troubles started concerning the Raja of Khurda and British apprehended a secret alliance between Khurda and Kanika. Even the Raja of Kujanga was expected to join this alliance against the British. 2.1.3. 1. Causes of conflict with the Raja of Khurda There were many causes which led to the Khurda rising which can be discussed bellow. 2.1.3. 2. Deceit of the British towards the Raja of Khurda The Raja of Khurda had surrendered the Mahals of Lambai, Rahang and Puri to the Marathas in lieu of some military help he had received for his war against the Raja of Paralakhemundi. After the expulsion of the Marathas, the Raja expected and Mahlas would be restored to him by the British. But the unwillingness of the British to oblige naturally angered the Raja. Colonel Harcourt categorically denied restoration of the Mahals. 2.1.3. 3. Difference between Raja of Khurda and the British During his march from Ganjam towards Puri in September I803 Harcourt and availed of the good-will of the Raja of Khurda for provision of troops and movement of convoys. He had assured the payment of Rupees one lakh to the Raja for allowing him smooth passage. The Raja received Rupees seventy thousand in two installments, but the payment of the balance of Rs. 30.000 was deferred indefinitely. 2.1.3. 4. Attempt of Jayi Rajguru to restore the Parganas Mukundadeva-II, the Raja of Khurdha (1795-1817) welcomed the British after their conquest of Orisssa in 1803. He hoped that the four Pargans (Rahang, Serain, Chaubiskud and Lembai) lost to the Marathas would be restored to him by the British. Since the king was a minor, his regent Jayakrisna Rajguru or Jayi Rajguru went to Cuttack to present his case for the restoration of the Parganas and a reduction of annual Peshkash. They refused both the demands. Instead, they pressurised the king to execute an agreement on lines dictated by them. They wanted the king to dismiss Rajguru. Jayi Rajguru read the evil designs of the British. He made an alliance among the Chiefs of Khurdha, Kujanaga and Kanika states. The king of Khurdha made all preparations for confrontation with the British. The personal approach of Jayi Rajguru, the Dewan of Khurda proved unavailing. Rajguru's request for a reduction of the amount of annual tribute was also summararily, rejected by Harcourt. 2.1.3. 5. Efforts made by the King of Khurda and his associates The above factors were responsible in compelling the Raja of Khurda to adopt a hostile attitude against the British in 1804. He felt reluctant to sign the treaty engagement with the Commissioners and did not hesitate to vent his feelings. In a bid to recover the Mahals from British possession. He even sought the help of the Marathas. He engaged Sambhu Bharati, a mendicant to go round the Odia zamindars persuading them to make a, common cause against the foreign Government. The Rajas of Kujang and Kanika responded to the call. The Raja of Kanika violating the agreement on the production and sale of salt seized the British Store houses and funds and declined to attend the Commissioners Cuttack as a tributary. He even raised a large army under a Maratha Commander for self defence. 2.1.3. 6. British measures to suppress the resistance movement Harcourt was naturally worried lest such disaffection might spread among other tributaries and sought the Governor General's permission for a stern exemplary action against the Raja of Khurda so as to dissuade others turning hostile to the British. Under pressure, of the Home Government Lord Wellesley did not agree to escalate a conflict in Odisha. His war against the Maratha Confederacy was not yet over. He, therefore, suggested Harcourt to adopt conciliatory measures. Sambhu Bharati, the Agent provocateur was seized. An attempt to negotiate through Captain Blunt with the Raja of Khurda proved futile on account of the intervention of Jayi Rajguru. A contingent of 250 cavalry soldiers and 900 Barkandazes from Khurda entered into Lembai, Rahang and Puri. On hearing this news Captain Hickland, who was stationed at Pipili marched with an army of 120 Sepoys and defeated the Raja's force on 22 November 1804. Harcourt also proceeded from Cuttack against the Raja of Khurda. The fort of the Raja was besieged by Capt. Storey. Harcourt engaged Shaikh Waz Muhmmad, a native of Cuttack to reduce the fort of Banpur and through him captured the Raja's brothers and son. Subsequently, the Raja was also captured on 3 January 1805 and taken to Cuttack. After subduing Khurda, Harcourt despatched a small contingent towards Nayagarh to capture Antaji and Kannoji. Two Maratha agents of Nagpur through whom the Raja of Khurda sought help and himself proceeded towards Kujang and Kanika via Gop. 2.1.3. 7. Support of the people and the chiefs to the Raja of Khurda The Zamindars of Marichpur and Harispur were sympathetic to the cause of Khurda; they were even preparing to render help. But the arrival of Harcourt with army dissuaded them from such a course of action. Chandradhwaja Sendh, Raja of Kujang took to flight on hearing the approach of the Commissioner. He was arrested in May 1805. His brother Madhusudan Sendh was installed on the Guddi on condition that the Raja would account for all properties collected from wrecks of ships on the coast and would remain loyal to the British. Thereafter, Harcourt moved towards Kanika. Robert Ker, the Collector of Balasore was also asked to proceed with a force and arrest the Raja on grounds of mere, suspicion. Harcourt asked, to take over the charge of Kanika estate for direct administration. Major Andrew and Captain Blunt were detailed to assist Ker in settling the affairs in Kanika. The Raja was taken a prisoner and shifted to Balasore. He was kept there till September 1805 and subsequently removed to Midnapure. The removal of the Raja of Kanika, apparently for no reason, provoked the people of the estate to rebel. The uprising was lad by the Diwan. But it could be suppressed by the British through Subadar Shib Prasad who seized all the weapons of the rebels. It is difficult to justify the military action against Kanika. The Chief and his people were taken to task for resisting the British who considered the Raja as notorious for his earlier non-cooperation in trading activities and hostile antecedents. They suspected his connivance with the Rajas of Kujang and Khurda and were not prepared to leave anything to chance. 2.1.3. 8. Results of the Khurda rising As a result of which the British captured the fort of Khurdha in December 1804. The fugitive king was arrested by the treachery of one Fateh Muhammad in January 1805.  The Raja of Kanika, Balabhadra Bhanja was made a prisoner. The Raja of Kujang was replaced by his elder brother. The regent of the king of Khurda, Jayakrisna Rajguru or Jayi Rajguru was hanged. Khurdha was confiscated and brought under the direct (khas) management of the British. The Raja was given an allowance for the administration of Jagannath temple. His headquarters was fixed at Puri. He retained the title of Maharaja without any kingdom. Conclusion Thus, resistance movement of Khurda was a significant event in the history of modern Odisha. This was the first resistance movement in the country and Jai Rajguru was the first martyr of India. Although the movement was suppressed by the British Raj but it provided fuel to the future movements happened in the country. 2.1.4. Paik rebellion in 1817 The Paik rebellion of 1817 was one of the significant event in the history of modern Odisha. The people of Odisha had welcomed the British Government in order to get relief from the exploitation of the Marathas. However, their hopes and aspirations were shattered on the rock of frustration when they experienced the administrative structure and economic exploitation, the two tentacles of the British imperialism. Added to these miseries were the faulty land revenue policy, salt monopoly, deprivation of the local servants from the British administration, the unsympathetic attitude of the rulers towards the ruled etc. which discharged poison in the mind of the people of Odisha. The British rule reached the nadir point of its degeneration when Jayi Rajaguru, the indomitable minister of Raja Mukundadeva 11 of Khurda was hanged and the estate of Khurda was confiscated permanently. The direct management of Khurda from 1805 by the British authority, not only flared up the anger of the native people but prepared the ground for an armed rebellion by the Paiks that took place in 1817 under the leadership of the commander of the Raja of Khurda, Buxi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar Mahapatra Bhramarabara Ray. This rebellion is famous as the Paik rebellion. 2.1.4. 1. Causes of the Paik rebellion There were many causes which led to the outbreak of the Paik Rebellion of 1817 which can be discussed as follows. 2.1.4. 2. British exploitative policies With the removal of the Raja of Khurda, Major Fletcher took over the charge of the entire administration of the estate. Thus started the exploitative policies of the British administration which became increasingly intolerable for the people of Odisha. They failed to understand the British regulations because those were translated into Bengali and Persi and were not available in Odia. Their ignorance was exploited by the clerks who were not native people rather Bengalies who crowded the offices in Odisha. In various important matters like payment of revenue, court cases etc. the local people were very much dependent upon the Bengali clerks who collected much money from them. Still then, to get fare judgement from the court became a dream for the local people. They could not ventilate their grievances before the British authority due to the gulf between the general mass and the British government. 2.1.4. 3. Faulty revenue policy The faulty revenue policy of the British government adversely affected the local zamindars and the royats. The short term land revenue settlements hit the zamindars who failed to pay their due to the British authority. The Britishers never allowed remission or time to the local zamindars for the payment of revenue. The zamindars who failed to pay revenue to the British government at Calcutta in proper time, lost their zamindaries due to several reasons like failure of crops, draught, flood and other natural calamities. The assessments and over assessments of the short- term settlements added misery to the already miserable life of the peasants. This faulty land revenue policy of the British government disappointed not only the zamindars but also the royats. 2.1.4. 4. British salt policy The British salt monopoly was another cause of the rebellion. It had caused immense hardship to the common people of Odisha. The long sea coast of Odisha produced a huge quantity of salt which was used by the people of this land freely. However, the British authority deprived the zamindars and the local people of coastal region of their traditional rights to manufacture salt. The rise in the price of salt was generally felt by every house of this land due to the heavy import of Liverpool salt. 2.1.4. 5. Difficulties of the Khurda people The amlas involved in the administration smuggled out vast quantity of salt and got huge profit. The common people of Khurda, who depended on smuggled salt, found themselves in utter hardship. They violated the British salt laws and manufactured salt. For this breach of laws, they had to suffer imprisonment which was a social stigma at that time. The persons who were imprisoned, were excommunicated from the society after their release from the jail. People tried to attract the attention of the British government against the oppressive nature of the salt laws which fell in deaf ears which enraged the people of Odisha. 2.1.4. 6. The new currency system The introduction of new currency- system of the British authority in Odisha was another factor for the Paik rebellion. During the Maratha period, cowrie formed the chief medium of exchange in Odisha. It had its rate of exchange with the silver coins. Scarcity of cowrie currency was greatly felt during the early stage of British administration in Odisha. As a result, it became very much difficult on the part of the British troops to procure small articles of daily consumption from the local market. So, in November 1804, the British government introduced sicca rupees in Odisha. The zamindars, the peasants, the Talukdars etc. felt difficulty for paying revenue in cowrie currency. The villagers faced a lot of problems in handling the new currency and they were grossly exploited by the local mahajanas. 2.1.4. 7. Contemporary political condition of Khurda The then political condition of Khurda, made its people rebellious. The hanging of Jayi Rajaguru, the deposition of Raja Mukundadeva II and the reorganization of administration in Khurda by Major Fletcher, enraged the people of Khurda a lot. They wanted to oppose the British rule in Khurda at any cost. 2.1.4. 8. Displeasure of Buxi Jagabandhu The displeasure of Buxi Jagabandhu was the immediate cause for the outbreak of the Paik rebellion. He was the Commander of the Raja of Khurda and his office was hereditary. He commanded respect next to the king from the people. For his service he got jagir lands from the Raja which was known as Buxibari, consisting of the quilla of Rorung and four paraganas viz- Rahang, Lembai, Sarai and Chabiskud. When Major Fletcher organised new administration in Khurda, he dispossessed Buxi of the quilla Rorung. Further, by the mischievous role of Chandra Prasad Singh, the above mentioned four paraganas of Buxi were sold to Lakshmi Narayan who ultimately gave it to Krishna Chandra Singh, a relation of Chandra Prasad Singh. When the fact was revealed, Buxi represented to Richardson, the Commissioner, regarding this clandestine deal. The challange of Krishna Chandra in the court against Jagabandhu's right over these paraganas and Buxi's own cousin Gadadhar Vidyadhara's ciaim over such property, led Richardson to dispossess Jagabandhu of his right over these paraganas and as such, over all sources of income. This made Buxi a beggar. Added to this misfortune, the Daroga of Khurda tried to take Buxi into custody on a false information supplied to him by Charan Patnaik, the Sarbarakar of Khurda who reported the Daroga about Buxi's secret link with the Pindaris. This led Buxi Jagabandhu to be rebellious. 2.1.4. 9. The beginning of the Rebellion of 1817 The above factors prompted the Paikas to declare rebellion against the British. On 29 March, 1817, began the Paik rebellion in Khurda. On that day a group of 400 men, denominated Kandh of Ghumsur in Ganjam, had entered the district of Cuttack, where they have been joined by the Paiks and Dulbeheras of Pergunnah Khurda under the guidance of a person named Jagabandhu and had committed various acts of rebellion. The insurgents attacked the police station and government buildings at Banapur and killed more than 100 men and looted government money amounting to Rs. 15,000. They attacked Charles Becher, the Salt Agent of Southern Division and plundered his boats on the Chilka lake. 2.1.4. 10. Rebellion in Khurda The Paiks of Khurda under the leadership of Buxi Jagabandhu joined the Chuhars Kandhs of Ghumsur. They burnt the government buildings and sacked the government treasury of Khurda. The insurgents proceeded towards Lembai and murdered Charan Patnaik at Rathipur. Within no time, Khurda and the neighbouring areas were at the mercy of these rebels. Barricades were erected by them and Gangapara Pass, the main line of communication between Cuttack and Khurda, was guarded by the rebellious Paiks. 2.1.4. 11. Steps of Edward Impey The activities of the insurgents made the British authorities aware about the alarming situation at Khurda. To meet the emergency, Edward Impey dispatched troops to Khurda and Pipli under Lieutnants Prideaux and Faris respectively. Accompanied by Lieutnant Travis, he marched with a detachment of sepoys towards Gangapara on 1 April 1817. It was impossible on the part of the British troops to cross the barricade and advance towards Khurda. On the otherhand, the hidden Paiks inside the jungle attacked the British sepoys off and on and forced them to retreat. 2.1.4. 12. Assaults of the revolutionaries Instructed by Captain Wellington, Lieutenant Faris chased the insurgents and consequently, he was shot dead along with one Indian Subahdar. Pipli fell into the hands of the rebellious Paiks. The police stations and government offices were burnt down. On 7 April, 1817, some insurgents under the leadership of Rajballav Chhotrai attacked Hariharpur and beat the Tahasildar of Kothdes black and blue. They also drove away the new zamindars of Balarampur and Budhakera. A large number of common people of Lembai, Pipli and Kothdes joined the insurgents and penalized the zamindars who sided with the British. They also burnt the villages and destroyed the crops. The insurgents captured Rani Mukta Dei of Sambalpur who had settled in her Panehgarh Jagir under British shelter and looted her house. Further, by the instruction of Buxi, they murdered Jagabandhu Patnaik and the members of his family who were spying against Buxi. 2.1.4. 13. Proclamation of Mukundadeva as the king Being successful in different places like Khurda, Lembai, Pipli, Gangapara, Kothdes, Hariharpur etc., the insurgents entered into Puri town. They burnt and broke down the public and private buildings as well. On 14 April, Buxi, with a large number of his followers, reached Puri. The priests of the temple welcomed him. They denounced the British authority and proclaimed Raja Mukundadeva as their ruler who was indifferent to this sort of affair. The correspondences of Impey to the Government at Bengal reveals that the revolt gradually spread to Gope, Kujang, Pattamudai, Golra, Harishpur, Praharajpur etc. 2.1.4. 14. Measures taken by Le Fevre Looking at this, the British government opened its Pandora's box for suppressing the rebellion. Martial law was extended to Puri, Pipli, Lembai etc. Captain Le Fevre, with strong military detachments marched towards Puri and on the way, he burnt several Paik villages. The Raja and his son Ramachandradeva were captured and brought to Cuttack by Le Fevre. This action of the British government broke down the morality of the insurgents. However, the reaction against the British government became rampant at Pattamundai, Kujang, Gope and other places. Captain Wellington now directed the troops to suppress the revolt. Captain C.R. Kennet was dispatched with a detachment to suppress the revolt at Gope, Golra and surrounding areas nearby. Captain A.Macleod proceeded to Pattamundai to control the rising tide of the insurrection at Pattamundai. At last, the Raja of Kujang surrendered and Captain Kennet was successful in capturing Narayana Paramaguru and Bamadeva Patajoshi and their followers who were other key leaders of the Paik rebellion. They were sent to the fort of Barabati. With this, normalcy was restored in Pattamundai, Asureswar, Praharajpur and other places. 2.1.4. 15. New tactics of the revolutionaries The suppressive measures of the British authority led Buxi and his followers to take shelter at Nayagarh and Ranapur. But the combined military operation from Ganjam and Cuttack made Buxi and his followers to change places of their hiding very frequently. At last, Buxi gave a new proposal to his followers like Krushnachandra Bhramarabara Rai, Damu Subudhi, Gopal Chhotrai to go the jungles and to fight from there. The insurgents prevented the Sarbarkars to enter into any revenue deal with the British. The resistance to the British authority, first came from the Khonds of Banapur who ransacked the camps of the British officers. From Banapur, the fire spread to Khurda, Puri, Balakati, Gope, tiran, Bolgarh etc. The government tried to suppress this insurrections. Attempts were taken to capture Buxi Jagabandhu. Major E. Roughsedge, with the assistance of Lieutnant D. Ruddell, tried to capture Buxi and his followers who escaped from Baud by the help of the Raja of Dasapalla in September, 1818, with his faithful followers like Biswanath Harichandan, Adikanda Bidyadhara, Dinabandhu Santara, Gopal Chhotrai, Padmanava Chhotrai and others. 2.1.4. 16. Measures taken to capture Buxi As a precautionary measure, the British authorities threatened the Raja of Nayagarh with the warning that his estate would be confiscated, if he helped the insurgents. In the meanwhile, some followers of Buxi were captured. Rewards of Rs. 5,000 and Rs. 2,000 for capturing Buxi Jagabandhu and Krushnachandra Bhramarabara Rai respectively, were announced by the British authority but in vain. Lastly, by the suggestion of the Commissioner of Cuttack, it was proclaimed by the Governor-General-in-Council that an allowance of Rs. 200 per month would be given to Buxi, if he surrenders. Buxi responded to it by sending a representation through his adopted son to the government stating the foul ways by which he was dispossessed of his property, the whimsical rule of major Fletcher at Khurda, salt monopoly of the British government in causing widespread discontentment among the people of Khurda etc. but the government paid deaf ears to it. 2.1.4. 17. Creation of circumstances for Buxi's surrender In the meanwhile, two wives of Buxi and many of the followers of Buxi were captured. However, Buxi did not surrender. W. Blunt, the Commissioner of Cuttack recommended to pardon Buxi and his. staunch supporter Krushnachandra Bhramarabara Rai. Basing upon the report of Blunt, the Governor-General-in-Council ordered that if Buxi and his friend would surrender, they would be pardoned and their pension would be fixed at Rs. 100 and Rs. 50 respectively per month and they would live near Cuttack and could not go outside without the permission of the magistrate. Wilkinson, the magistrate of Khurda, communicated this to Buxi and his friend through the adopted son of the rebellious leader to surrender within two months with effect from 1 December, 1822. Though, the order was received by Buxi in January 1823, he did not agree to the proposal. For long two years, he maintained silence. His friend Krushnachandra deserted him. His followers were captured or surrendered with the hope to get government service. At last, Buxi decided to surrender. 2.1.4. 18. Negotiation between the British Government and Buxi Jagabandhu During this period, W. Blunt, the Commissioner of Cuttack, sent Waz Mohammed, the Sheristadar of the Office Superintendent of Tributary Mahals, to negotiate with Buxi. At Nayagarh, both of them talked and Buxi surrendered with his followers at Cuttack on 27 May, 1825. Buxi was pardoned along with his followers. His monthly allowance was fixed at Rs. 150. He lived, virtually as a prisoner at Cuttack. He prayed for the restoration of his former possessions and to allow him to reside at Rorang but the prayer was not granted by the Governor-General-in-Council. Buxi breathed his last on 24 January, 1829 at Cuttack 2.1.4. 19. Consequences of the Paik Rebellion The Paik rebellion of 1817 had far reaching consequences which are given bellow. 2.1.4. 20. Administrative changes in Odisha Accordingly, in administrative field, changes were made. Odias were employed in the government services and entrusted with responsible works. This facilitates the local people to come closer to the British authority through these employees. 2.1.4. 21. Changes in the judicial procedure Changes were also introduced in the field of judiciary. Since Persi was the court language, the Odias could not know a little of it and failed to understand the judicial procedure and verdict. Now, the judges were instructed to visit even the interior villages of a district accompanied by the Odia Amlas and receiving petitions from the people there and then, they redressed the grievances of the people. 2.1.4. 22. Reduction in the price of the salt The price of the salt was reduced and more salt was made available for the smooth purchase of the people. This measure of the British government pacified the common people of Odisha in general and the people of Khurda, in particular. 2.1.4. 23. Management of the Jagannath temple of Puri  When Raja Mukundadeva II died on 30 November 1817, his son Ramachandradeva III was allowed to move to Puri. He was allowed an annual pension of Rs. 24,000 and to take over the charge of the management of the Jagannath temple of Puri. By this arrangement, the British government won the mind and sentiment of the people of Odisha. 2.1.4. 24. Reduction in the revenue burdens of the local zamindars The British government reduced the revenue burdens of the local zamindars. The dealing with the properties was changed. In several cases, the government purchased the estates of the defaulters and restored them to the original proprietors. The Paiks, on the other hand, were dealt with scorn and contempt. They were forced to leave the profession of militial men of the king and to adopt cultivation and other works as means to earn livelihood. 2.1.4. 25. Reorganization of the British administrative structure in Odisha The British government took adequate step to reorganize the British administrative structure in Odisha. The commissioner was appointed and vested with special powers to implement various reformative measures. Board of Revenue, Board of trade, Provincial Court of Appeal, Circuit Courts, etc. all remained under his supervision. No military administration but amity and cooperation with the local bulk, became his motto to run the administration in Odisha smoothly. 2.1.5. Conclusion. Thus, the Paik rebellion of 1817 opened the eyes of the British government. A committee, consisting of two members, was appointed to enquire the causes and suggest remedies of the rebellion. Impey, the Magistrate of Cuttack and his successor Waiter Ewer with General Martindell looked into the factors regarding such rebellion. The economic factors, judicial maladies and mal-administration were prominent causes, as per their suggestions, that had prompted people to be rebellious. The Paik rebellion brought many changes in the administrative, judicial, economic and religious life of the people of Odisha. 2.1.6. Summary  The 19th century Odisha witnessed a number of resistance movements of the common people, landholders, Zamindars and Feudatory Chiefs against the British Raj. Among those resistance movements, four were very severe and posed great threat to the British rule in Odisha.  All those resistance movements occurred in Odisha due to a strong dislike for the new rule, the oppressive revenue system and high rent, threat to traditional privileges of vested landed-interests etc which had endangered the life and property of the people of Odisha.  With the change of authorities governing Odisha in 1803, the Raja entered into an engagement with the British agreeing to pay tribute.  There were signs of an improvement in relationship. But in 1804 troubles started concerning the Raja of Khurda and British apprehended a secret alliance between Khurda and Kanika. Even the Raja of Kujanga was expected to join this alliance against the British.  The Raja of Khurda had surrendered the Mahals of Lambai, Rahang and Puri to the Marathas in lieu of some military help he had received for his war against the Raja of Paralakhemundi. Mukundadeva-II, the Raja of Khurdha (1795-1817) welcomed the British after their conquest of Orisssa in 1803.  He hoped that the four Pargans (Rahang, Serain, Chaubiskud and Lembai) lost to the Marathas would be restored to him by the British. Since the king was a minor, his regent Jayakrisna Rajguru or Jayi Rajguru went to Cuttack to present his case for the restoration of the Parganas and a reduction of annual Peshkash.  They refused both the demands. Instead, they pressurised the king to execute an agreement on lines dictated by them. They wanted the king to dismiss Rajguru.  Jai Rajguru read the evil designs of the British. He made an alliance among the Chiefs of Khurdha, Kujanaga and Kanika states. The king of Khurdha made all preparations for confrontation with the British.  An attempt to negotiate through Captain Blunt with the Raja of Khurda proved futile on account of the intervention of Jayi Rajguru. A contingent of 250 cavalry soldiers and 900 Barkandazes from Khurda entered into Lembai, Rahang and Puri.  On hearing this news Captain Hickland, who was stationed at Pipili marched with an army of 120 Sepoys and defeated the Raja's force on 22 November 1804.  Harcourt also proceeded from Cuttack against the Raja of Khurda. The fort of the Raja was besieged by Capt. Storey. Harcourt engaged Shaikh Waz Muhmmad, a native of Cuttack to reduce the fort of Banpur and through him captured the Raja's brothers and son. Subsequently, the Raja was also captured on 3 January 1805 and taken to Cuttack.  After subduing Khurda, Harcourt despatched a small contingent towards Nayagarh to capture Antaji and Kannoji. Two Maratha agents of Nagpur through whom the Raja of Khurda sought help and himself proceeded towards Kujang and Kanika via Gop.  As a result of which the British captured the fort of Khurdha in December 1804. The fugitive king was arrested by the treachery of one Fateh Muhammad in January 1805.  The Raja of Kanika, Balabhadra Bhanja was made a prisoner. The Raja of Kujang was replaced by his elder brother.  The regent of the king of Khurda, Jayakrisna Rajguru or Jayi Rajguru was hanged. Khurdha was confiscated and brought under the direct (khas) management of the British.  The Raja was given an allowance for the administration of Jagannath temple. His headquarters was fixed at Puri. He retained the title of Maharaja without any kingdom.  Thus, resistance movement of Khurda was a significant event in the history of modern Odisha.  The Paik rebellion of 1817 was one of the significant event in the history of modern Odisha.  There were many causes which led to the outbreak of the Paik Rebellion of 1817.  The exploitative policies of the British administration which became increasingly intolerable for the people of Odisha.  The faulty revenue policy of the British government adversely affected the local zamindars and the royats. The British salt monopoly was another cause of the rebellion.   The introduction of new currency- system of the British authority in Odisha was another factor for the Paik rebellion.  The then political condition of Khurda, ma