Odisha History PDF

ANCIENT HISTORY OF ODISHA  SOURCES OF ANCIENT HISTORY OF ODISHA: The Mahabharata makes the earliest reference to Kalinga and Odra. The Jaina literature contain descrip ons of Kalinga and Utkala. The Avasyaka Niryuk reveals that Aranatha, the eighteenth Jaina Tirthankara...

ANCIENT HISTORY OF ODISHA  SOURCES OF ANCIENT HISTORY OF ODISHA: The Mahabharata makes the earliest reference to Kalinga and Odra. The Jaina literature contain descrip ons of Kalinga and Utkala. The Avasyaka Niryuk reveals that Aranatha, the eighteenth Jaina Tirthankara had achieved his rst goal in the city of Rayapura which was said to be a capital city of Kalinga. Further, it states that how Mahavira, while travelling in Tosali was tortured by the local people who took him to be a thief and he was rescued by the mely interference of the Tosali-Kshatriyas. It also refers to the city of Dantapura. The Jaina Harivamsa gives a genealogy of the Chedis describing Abhichandra as the founder of that dynasty in Kosala region. fi ti ti ti  The most valuable of the foreign accounts is that of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited Odisha in 638-39 AD. Coins in Odisha can be grouped as punch-marked coins, the Puri-Kushana coins, Gupta gold coins, Nala and Sarbhapuriya coins, Srinanda, Kalachuri and Nagas, the Ganga fanams and probable Gajapa Pagoda. Puri-Kushana coins were in circula on in Odisha for around the rst three centuries of Chris an era. The discovery of Asokan rock art at Dhauli and his edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada threw signi cant light on Kalingan history of third century B.C. Jaugada was another for ed city that served the purpose of Asoka’s administra on. fi ti fi ti ti ti fi ti  Ratnagiri brought to lime light the imposing Buddhist monasteries and stupas with famous Nagabandha Two other Buddhist sites at Udayagiri and Lalitgiri near Ratnagiri project the remains of Buddhist and Hindu religion. Lalitgiri is a famous site that contains Buddhist stupas, monasteries, images of Buddha, three Buddhist relics and images of Brahmanic divini es. Ratnagiri, Udayagiri and Lalitgiri also yielded archaeological remains rela ng to Brahmanic religion, po ery, terraco a plaques, iron implements, gurines of animals and mother goddess. These three sites are also known as the 'Diamond Triangle' of Odishan history and archaeology. tt tt ti fi ti  All the three sites contained large number of material remains like po ery, terraco a plaques, iron implements, ar cles of household, gurines of mother goddesses and animals which gives an idea of the dominance of Buddhism in that region. The temple-complex at Ranipur Jhanal in Bolangir contains several temples. The most important of them are the 64-Yogini temple and Somesvara Siva temple. The site developed around 7th-8th century A.D. The material remains through excava ons at Boudh, Maraguda( also known as Jonk) valley, Sonepur, Amathgarh, Kharligarh, Manikgarh etc. have thrown a good deal of light on the history of Western Odisha. fi tt tt ti ti  The southern and the south-western parts of Odisha have projected a few specimens of Pidha or Bhadra deulas (temples). The Gokarnesvara group on Mahendra mountain in the Gajapati district and the Nilakantthesvara group on the Jagamunda hill in Rayagada district are the best examples Of this kind. The existence of Sundara Mahadeva on the bank of river Rusikulya has given opportunity to study the origin of this cult that developed during Purusottamadeva of Gajapati dynasty.  The typical Odishan style, the Sikhara or rekha (curvilinear) also known as Kalingan style of architecture developed in 6th_7th century A.D. in Bhubaneswar. The Laxmanesvara, Bharatesvara and Satrughnesvara group of temples marked the early phase of temple architecture in Odisha. The Parsuramesvara group is a transi on to the ornate Muktesvara which later on developed in Lingaraja, Jagannatha and Konarka. The Lingaraj, Jagannath, and Konarka marked the perfec on of Kalingan style of architecture. The Black Pagoda marked the perfect stage of temple architecture as well as iconography in Odisha in comparison to the other temples of Odisha. These temples along with other temples like Ganesh temple at Panchama, Biranchi-Narayan temple at Palia, Samalesvari temple at Sambalpur etc throw light on Saivism, Vaishnavaism, Sak sm, Ganapatya Cult, Sun worship etc. Thus, the material remains have been adequately used for the reconstruc on of the history of ancient Odisha. ti ti ti ti  These temples along with other temples like Ganesh temple at Panchama, Biranchi- Narayan temple at Palia, Samalesvari temple at Sambalpur etc throw light on Saivism, Vaishnavaism, Sak sm, Ganapatya Cult, Sun worship etc. Thus, the material remains have been adequately used for the reconstruc on of the history of ancient Odisha. ti ti  HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY: Kalinga, Utkala, Odra, Tosali , Kangoda and Kosala The fertile coastal plains stretching from the mouth of the river Ganges up to Godavari, with mountains and forests, gave a natural boundary to Kalinga. During the second century B.C. the present state of Odisha was certainly known as Kalinga as is evident by the fact that in the Hatigumpha Inscription at Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar.  Kharavela is described as Kalingadhipati. During his reign, Kalinga expanded into an empire, the extent of which is variously determined by scholars.  Utkala appears in the Mahabharata in association with the countries of Odras, Mekala, Kalinga,Darsana and Andhras. The present name of Odisha has been derived from the name Odra or Udra or Odraka. It appears as Urshin or Urs n in the accounts of the Muslim geographers of the ninth and tenth century A.D. fi  Odra has also found mention in the Manusamhita where it is associated with the Paundrakas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Palhavas, Chinas, Kiratas, Daradas and Khasas. Tosala or Tosali formed an important political unit in ancient Odisha. It is mentioned in the 'Parisistha' of Atharva Veda along with Kosala and the Puranas have associated the people of this territory with Kotalas, Nisadas, Traipuras, Tumuras, Valdisas etc. It was during the Sailodbhava dynasty, Kongoda came into eminence. Kongoda may be explained as the “Land of Honey” as Kongu in Tamil means honey.  Kalinga war The Kalinga War of 261 B.C. eight years a er the corona on of Asoka A detailed account of this war is known from Rock Edict XIII found at Shahbazgarh in Pakistan. Kainga was under the suzerainty of Magadha ll Dhana Nanda. Kalinga probably slipped away from the fold of Magadhan imperialism when Kau lya and Chandragupta Maurya revolted against the Nandas around 322-321 B.C. Chandragupta Maurya had never a empted to annex Kalinga during his life me. Bindusara had also not fought with the people of Kalinga. So, it was a historic necessity on the part of Asoka to conquer Kalinga. ti ti ft ti tt ti  Causes of Kalinga war Powerful neighbour The Magadhan Empire during Asoka had surrounded Kalinga in the north, west and south. Tile existence of Kalinga as a powerful neighbour on the border of Magadha was de nitely a threat to the power and potentiality of the latter. Thus, Kalinga posed a menace to the grand Magadhan empire. Before Kalinga rose to that extent, Asoka wanted to defeat and capture it. fi  Imperialistic design of Ashoka Asoka's invasion of Kalinga in 261 B.C. appears to have been actuated by his imperialis c designs. By the me of Asoka's accession the Magadhan Empire had spread over most parts of India. From the Himalayas in the north to Mysore in the sourth and from the Kabul valley in the north-west to Bengal in the east, the whole territory was under the sovereignty of Ashoka. An independent kingdom of Kalinga, not very far from the centre of gravity of the Magadhan empire, was intolerable for a warlike- king like Chandasoka or Black Asoka. ti ti Economic prosperity of Kalinga There were certain economic factors which had created rivalry between Kalinga and Magadha. Kalinga monopolised the oversea trade in the Indian ocean and gained vast wealth. Her wealth also increased from inland trade. It may also be pointed out that the Mauryas by that time had not built up a naval power and the Navadhyaksha (Superintendent of Shiping) mentioned by Kautilya in his Arthasastra was in charge of policing the rivers, lakes and seashores rather than building ships for maritime trades. Legend of Karuvaki According to this, Asoka invaded Kalinga being infatuated by the beauty of Karuvaki, the daughter of a sherman and the ancee of the crown prince of Kalinga. from the Queen’s Edict, it is known that Asoka had a queen named Karuvaki who was the mother of Tivara, a son of Ashoka. fi fi  The much an cipated Kalinga War took place in 261 B.C. which is known from Meghasthenes account that Magadhan army during Chandragupta Maurya, consisted of 6,00,000 men. The war took place on the bank of the river Daya near Dhauli. The Rock Edict XIII men ons the horror of the Kalinga war. ti ti  With the victory of Asoka in the Kalinga war, Kalinga was annexed to Magadhan empire and it constituted its fth province. The other four provinces of the empire were Prachya, Uttarapatha, Avanti and Dakshinapatha having their capitals at Magadha, Takshasila, Ujjaini and Suvarnagiri respectively. Tosali was the capital of Kalinga and the centre of political activities for the Mauryan administration in Kalinga. Two separate Kalinga edicts of Asoka found at Dhauli and Jaugarh enumerate the pattern of Mauryan administration for the province of kalinga. fi  The horror of the Kalinga war changed the mind of Asoka. In Rock Edict XIII, Asoka expresses- "In conquering indeed an unconquered country (Kalinga), the slaying, death, depor ng that occur there are considered extremely painful and serious by the Devanampiya" This war brought about a great transforma on in the heart of Asoka. He was changed from Chandasoka to Dharmasoka with a vow to conquer mankind by conquering the heart of the people and not-to win over them by war. ti ti  A er Kalinga War, he was converted to Buddhism by Upagupta, a Buddhist monk or Nigrodha, the seven year old son of Asoka's elder brother Sumana whom he had killed or Mogalipu a ssa, the president of the Third Buddhist Council. Whatever the fact might be, Asoka accepted Buddhism a er the Kalinga war. ft tt ti ft  The transformation of Asoka helped in the spread of Buddhism. Buddhism, which was con ned to the middle of the Gangetic Valley in Pre- Asokan period, suddenly became an all-India religion within a decade of his conversion. Not only in India, Buddhism also spread to different parts of the world. He sent Mahendra and Sanghamitra, his son and daughter respectively to Ceylon, Sana and Uttara to Suvarnabhumi (Burma) and further, he maintained friendly relation with Kings of Greece, Syria, Egypt, Macedonia and Cryne by sending missions of peace. Thus, Asoka, being converted to Buddhism after the Kalinga War, was instrumental for the spread of Buddhism from Greece to Burma and from the Himalayas to the Ceylon. fi  Asoka adopted a paternalistic attitude towards his subjects after the Kalinga War. In separate Kalinga Edicts (Dhauli and Jaugad) Asoka expresses himself as such. “All men are my children and just as I desire for my children that they should obtain welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, the same I do desire for all men...”  An important aspect of the Kalinga War was that it led to the growth of art, architecture and literature unprecedented in the land. Engravement in the edicts, erection of stupas etc. made the Mauryan art unique in the annals of ancient Indian history. The Pali language which Asoka used in his edicts brought cultural uni cation of India popular among his subjects. fi  Asoka appointed a well organised bureaucracy to assist the viceroy of Kalinga. The important of cers during Asoka's time were the Mahamatras, Rajukas, Yuktas, Vachabhumikas, Antamahamatras, Ithijakamahamatras, Dharma Mahamatras etc. Antamahamatras were the ministers of the border provinces and the Mahamatras of Tosali and Samapa probably belonged to this cateogry. For Kalinga, Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed by Asoka personally. They were employed to look after the spiritual and moral upliftment of people of this land. As the Rajukas were in charge of welfare of the Janapadas and were competent enough with absolute power in matters of reward and punishment, they might have played a dominant role in the administration of Kalinga. fi  THE MAHAMEGHAVAHANAS: Hatigumpha inscription at Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar describes in details about the career and achievement of Kharavela, the mighty ruler of Mahameghvahana family. The Hatigumpha inscription also mentions that Kharavela belonged to the Mahameghavahana family of the Chedi clan. As young prince he acquired knowledge in different branches of learning, which were essential for discharging royal duty, such as writing or correspondence (Lekha), nance, currency (Rupa), arithmetic (Ganana) and law (Vldhl and Vyvahara). As a prince, Kharavela underwent training in the art of warfare (Dhanuryidya), music and dance (Gandharva vidya) and religion. fi  In the fteenth year he became the crown prince and started probation in the practical eld of administration. At the age of twenty four, he was crowned king by assuming the title Kalingadhipati and gave his subjects a sound administration. In hisrst regnal year, he involved himself in the renovation work by repairing the gates and buildings of his capital Kalinganagara. Having made adequate preparation, he undertook expedition against the powerful Satavahan king, Satakarni-I in the second year. In the fourth regnal year, Kharavela marched towards the territory of the Rathikas and Bhojakas and defeated them. fi fi fi  In 5 year, Kharavela extended the canal from the Tansulia road up to Kalinganagari. In the sixth year of his reign, Kharavela remi ed taxes. In the seventh year of his rule, Kharavela a ained fatherhood. In the eighth year of his reign, Kharavela led an expedi on to the north. In the ninth year of his rule, he built the 'Great Victory Palace. He built 117 (1700 ? not possible) caves at Kumari Parvata (Udayagiri) for Jaina monks, monks of other religion, sheers and Arhats. tt tt ti  THE BHAUMAKARAS: In the rst, half, of the eighth century A. D. a dynasty called Bhauma or Kar (also known as Bhaumakara) established its rule over the coastal belt of Orissa. The capital of this dynasty, called Guhadevapataka or Guhesvarapataka was situated near modern Jajpur town of the Jajpur district. The main literary source for construc ng the history of the Bhauma-Karas are the Vishnu Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Harivamsa Purana, Dathavamsa, Gandavyuha and Hudud- al- Alam etc. Kshemankaradeva was the founder of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty in Odisha. A er Subhakaradeva V, the last male ruler of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty, four female rulers like Gauri Mahadevi, Dandi Mahadevi, Vakula Mahadevi, Dharma Mahadevi occupied the Bhauma throne one a er another. The Bhauma-Karas gave a stable administra on to the people of this land. The kings used high sounding tles like 'Paramabha araka', 'Maharajadhiraja', 'Paramesvara etc. The Bhauma-Kara kings were the patrons of Buddhism. ft fi ti ft tt ti ti  THE SOMAVAMSIS: The Somavamsis, other wise known as Panduvamsis, ruled over Odisha from the middle of the ninth century A.D. to the early part of the twelfth century A.D. For the rst time Kalinga, Utkala, Kongoda and Kosala were uni ed and brought under one political authority. we get some information from the inscriptions like Banda Copper plates of Tivaradeva, Adhavara plates of Mahanannararaja Banda plates of Mahasivagupta etc Janmejaya I was a powerful ruler of the Somavamsi dynasty who assumed high sounding titles like' Paramesvara', 'Paramabhattaraka,' 'Trikalingadhipati' etc. Yayati II was a patron of Brahmanism. Tradition credits him of inviting 10,000 Brahmins from Kanyakubja (Kanauj) to perform Dasasvamedha sacri ce at Jajpur. fi fi fi  With the accession of Janmejaya II, the son of Udyotakesari, disintegration of the Somavamsi dynasty started. Karnadeva was the last known ruler of the Somavamsi dynasty who was the brother of Puranjaya. Janmejaya I, thus, became the rst ruler of the Somavamsi dynasty of Kosala fi  The Somavamsi rulers were ardent Saivites. They helped the growth and spread of Saivism by the construc on of Siva temples and o er of liberal land grants to the Saiva temples, priests and asce cs. They also tolerated other sects such as Jainism, Vaishnavism and Sak sm. Out of the numerous temples, built by the Somavamsis four are most magni cent Lingaraj, Brahmeswar, Mukteswar and Rajarani (all in Bhubaneswar). ti fi ti ff ti  There was a phenomenal development in the eld of Sanskrit learning and literature during the Somavamsi period. The inscrip ons of the period speak of the pro ciency of the scholars in Vedas, Vedanga, Sm s, Puranas, medical sciences, Astrologgy, Arthasastra, Grammar, Poetry, History, Poli cal Science and Logic. The land grants to the learned Brahmanas facilitated the study of Sanskri c literature. Thus, the Somavamsi rule undoubtedly ushered a new era in the history of medieval Odisha. ti ti ti ti ti fi fi  Sadharana, the chief minister of Janmejava I was well-versed in Veda, Vedanga, Vidya, Siksa, Kalpa, I has, Smri and Arthasastra. Purusho am Bha a wrote a eulogy on King Udyota Keshari. Some of the Somavamsi kings themselves were scholars. The Somavamsi inscrip ons use some typical Odia words such as Khamba, Punya and Machha. This period was undoubtedly a signi cant phase in the forma on of Odia language. tt tt ti ti fi ti ti  THE GANGA: The Draksaram temple inscrip on, Kenduli plate, Korni copper plate, Nagari plate, Kendupatana plate, Jagannath temple inscrip on,etc. form the main inscrip onal scources of the imperial Gangas. Among literary works, the Madala Panji, Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi, Ramacharita and Kalinga uparani etc. which throw considerable light on the career and achievements of the Ganga kings. Chodagangadeva master of a vast kingdom stretching from the river Ganges in the north to that of Godavari in the south. Though Kalinganagara was the capital of his empire, but he made Sarangagarah another poli cal head-quarter of the empire. ti tt ti ti ti  He also built several strong forts at Jajpur Kataka, Amarava Kataka (near Chha a) Choudwar Kataka, Sarangagarh Kataka etc. In order to give stabilisa on and consolida on to the vast empire, Chodagangadeva introduced a well organised administra on. His construc on of the temple of Jagannath at Puri and the endeavour to bring all religious faiths into the fold of a single cult. i.e. the Jagannath cult was a landmark in the religious history of Odisha. The Allalanatha temple inscrip on of Kanchipuram shows that Anangabhimadeva III transferred his capital from Kalinganagar to Abhinava Varanasi Kataka (Cu ack) on the bank of river Mahanadi. ti ti tt ti ti ti ti ti  The Allalanatha temple inscrip on of Kanchipuram shows that Anangabhimadeva III transferred his capital from Kalinganagar to Abhinava Varanasi Kataka (Cu ack) on the bank of river Mahanadi. The outstanding Sun temple at Konarka bears the tes mony in the eld of art, architecture and sculpture. He was a great patron of Sanskrit literature. Vidyadhara, his court poet composed his famous Alankara work Ekavali which describes the achievements of Narasimhadeva I. Bhanudeva IV, the last Ganga king, ascended the throne a er the death of Narasimhadeva IV in 1414 ll 1435 A.D. tt ti ti ti ft fi THE GANGA ADMINISTRATION The Ganga kings were assisted by several o cials like Mantri, Purohita, Yuvaraja, Sandhivigrahika, Senapa , Dauvarika etc. For the administra ve convenience the Gangas divided the empire into a number of Mahamandalas (greater provinces). The Ganga emperors maintained their rule over an extensive territory with the help of a powerful army. ti ti ffi  The army men could be recruited from all the four varnas - Brahmana, Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra. The army consisted of three wings elephantry, cavalry and infantry. During the Ganga period the revenue system was sound. A variety of taxes like bheta, Voda, Paika, Ohour, Paridarsana etc. were being collected as is gleaned from the Ganga inscrip ons. One-sixth of the produc on of the land was collected as the land revenue. Besides land revenue other sources of income for the state were du es on exports, imports and forest products and nes, court fees, salt tax etc. ti fi ti ti  Cultural signi cance of the Ganga rule During the Ganga period the tradi onal Varna system(Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra) was prevailed. The Brahmanas enjoyed the highest status and maximum privileges in the society during this period. Many of them enjoyed land grants (Agraharas) as scholars and priests. During this period it is found that a number of Brahmanas entered into non- religious professions like military service, other categories of government service, and trade fi ti  During the Ganga period the tradi onal Varna system (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra) was prevailed. The Brahmanas enjoyed the highest status and maximum privileges in the society during this period. Many of them enjoyed land grants (Agraharas) as scholars and priests. During this period it is found that a number of Brahmanas entered into non-religious professions like military service, other categories of government service, and trade. ti  Chandrikadevi, the daughter of Anangabhimadeva III was accomplished in music and dance. She built the temple of Ananta Vasudeva in Bhubaneswar. Sivarani, a lady of Ganga lineage was called the Kaliyuga Saraswati (Goddess of Learning in Kali Age). Devadasis was also prevailing during this time  The early Ganga rulers were devout Saivites. But a er capturing Odisha, the Gangas accepted Vaishnavism. They showed great devo on to Purusho am-Jagannath who was regarded as a manifesta on of Vishnu. Chodagangadeva built the present gigan c temple of Lord Jagannath. Anangabhimadeva-III declared that he ruled the empire as the Routa or deputy of Lord Jagannath. Puri with Lord Jagannath as the presiding deity became a great centre of Vaishnavism during the Ganga period. The great Bhak saints like Ramanuja, Narahari Tirtha and Jagannath Tirtha came to Odisha from outside during this period. The recital of Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (the Vaishnava poet of this period) was introduced into the daily rituals of the Jagannath temple. ft ti ti ti tt ti  The Ganga rulers were secular in nature. Inspite of allegiance to Lord Jagannath, the state deity, the Gangas also patronized the worship of other dei es - Siva, Parva and Sun-God. Chodagangadeva donated a village for the maintenance of a perpetual lamp in the Lingaraj temple of Bhubaneswar. Parva temple was built inside the precinct of the Lingaraj temple during the Ganga rule. ti ti ti  Narasihmhadeva-I built the temple for Sun-God at Konark. The Ganga rulers seem to have a empted a harmony between Saivism and Vaishnavism. The transforma on of Siva of the Lingaraj temple into the conjoint deity, Harihar (Vishnu as well as Siva), and the construc on of the Vishnu temple of Ananta Vasudeva by a Ganga princess named Chandrika devi in the midst of the Siva temples indicate a empts at such a synthesis of Hari-Hara cult. ti tt tt ti  copper plate grants and stone inscrip ons show the high water mark of Sanskrit literature in Odisha during the Ganga era. During this era there were a number of intellectual luminaries in Odisha. Pandit Vidyadhar ( Ekavali ), Jayadeva (Gita Govinda), Shridhar Acharya and Nilambar Acharya (the Smri writers), Viswanath Kaviraj (Sahitya Darpan), and Satyananda (the astronomer who wrote Surya Siddhanta) belong to Ganga period. ti ti  The Natamandapas (Dancing Halls) of the temples were the places where the Devadasis (the maidens dedicated to the temples) were performing dances to the tune of composi ons and musical instruments. The temple of Jagannath at Puri and the Sun Temple of Konark (which were built by the Gangas) have Natamandapas. Anangabhimadeva-III added Natamandapa to the temple of Lingaraj in Bhubaneswar. ti  The engraving of boats in the Bhoga Mandapa of the Jagannath temple of Puri, a panel show in the transportation of elephants (preserved in the Odisha State Museum) and, the reference to a township, inhabited by the artisans and traders in the Nagari plate of Anangabhimadeva-1I1, etc. are the evidence of Odisha's overseas trade an commerce during the Ganga period. Clothes, diamonds and elephants were exported from Odisha to outside countries.  Temple architecture Out of the three styles of temple architecture found in India like Nagara, Dravida and Vesara, Odisha has followed the Nagara with a dis nc ve regional bias of its own known as ‘Kalinga'. An inscrip on in Amritesvara temple at Holal (Karnataka) dated 1235 A.D. men ons the names of all the four categories like Nagara, Dravida,Vesara and Kalinga. Texts on temple architecture: Among such texts Bhuvana Pradipa, Bhuvanapravesa, Silpasastra, Silpasarini, Silpaprakasa, Silparatna Kosa and Silpi pothi etc are prominent. ti ti ti ti  The history of temple building in Odisha is said to have begun with Laxamanesvara, Bharatesvara and Satrughnesvara group of temples at Bhubaneswar in 6th century A.D. and culminated with the Sun temple of Konarka in 13th century AD. The Parsurameswara temple assigned to 7th century AD. is the best preserved specimen among the early group of temples. It consists of both Deula and Jagamohana.  Temples of the 9th-lOth century temples evolved with more advanced architectural features like the harmonious propor on of pagas on the Bada and the Gandi. The pyramidal form of the Jagamohana emerged in the period. The Rajarani temple (l1th century AD.) represents a unique experiment in temple architecture. Its Sikhara has been clustered by miniature repe on of the Sikhara (called anga-Sikhara) around the Gandi in the Khajuraho Style. ti ti ti  The Lingaraja is the lo iest, grandest and most majes c temple of 11th century AD. It is the perfect specimen, a landmark, among rekha temples of the en re country with fully developed Vimana, Jagamohana, Natamandira and Bhogamandapa. ft ti ti  The temple architecture has a ained its most advanced form in the 13th century AD. with the construc on of the Sun temple at Konark. It is rightly observed “Its advancement is marked by the blending of sculpture with architectural magni cance, chariotcar concep on, completely detached natamandira and provision of a high basement for the sanctum and Jagamohana. The temple is conceived as the mythical chariot of the Sun god with twenty-four wheels and seven richly caparisoned horses. ti fi tt ti  Society and Economy during the Bhaumakara, Somavamsis and the Ganga period Society of Bhaumakara: Brahmanical socio-religious order. They tried to enforce the Varnashrama, i.e., division of society into four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) Varnashrama urder, they a ached great importance to the Brahmanas, the highest Varna many inscriptions of the Bhauma-Karas that Brahmins belonging to several gotras like Bharadwaja, Kausika, Visvamitra, Sandilya, Kashyapa, Atreya, etc. settled in Odisha. In the traditional class structure, the Sudras occupied the lowest position. Sanskrit language was used in the inscriptions and literature of the Bhaumakara period. The Buddhist manuscript, Gandavyuha was written in Sanskrit. tt  The Somavamsis had adopted the Varnashrama dharma i.e., tradi onal division of the society into four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra), and gave the highest status to the Brahmanas. On the other hand the tradi onal Varna system prevailed during the Ganga period. The economy of the Somavamsi and the Ganga rulers was based upon various types of revenue collected from land, agriculture, industry, products, trade and commerce etc. Land revenue was the major source of income for the Somavamsi and Ganga government. One-sixth of the produc on of the land was collected as the land revenue. ti ti ti  The Cult of Jagannath- Origin, Development and Impact on Odishan Society The cult of Jagannath embodies universal brotherhood, combining elements of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and the na ve religious prac ces of the tribal people. The presiding dei es of the temple, Jagannath, his elder brother Balabhadra and younger sister Subhadra, portrayed in black, white and yellow, represent the three major races of humanity according to noted religious and social commentators. The cult of Jagannath is stated to be of tribal origin. The three tribal dei es like Jaleri Penu, Tana Penu and Murani Penu, worshipped by the Khonds Odisha are regarded as Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra respec vely. Many scholars trace the Vedic origin of God Jagannath. The 3rd verse of the 155 Sukta in the 10th Mandala of Rig Veda. ti ti ti ti ti  Owing to the popularity of Jainism in Odisha, Balabhadra, Subhadra and Jagannath have been regarded as the three cardinal principles of Jainism like Samyak Jnana, Samyak Charitra and Samyak Drish by N. K. Das. The concept of Kalpa tree in Jainism is regarded as the Kalpavata inside the sacred complex of God Jagannath temple at Puri. The prevalence of Shak sm at Puri is borne out by the worship of Vimala inside the temple, and the existence of Saptamatruka image. The 'Utkal Khanda' of Skanda Purana describes Subhadra as the Shak of Jagannath. ti ti ti  The Purusho ama Mahatmya of Skanda Purana (a work of 13th century A.D.) and of Vishnurahasya (a work of 16th century A.D.) referred to the female wooden image between Jagannath and Balabhadra as Lakshmi. The Vaishnavite origin of the Jagannath cult is traced by some scholars Puruso ama Mahatmya projects God Jagannath as Narayana, Krishna- Vasudeva, Buddha etc. Poet Jayadeva, as stated earlier, had popularised Vaisnavism in Odisha thro his immortal crea on Gita Govinda. Thus, Jagannath cult is an amalgam of diverse religious cults like tribal religion, Brahmanical religion, Buddhism, Saivism, Shak sm, Tantricism and Vaishnavism. tt tt ti ti Odisha History 1803-1948  mal-administra on of the Maratha rulers-> Disappointed Odisha people In 1803 Odisha was occupied by the Bri sh causes were responsible for the Bri sh occupa on of Odisha Weakness of the Maratha rulers-> internal con ict among the Bhonsles of Nagpur a er the death of Januji Oppression of the landlords regional landlords became irresponsible and oppressive Establishment of Bri sh factories-> With the grant of Dewan, of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha to the East India Company in 1765, Bri sh built up their factories at Hariharpur, Pipli and Balasore & Bri shers got monopoly over the manufacturing of salt in Odisha. ti ti ft ti ti fl ti ti ti  Strategic importance of Odisha-> Chauth was given to the Maratha governors for the passage of Bri sh army from Calcu a to Madras through Odisha The rman issued to the Bri sh East India Company on 12 August, 1765, was put into prac ce on 12 November, 1766 fi ti ti ti tt  Bri sh Administra on of Odisha Odisha was divided into three administra ve units under Bri sh administra on.' 'Province of Cu ack' was under Bengal Presidency, Ganjam and Koraput were under Madras Presidency and Sambalpur was under Central Provinces. Further 'Province of Cu ack' was divided into two divisions viz., Northern and Southern with head quarters at Balasore and Jagannath (Puri) respec vely in 1804. Subsequently for administra ve reasons, head quarter at Puri was shi ed to Cu ack in 1816. Cu ack also became the seat of the Commissioner, the Board of Revenue and the Provincial Appeal Court in 1818. ti tt ti tt tt ti ti ti ti ft ti tt  Land Revenue Se lement Zamindari system: was not introduced in en rety in Odisha-> Darpan, Sukinda, Madhupur, Aul, Kanika, Kujang, Harishpur, Marichpur, Bishnupur, Dampara, Pa a, Kalkalla, Chhedra and Parikud English introduced temporary se lements in most areas and extended Permanent Se lement to some zamindaries In 1805 the Government promised that Permanent Se lement would be introduced in the temporarily se led areas at the end of eleven years' experimental short term se lements. This long term se lement (30 years) was made on the basis of careful eld survey and inves ga on into the individual rights of each landholder and under-tenant fi tt tt tt ti ti ti tt tt tt ti tt Ryotwari system: 'Ganjam plains' of Chhatrapur, Berhampur and Ghumsar in early part of the 19 century th The rent was xed at half of net produc on on the basis of assessment. The ryot (peasant-cul vator) felt secured about his possession. given a document called 'Pa a' fi ti tt ti  Mahalwari system introduced in Sambalpur district was divided into two tracts-Khalsa and Zamindari, Whereas the former refers to such land held by village headmen directly from government, the la er was a feudal organiza on headed by Zamindars There was some tax-free land called Bhogra, Devo ara or Brahmo ara. Bhogra was enjoyed by those Zamindars, Gaun as etc. and some classes of village servants like Jhankar (village priest) Chaukidar (watchman) and Nariha (water-carrier) etc. Brahmo ara and Devo ara were land granted to Brahmins and religious ins tu ons respec vely. tt ti ti tt ti tt ti ti tt tt  Administra on of jus ce One judge was appointed to look a er the administra on of jus ce. The same judge also acted as a magistrate. The conquered territories were divided into several thanas under the control of the darogahs. ti ti ft ti ti  Economic Development- Agriculture and Industry, Trade and Commerce Bri sh Government in Odisha ini ated the rst se lement in 1804. introduced commercial agriculture in Odisha-> In addi on to rice, sugar-cane was one of the principal food crops-> only at local level According to the Regula on of 1804, the manufacture of salt became the monopoly of the Company's Government. In 1891 the Government made an a empt to manufacture salt on a monopoly basis by establishing salt factory at Tua and Gurubai on the Chilika lake (in Puri district). The Tua and Gurubai factories were closed in 1902. As early as 1633, the Bri sh established a trade centre at Hariharpur (present Jagatsingpur district), one of their rst se lements in India. ti ti ti ti fi tt tt fi tt ti  Their subsequent trade establishment at Baleshwar (or Balasore) on river Burhabalanga and at Pipili developed into ourishing centers of trade as well as of power. fl  Resistance Movements in the 19th century The 19th century Odisha witnessed a number of resistance movements of the common people, landholders, Zamindars and Feudatory Chiefs against the Bri sh Raj. Among those resistance movements, four were very severe and posed great threat to the Bri sh rule in Odisha. ti ti  The Raja of Khurda had surrendered the Mahals of Lambai, Rahang and Puri to the Marathas in lieu of some military help he had received for his war against the Raja of Paralakhemundi. Mukundadeva-II, the Raja of Khurdha (1795-1817) welcomed the Bri sh a er their conquest of Orisssa in 1803. He hoped that the four Pargans (Rahang, Serain, Chaubiskud and Lembai) lost to the Marathas would be restored to him by the Bri sh. Jayi Rajguru representa ve of Minor raja presented the concerned demand, but Bri shers denied to accept the demand ti ft ti ti ti  Jai Rajguru made an alliance among the Chiefs of Khurdha, Kujanaga and Kanika states. Captain Hickland, who was sta oned at Pipili defeated the Raja's force on 22 November 1804. Harcourt captured the Raja's brothers and son. Subsequently, the Raja was also captured on 3 January 1805 and taken to Cu ack. Bri sh captured the fort of Khurdha in December 1804 The Raja of Kanika, Balabhadra Bhanja was made a prisoner. Jayi Rajguru was hanged-> Khurdha was con scated and brought under the direct (khas) management of the Bri sh. ti ti ti fi tt  The Raja was given an allowance for the administra on of Jagannath temple. His headquarters was xed at Puri. He retained the tle of Maharaja without any kingdom. Paik Rebellion of 1817 Bri sh salt monopoly was another cause of the rebellion introduc on of a new currency instead Kaudi Displeasure of Buxi Jagabandhu-> immediate cause On 29 March, 1817, began the Paik rebellion At Nayagarh, Buxi surrendered with his followers at Cu ack on 27 May, 1825 His monthly allowance was xed at Rs. 150. He lived, virtually as a prisoner at Cu ack. tt ti ti ti fi fi ti tt  Paik rebellion of 1817 -> consequences Odias were employed in the government services and entrusted with responsible works judges were instructed to visit even the interior villages of a district accompanied by the Odia Amlas and receiving pe ons from the people there and then, they redressed the grievances of the people The commissioner was appointed and vested with special powers to implement various reforma ve measures. Board of Revenue, Board of trade, Provincial Court of Appeal, Circuit Courts, etc. all remained under his supervision. ti ti ti  Odisha during the Revolt of 1857: Role of Surendra Sai Narayan Singh was placed on the throne of Sambalpur a er Mohan Kumari, Surendra Sai revolted He was captured with his brother Udanta and uncle Balararna and they were sent to the Hazaribagh jail. Sambalpur was annexed to the Bri sh territory in 1849 with the implementa on of the „Doctrine of Lapse‟. Surendra popularized him among the people including the tribals such as Gonds and Binjhals He came to eminence in 1828 when he challenged the claim of Rani Mohan Kumari to the throne of Sambalpur ti ti ft  When the sepoys of the Great Revolt of 1857 reached Hazaribag, they broke the two jails of Hazaribag open and liberated many prisoners in August 1857. Among the prisoners Surendra Sai and his brother Udanta were released from the jail and ed away towards Sambalpur which created poli cal storm in Sambalpur. Surendra Sai declared open revolt against the Bri sh authority on 1 November, 1857 16 May, 1862, Surendra Sai with his 40 followers, surrendered before Major Impey On 28 February, 1884, Surendra Sai died in the cell of Asirgarh jal. fl ti ti  Tribal Development The Ghumsur rebellion under the leadership of Dora Bisoi and Chakra Bisoi, Keonjhar rebellion under the leadership of Ratna Naik and Dharanidhar Naik and the Munda uprising under the leadership of Birsa Munda are some of the important tribal uprisings of Odisha against the Bri sh authority. The Kandha tribe rose in rebellion under the leadership of Kamal Lochan Dora Bisoi. Raja Somanath Singh of Angul handed over Dora Bisoi to the Bri sh forces in 1837. One of the prominent rising of the tribal in Odisha history was the Bhuyan rising of Ratna Naik of Keonjhar ti ti  A er the death of Maharaja, Gadadhar Bhanja of Keonjhar, his eldest son Dhanurjay became the king in 1861. Pa amahadei Bishnupriya submi ed a pe on before T.E. Ravenshaw that before his death, the king of Keonjhar had proposed to accept Brundaban Bhanja as the legal hair to the throne of Keonjhar. T.E. Ravenshaw went through the pe on of queen Bishnupriya and rejected it. Ratna Naik organised the Bhuyans to revolt against T.E. Ravenshaw. When T.E. Ravenshaw reached Keonjhargarh, Ratna Naik and Nanda Naik surrendered and the Ratna meli came to an end. ft tt tt ti ti ti ti  Growth of Modern Educa on, Growth of Press and Journalism The rst primary school was created in 1822 by missionaries. Prior to 1803 (the year Bri sh occupied Odisha) educa on was controlled by the private ini a ve. It was Lord Macauley‟s Minute in 1835 under which the Bri sh took steps to open English Schools in Odisha. In 1836, the Bri sh opened the rst English School at Puri. Although the Cu ack English School was established in 1823-24 by the Chris an missionaries, its management was transferred to the Government in 1836. ti fi ti tt ti ti ti fi ti ti ti  Due to the Wood's Despatch, the Zilla School at Sambalpur assumed the status of the Anglo-Vernacular School. Under Hunter Commission in 1882, private schools and colleges were opened in di erent towns of Odisha. The establishment of Ravenshaw College in 1868 began a new epoch in the eld of higher educa on in Odisha. In 1878 Maharaja Krushna Chandra Bhanja donated 20,000 rupees for the construc on of a new college building. Till 1878, Ravenshaw College was the only college in Odisha which was giving higher educa on. fi ff ti ti ti  Pandit Gopabandhu Das established Satyavadi Bakula Vanvidyalaya at Sakshigopal in 1909 The Panchasakhas of modern Odisha like Pandit Gopabandhu Das, Acharya Harihara, Pandit Nilakantha Das, Pandit Godavarish Mishra and Pandit Krupasindhu Mishra took over the charge of this school for the growth of educa on in Odisha. In 1968, the Cu ack Zilla School was converted into Collegiate School with the opening of FA (First Arts) class only having facility for teaching of Intermediate standard. In 1923, the Odisha School of Engineering was opened at Cu ack which at present known as the Bhubanananda Engineering School. ti tt tt  In 1896 another college was established at Parlakhernundi by Maharaja Gourachandra Dev: It was a Junior (Second Grade) college ll 1936. In 1937 it was upgraded. S.B. Women's College was also established at Cu ack. ti tt  Reasons behind the slow progress the Bri sh was quite apathe c it wanted that the people of Odisha should learn English, but it never wanted to make them highly educated higher educa on was very expensive the number of schools and colleges was quite insu cient in Odisha. So the rise of elite class became delayed in case of Odisha conserva ve ideas regarding educa on of the people of Odisha Bri sh did not encourage the Engineering educa on par cularly related to agriculture although Odisha was a land having agriculture as the chief profession of the people ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ffi ti  Growth of Press and journalism The growth of press and journalism in Odisha led to the growth of socio- poli cal consciousness among the people of Odisha. For the rst me in 1837, they established a press in Cu ack named the ‘Cu ack Prin ng Press' and published the earlier Odia journals. In 1866, the second prin ng press in Odisha was established which was named as the Cu ack Prin ng Company. Only a er two years in 1868, the third prin ng press was established at Balasore by the e orts of Fakir Mohan Senapa with the help of local Zamindar and people. tt ti ft fi ti ti tt ff ti ti ti ti tt  In 1837 the rst Odia newspaper named Kujibara Patrika was published by a monk named Sadhu Sundar Das. Then the missionaries published the journal named Jnanaruna in 1849 for the propaga on of their religious ideas. They also published two other journals named Prabodha Chandrika and Arunodaya. In 1889, Sambalpur Hitaisini was published under the patronage of King Sudhaladev. fi ti  Utkala Madhupa, Utkala Putra, Kohinur Utkal Sahita, Dainika Asha, Samaj etc. were other journals and newspapers. Among the leading newspapers and journals, Cu ack Argus (1869), Cu ack Star (1869), Cu ack Standard Odisha Patriot (1866·, Geruem News (1896) and Star of Utkal (1906-1912) were prominent. Thus, the growth of press and journalism during Bri sh period brought many changes in the life of the people of Odisha. tt tt ti tt  Famine of 1866 The most famous among them all was the Famine of 1866 which is famous in the history of Odisha as Na-anka famine. There were several factors which were responsible for the outbreak of the famine of 1866 in Odisha. The drought of 1865 served as the poten al factor for the famine of 1866. Alarming shortage of food grains due to casual export of food grains was another reason for the outbreak of the famine of 1866. East India Company did not pay a en on for the improvement of agriculture could not control the ar cial scarcity of food grain in the market when the rice merchants joined hands during the famine and hoarded rice. ti fi tt ti ti  In December 1866, by the order of the secretary of State for India, an enquiry commission was formed to enquire into the causes, circumstances and extent of the famine. It consisted of three members-George Campbell, the President, W.E. Morton and H.L.Dampier, the two members.  Socio-Cultural changes in 19th Century Odisha factors that brought about the socio-cultural changes: Chris an missionaries, introduc on of English educa on and growth of Press, journalism and modern literature In 1809, William Carey, the Bap st Missionary of Serampore brought out the Odia version of the New Testament which was the work of a Odia scholar, named puhisho am Pandit. In 1820’s a number of missionaries such as William Bampton, James Pegg, Charles Lacey and Amos Su on came to Odisha and carried on their ac vi es. ti ti ti tt ti tt ti ti  They established schools for impar ng knowledge of Chris anity through the vemacular language. By the end of 1823, they were running een vernacular schools at Cu ack. The same year they established the rst English School of Odisha an Anglo-Vernacular school at Cu ack. Some of the missionaries wrote non-Chris an books in Odia language. For example, Su on wrote Odia Grammar, History and Geography and Odia primer for the schools and compiled a dic onary in Odia language. tt tt tt ti fi fi ft ti ti ti  The missionaries established the rst prin ng press of Odisha at Cu ack in 1837. They brought out the earliest journals of Odisha such as Jnanaruna (1849), Prabodh Chandrika (1856) and Arunodaya (1861). Sadhu Sundar Das, a reformist Hindu religious guru, who had his monastery at Kujibar near Cu ack and used to preach theism and denounce idolatry, was impressed by the preaching of missionaries. tt tt fi ti  In uence of the Brahmo Movement English educa on was in uenced by Brahmo movement of Bengal and sought to bring about social reforms like aboli on of child marriage and introduc on of widow marriage In 1869 Haranath Bha acharya, a professor of philosophy in the Cu ack college, a follower of Keshab Chandra Sen formed Utkal Brahmo Samaj at Cu ack. In 1875 Pratap Chandra Mazumdar, a prominent follower of Keshab came to Cu ack and addressed a mee ng in the Cu ack High School premise on 6 July 1875. The Brahmos built a Brahmo Mandir at Cu ack and brought out a number of periodicals. Balasore and Cu ack were the two important centres of Brahmo movement in Odisha. Leaders in uenced by Brahmo faith included Fakir Mohan Senapa , Madhusudan Rao, Pyari Mohan Acharya, Chaturbhuj Pa anayak (who wrote a number of books, on Brahmoism), Bishwanath Kar and Nandakishor Bal. fl fl ti ti tt fl tt tt ti tt tt ti tt tt ti tt  Maharaja Bhagirathi Mahendra Bahadur of Dhenkanal extended patronage to Brahmoism by giving dona on for the construc on of Mandir at Cu ack, Maharaja Shrirama Chandra Bhanjadeo of Mayurbhanj accepted Brahmo faith and Sudhaldev Basudev, the ruler of Bamanda was a staunch cri c of Brahmo faith. tt ti ti ti  Odia Movement The disintegra on was started from the death of Mukundadeva up to the period of 1936. some Englishmen who formed at Cu ack an associa on, called Mutual Improvement Society in 1859. Subsequently following associa ons were formed - Utkal Bhasa Unna Bidhayini Sabha (Associa on for the development of Odia language), Balasore, 1867; Utkal Bhasa Uddipani Samaj (Associa on for Odia Linguis c Awakening), Cu ack, 1867; Utkalollasini Sabha (Associa on for awakening the Odias), Cu ack, 1868; Cu ack Deba ng Club, 1868, etc. ti ti ti ti ti ti ti tt tt tt ti tt ti  There were some communal and caste-based associa ons, such as Karan Sabha, Odisha Islam Associa on, 1875 and Odisha Chris an, Associa on, Cu ack, 1896 The Utkala Sammilanni played the key role for the Odia movement as well as the forma on of separate province of Odisha. In pursuance of the Berhampur resolu on, the rst Odia na onal conference was held at Cu ack on 30-31 December, 1903 through the e orts of Madhusudan Das,Rajendranarayan Bhanja Deo (the zamindar of Kanika) and Shriram Chandra Bhanjadeo (the Maharaja of Mayurbhanja). ff ti tt ti tt ti ti fi ti ti ti  Na onalist movement in Odisha In Odisha, na onalism developed in two di erent ways: First, the merger of all Odia-speaking regions, and secondly, in the later phase with the growth of na onal awakening, the people of Odisha involved themselves with the mainstream of the na onal movement along with the rest of the country. The na onalist movement in Odisha can be divided into two periods from the establishment of Indian Na onal Congress i.e. 1885 to 1920 A.D., the Gandhian period from 1920A.D. to 1947 A.D. Di erent organiza ons like the Na onal Society at Balasore, Odisha Associa on also known as Utkal Sabha at Cu ack and the Utkal Hitaisini Samaj at Paralakhimedi were some of the early socio-poli cal organiza ons ff ti ti ti ti ti tt ti ti ti ff ti ti ti  In the Calcu a session of the Congress in 1886, Raja Baikunthanath a ended on behalf of Na onal Society of Balasore. In 1988, Madhusudan Das and Gouri Shankar Roy a ended the Madras Session of INC as delegates from Utkal Sabha. In 1895, Shyam Sunder Raiguru, the founder of the Utkal Haitesini Samaj of Paralakhemndi had a ended the Poona Session of the Congress. The moderate period of the na onalist movement in Odisha was led by Madhusudan and his associates like R.N. Bhanj Deo, Baikuntha Nath De, Harihar Panda, Brajasunder Das and Biswanath Kar, etc. having faith in the Bri sh Raj. tt ti tt tt ti ti tt  In 1905, the Swadeshi Movement started in Bengal in protest against the par on of Bengal which had a substan al in uence on the intellectuals of Odisha. In this connec on, protest mee ngs were held at Cu ack, Puri, Balasore, Sambalpur and other places to express empathy with the movement in Bengal. At Cu ack Janaki Nath Bose, Biswanath Kar and Dhirendera Nath Choudhury spread the massage of Swadeshi. A mee ng was held in the Cu ack Municipal Hall under the presidentship of Babu Janakinath Bose on 20 August, 1905. The message of Swadeshi also reached Balasore and Puri. In September Abdus Sobhan Khan and Fakir Mohan Senapa organized large public mee ngs for the purpose at Balasore. ti tt ti ti ti tt ti fl tt ti ti ti  At Puri, Haris Chandra Ghose and Dhanpa Banerjee led the students in a procession through the town and persuaded the business community to sell only Swadeshi goods and to boyco the foreign goods in their shops. The Utkal Dipika men ons that being inspired by the Swadeshi ideas, the weavers of Sambalpur, Banpur, Sukinda and Basudebpur started manufacturing ne hand loom tex les, and men and women of rich classes began to wear Berhampuri pata and Maniabandha sari on fes ve and other occasions. The swadeshi idea provoked Madhusudan Das to set up Utkal Tannery and an Art Ware at Cu ack. In this context, an exhibi on of indigenous goods was held in the Cu ack Town hall on 7 August, 1907, on the occasion of the anniversary of the Swadeshi Sabha at Calcu a. tt ti tt ti ti ti tt ti tt fi  In the Swadeshi movement, the Bengali agitators laid stress on Na onal Educa on which appealed to Gopabandhu. On 12 August, 1909, he established an ideal school on the model of the Decan Educa on Society, called as Satyabadi Vana Vidyalaya at Sakhigopal, Puri. This ins tu on became famous as a band of devoted and talented teachers like Pandit Nilakantha Das, Pandit Lingaraj Mishra, Acharya Harihar Das, Pandit Godabarish Mishra and Pandit Krupasindhu Mishra along with Gopabandhu introduced a new pa ern of educa on most suitable to Indian society. A group of radical youths of Bengal started terrorist ac vi es under the leadership of Ja ndranath Mukherjee, popularly known as Bagha Ja n. They used Balasore and Kap pada jungle areas as the bases to raid on Bri sh ins tu ons. However, Bagha Ja n died in an encounter with the police while his friends Manoranjan and Hiren were hanged. In this context, 3 young men of Odisha Atal Bihari Acharya, Sasanka Mukherjee and Bairagi Tripathy were taken into police custody for having their connec on with the Bengal terrorists. ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti tt ti ti  in 1920-21, Gopabandhu Das virtually started once again the Congress movement in Odisha H.K. Mahatab, N. Kanungo, Nabakrushna Choudhury and R.K. Bose le their studies at the call of Gandhiji and joined the Non-coopera on movement. Mahatma Gandhi visited Odisha for the rst me in March 1921. In 1922 a peasant‟s revolt in the zamindari of Kanika occurred which was closely associated with the Non-co-opera on movement. fi ti ti ti ft  The Nagpur Session of the Indian Na onal Congress, held in December, 1920, which nally passed the Non-Coopera on resolu on, was a ended by a number of delegates from Odisha such as Pandit Gopabandhu Das, Bhagirathi Mahapatra, Jagabandhu Singh, Jadumani Mangaraj, Mukunda Prasad Das, Niranjan Patanaik, and Harekrushna Mahatab. a separate Provincial Congress Commi ee was formed for Odisha even though Odisha was not a separate province at that me. Soon a er the Nagpur Congress session, the Utkal Union Conference was held at Chakradharpur under the presidentship of Jagabandhu Singh. In this conference Gopabandhu Das suggested a modi ca on in the outlook of the Utkal Union Conference. He held that though the merger of all Odia speaking areas was a vital issue for Odias, yet Odisha should not remain aloof from the mainstream of na onal consciousness fi fi ti ti ti tt ti ti ft ti tt  The Utkal Provincial Congress Commi ee consisted of Gopabhandhu as President, Ekram Rasool as Vice- President, Bhagirathi Mahapatra as Secretary and Brajabandhu Das as Joint Secretary. The Utkal Provincial Congress Commi ee deputed the following twelve members to represent Odisha in the A.I.C.C. like (1) Gopabandhu Das, (2) Jagabandhu Singh, (3) Nilakantha Das, (4) Gopabandhu Choudhury, (6) Niranjan Pa anaik, (6) Harekrushna Mahatab, (7) Bhagirathi Mahapatra, (8) Dharanidhar Mishra Banaprastha, (9) Nilakantha Das Chaudhuri, (10) Atal Bihari Acharya, (11) Brajamohan Panda, (12) Jamini Kanta Biswas. tt tt tt I. Harekrushna Mahatab - Balasore district. II. Jadumani Mangaraj -Kendrapara Subdivision of Cu ack district. III. Rajakrushna Bose- Jajpur Subdivision of Cu ack district. IV. Bhagirathi Mahapatra - Cu ack Sadar Subdivision with head-quarters at Alakashram, Jagatsinghpur. V. Jagabandhu Singh and Krupasindhu Mishra - Puri District. VI. Nilakantha Das - Sambalpur district. VII. Niranjan Pa naik - Ganjam district tt tt tt tt  Mahatma Gandhi reached Cu ack on 23 March 1921, and in the evening he addressed a large gathering on the Kathjuri river bed at Cu ack Besides the promo on of Hindu-Muslim unity in the state, he set the targets for the people of Odisha like (a)enrolment of one lakh Congress members, (b) distribu on of one lakh Charkhas (spinning wheels) and (c) collec on of three lakhs of rupees for the Tilak Swaraj fund. Some news papers like „The Samaj‟ and „Utkal Sevak‟ played an important role in inspiring the common mass to par cipate in the na onal movement. In 1921, Gopabandhu went to Calcu a for enlis ng the Congress members from among the Odia labour popula on at Calcu a. ti ti tt tt ti ti ti tt ti tt ti  the Satyabadi School of Gopabandhu was converted into a na onal school. Another na onal school was established at Nayabazar of Cu ack town by Madhusudan-Biswal, Damodar Mohanty and Atal Bihari Acharya. The Congressmen like Godavarish Mishra, Jagabandhu Singh and Radharanajan Das were elected from Odisha to the Bihar and Odisha Provincial Legisla ve Council and Nilakantha Das was elected for Central Legisla ve Assembly. H.K. Mahtab, a er his release from jail, started to work out the Gandhian construc ve programme in his home district. He also started a weekly newspaper, called Prajatantra at Balasore on 2 September 1923. Madhusudan Das who had distanced himself from the Congress and the Non- coopera on movement became a member of the Congress in the Utkal Pradesh Congress Conference, held at Cu ack in 1924 under the presidentship of Acharya Prafulla Chandra Roy ti ti ti ft tt ti tt ti ti  The 26th January 1930, was celebrated as the day of independence by the Congress men of Odisha and at Cu ack, Gopabandhu Choudhury read out the declara on of independence. On 12 April, 1930, the Satyagrahis led by Acharya Harihar, reached at lnchudi in Balasore. Large number of Satyagrahis from various parts of Odisha like Puri, Ganjam, Sarnbalpur and Baripada joined them. Despite the oppression by the police, the Satyagrahis manufactured the contraband salt at Inchudi on 14 April 1930. On 6 April 1930 Gopabandhu Chaudhury, Acharya Harihar Das, and twenty one Satyagrahis began their foot march from the Swarajya Ashram of Cu ack towards Inchudi in Balsore. ti tt tt  The Civil Disobedience was also carried on in other forms such as boyco of the foreign cloth, picke ng before the excise shops, refusal to pay Chowkidari tax, and spread of Khadi. In order to suppress the movement on 8 April 1930 Gopabandhu Choudhury was th arrested at Chandol for having addressed a mee ng at Cu ack on 23 March1930. On 20 April, led by Ramadevi, and Mala Devi, a number of women took part in the th Salt Satyagraha at Inchudi The credit for arranging this Salt Satyagraha goes to the local Congress leader of Balasore, surendra Nath Das. This contraband salt was manufactured in other places of Odisha like Sartha (Balasore district), Kujang (Cu ack dlstrlct), Kuhudi, Singheswari and Latra (Puri district) and Huma (Ganjam district). ti tt ti ti tt tt  The Satyagraha at Sartha was organised by Mathura Mohan Behera, Karunakar Panigrahi and Nilamber Das. In the Puri district Nilakantha Das and Jagannath Rath organised the salt Satyagraha. In the Ganjarn district the Satyagraha was led by Biswanath Das, Niranjan Patnaik and Sarala Devi. At Kujang, led by Rani Bhagyaba Devi of the Kujang royal family, 500 women took part in the manufacturing of contraband salt. ti  the Ramgarh session of the Indian Na onal Congress, held in March 1940, decided to launch Individual Civil Disobedience Movement. It was also decided to work out with full vigour the Gandhian construc ve programme and not to co-operate with the Bri sh Government in any form. The Congress volunteers were given training in Bari training camp about the civil disobedience and the Gandhian construc ve programme On 27 September 1940, the Utkal Pradesh Congress Commi ee appointed H.K. Mahtab as the general director of the Individual Civil Disobedience movement in Odisha and gave other Congress leaders almost dictatorial powers to reorganize the Congress in their locality. ti ti ti tt ti  According to the direc on of the Congress high command the Congress Party of Odisha started the Individual Civil Disobedience Movement on 1st December 1940. H.K. Mahtab courted arrest a er delivering an an -war speech at Remuna on the same day. ti ft ti  Crea on of separate province, Non-congress and Congress Ministries In 1885, Henry Rickets, Commissioner of Orissa division suggested uni ng Sambalpur with Odisha Division on the ground of racial and cultural a nity with other parts of Odisha. A resolu on was moved by Sachchidanand Sihna in the Imperial Legisla ve Council on 20 Feb. 1920 recommending Govt. of India "to formulate a th scheme for the amalgama on of Odia-speaking tracts”. The Philip-Du Commi ee -> Madras Government to come under one administra on with other Odia- speaking people. The Simon Commission suggested to Government India to set up a Boundary Commission to demarcate the territorial extent of the Province. ti ti ti ff tt ti ffi ti ti  Donnel Commi ee recommended for a separate province which would include Odsha Division, Angul, Padampur, Khariar Estate, the greater part of Ganjam district and Vizagapatam Agency. Joint Select Commi ee's report, provision was made in the Government of India Act, 1935 for the crea on of the new state of Odsha In March 1937 the Governor invited Biswanath Das the leader of the Congress Legislature party, to form the ministry and be its head. How ever he refused. The Governor then invited the Maharaja of Parlakimedi to form the ministry. The Maharaja of Parlakimedi resigned and the rst Congress ministry in Odisha was formed with Biswanath Das as the Prime Minister on 19 July 1937. tt tt ti fi  Besides the Prime Minister, the Ministry had two ministers- Nityananda Kanungo and Bodhram Dube. In October 1939, the All-India Congress Commi ee directed the Congress ministries in all provinces to resign in protest. On 4 November 1939, the Congress ministry resigned in Odisha. By August 1940 the dissident Congress leader Godavarish Mishra had started a move or the forma on of a coali on ministry. On 24 November 1941 a coali on ministry was formed with the Maharaja of Parlakimedi as the Prime Minister and Godavarish Mishra and Maulavia Abdus Sobhan Khan as the ministers. In the elec on, held early in 1946, the Congress party secured majority of seats in the Odisha Legisla ve Assembly, and formed ministry under the Prime Ministership of Harekrushna Mahatab on 23 April 1946. ti ti ti ti ti tt  Accordingly the Boundary Commission was cons tuted with Samuel O‟ Donnel as chairman, H.M. Mehta-Member of the Council of States and T.R. Phukan- Member of the Central Legisla ve Assembly as members; and Raja of Parlakhimedi, S.N. Sinha and N. Raju as associate members represen ng the Odias, the Biharis and Telugus respec vely. Administra ve Commi ee under Sir John Aus n Hubback: Sir John Aus n Hubback as the chairman and eight members including Madhusudan Das and V. Ramaswamy as Secretary The Report of the Commi ee was published on 20 December 1933. It recommended, that Cu ack should be the capital of the new province and Puri would be the summer headquarters, Odisha should have a High Court but no University, a joint o cial cadre with Bihar, a new district of Koraput, two new sub-divisions of Nawapara and Gunupur and, division of Angul into two parts-under collectors of Ganjam and Cu ack respec vely. 1 April, 1936, the same day, Sir John Hubback took oath as the rst Governor of Odisha tt ti ti tt tt ti ti ti fi ti tt ffi ti ti  Quit India Movement Among the leaders of Odisha, H. K. Mahtab was the only leader who was arrested at Bombay and sent to the Ahmadnagar fort jail The violent mob burnt down some records at the Lakshmipur police-sta on. During the Quit India Movement the supreme heroism was exhibited in the Koraput district by Laxman Naik. On 28 September 1942, another clash between the police and the people th took place in the village Khairadihi, situated under the Khaira police sta on. The Quit India movement became very intense at Eram in Basudevpur The Eram tragedy can be compared to the Jallianwallabagh massacre of the Punjab. Since that day Eram is famous as “Rakta Tirtha Eram”. ti ti  Many States faced a lot of troubles from the Praja Mandalas or State's People’s Conference a er 1920. The people were exploited through several means of taxa on like 'Rasad', 'Magan', ‘Bethi' and ‘Begari’. Their accumulated hatred and anger against the ruling princes were manifested in the Prajamandal movement. To give a proper direc on to the Prajamandal movement, for the rst me on 20 June 1931, the 'Orissa Garajat state people's Associa on' was convened at Cu ack. The 1938 Prajamandal movement at Nilgiri is a very special event in the history of Odisha. tt ti ft ti ti fi ti  Dhenkanal Prajamandal movement: On 13 September 1938 despite police warning while Harekrushna Mahatab, Naba Krushna Chowdhury and Sarangdhar Das Harmohan Patnaik was arrested and sent to Cu ack jail and houses of many of the Prajamandal leaders were burnt. A 12 year old boy Baji Rout was killed in police ring, but the people con nued with the movement hoping to get jus ce. 29 October 1938 was celebrated as the 'Garajat Day'. th Finally in 1939, as per the report of the Central Police Bureau, the Bri sh government withdrew all powers of the king of Dhenkanal. ti fi tt ti ti  Under the ini a ve of Harakrushna Mahtab and Sarangdhar Das a 'Prajamandal' as formed at Gariamal. The Gangapur Prajamandal movement too assumed a terri ed character. The Ranpur Praarnandai movement was re ec on of the all- Odisha peoples' or ‘Praja' dissa sfac on against their rules. Prajamandala was cons tuted in Nayagarh in June 1938 under the leadership of Narayan Nanda. The Sonepur State Prajamandal was formed in December 1938 under the presidentship of Bhimsen Bhoi. ti ti ti ti ti fl ti fi  In 1940, the Prajamandal was formed in Mayurbhanj. Sarat Chandra Das was its president. To denigrate the Prajamandal in the eyes of the people, the king formed a parallel government organisa on known as the Prajamangal and started delivering assistance to the people. It was during that year the Cabinet Mission visited India and Mahatab gave assurance that he would place before it the issue of the merger of the 'garajat' states with the new Odisha province. ti  On 24 December 1947, Mahatab convened a mee ng at Cu ack for the purpose of the merger of the Garajat States. On 23 December 1947, as per the 'Extra Provincial Jurisdic on Act,' the administra on of the Garajat states was transferred to the hands of Government of Odisha. It became opera onal on 1 January 1948. ti ti ti ti tt  Odisha History (Medieval) FROM 1435 TO 1803 A.D.  The Suryavamsi Gajapa s: Ganga dynasty -> Suryavamsi Gajapa s Kapilendradeva who overthrew the Gangas and founded a new dynasty, called Suryavamsi As they possessed large elephantry in their army, they were popularly known as Gajapa s, i.e. the lords of the elephants The Suryavamsi rulers traced their origin to the Sun God. For personal glori ca on, the rulers of this dynasty claimed their descent from the mythical solar dynasty to which Lord Ramachandra belonged. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Odisha reached the zenith of its glory under the Suryavamsi kings. The Suryavamsi Gajapa kings were not only noted for their aggressive imperialism but their rule for a century and also for the renaissance in Odia literature. ti fi ti ti ti ti  The history of Suryavamsi Gajapa s of Odisha is based on various available sources. The sources can be divided into two groups (1) Literary sources , and (2) Inscrip ons. Literary sources: Parasurama Vijaya, Abhinava Venisamharam, Sarasva vilasam, Jagannatha vallabha, Prabodha Chandrodaya etc, Odia works like the Mad,ala Panji, Sarala Mahabharata, Chaitanya Bhagavata, Jagannatha Cheritemrite etc. Inscrip ons: Similarly some inscrip ons like the Velagalani copper plate inscrip on, Lingaraj temple inscrip on, Puri Jagannath temple inscrip on, inscrip ons found from Simhachalam, Sri Sailam, Srikurmam and further Velicherla copper plates, Kondavidu inscrip on etc. comprise the inscrip onal sources for the Suryavamsi rule in Odisha. ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti  Kapilendradeva (1435-1467 A.D.) The poli cal history of the Suryavamsi Gajapa s started with Kapilendradeva who ascended the throne in 1435 A.D. The Madala panji narrates him as an adopted son of Ma a Bhanudeva or Bhanudeva IV, the last Ganga king who was childless. Kapilendra had won victory over Bengal or Gauda, Rajahmundry, Kondavidu, etc. Kapilendradeva introduced 'Kapilabda' in the 7th year of his rule. Kapilendradeva assumed the tle ‘Goudesvara’ (victory over Bengal) His conquest of a part of the Bahamani kingdom and his expedi on to Bidar led him to assume the tle 'Kala varges vara'. A er conquering a part of the Vijayanagar empire, he en tled himself as 'Navako Karnata'. 'Navako , perhaps meant 'nine crores' of people of the parts of Bahamani kingdom and Vijayanagara empire. Thus, the pompous tle of Kapilendradeva was 'Gajapa Gaudesvara Navako Karnata Kalavargesvara'. ti ti ti ti ti ti ft ti ti ti tt ti ti  he created a vast empire stretching from the river bank of the Ganges to that of Kaveri. His play Parasurama Vijaya had been staged before God Jagannath during a Mahotsava, informs the Madala Panji. During his reign period, Nrusingha Vajapayee, a famous Advaitavadin had wri en a commentary named Samkshepa Saririka Var ka on Sankaracharya's work Samshepa Saririka. tt ti  The rst renaissance started in Odia literature during Kapnendradeva. Sarala Dasa's Odia Mahabharata represented the totality of Odishan culture. His Vilanka Ramayana and Chandi Purana were two other great works. He constructed the outer-wall of the Jagannath temple at Puri. He also established Kapilesvarpura and Damodarapura Shasana. Perhaps, he constructed the temple of Kapilesvara near Bhubaneswar. Further, the Gokarnesvara Siva temple at Midnapur and Mallkarjuna Siva temple contained the inscrip ons of Kapilendradeva. fi ti  Puruso amadeva Puruso ama, with his army, marched to Udayagiri, defeated and imprisoned Saluva Narasimha who purchased his freedom by surrendering Udayagiri and o ering his daughter to Puruso ama who is associated with 'Kanchi-Kaveri legend’. Immediately a er his accession, he abolished Chaukidari tax which was imposed previously on the Brahmins. The two Sanskrit lexicons- Haravali and Trikandasesam are ascribed to him. Puruso ama is credited with the composi on of abhmava Gitagovinda and Namamalika. Chaininka Chakada Pustaka by Fakir Chaini, Arjuna Dasa's Kalpalata and Ramavibhaha, Damodara's Rasakoili Chau sa were some notable works in Odia that belonged to his reign period. Puruso amadeva built the temple of Sundara Madhava at Puruso amapur in the Ganjam district. tt tt tt tt ft tt ti ti tt ff