Notes In Fisheries Extension PDF

Midterm Notes in Fisheries Extension TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, ADOPTION, DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS, AND EXTENSION PROGRAM PLANNING Introduction Technology refers to ways of making or doing things. It is derived from the Greek word...

Midterm Notes in Fisheries Extension TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER, ADOPTION, DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS, AND EXTENSION PROGRAM PLANNING Introduction Technology refers to ways of making or doing things. It is derived from the Greek word “ techne” meaning art or craft and “logia” meaning area of study. A technology is a design for instrumental action that reduces the uncertainty in the cause-effect relationships involved in achieving a desired outcome. A technology usually has two components: 1) a hardware aspect consisting of tool that embodies the technology as material or physical objects, 2) a software aspect consisting of information base for the tool. According to Yotopoulos and Nugent (1976), a technology is a body of knowledge that can be applied in productive process. Chattopadhyay (1976) pointed out the three attributes of a technology which will make it acceptable to farmers as: 1) economic viability, 2) suitability, and 3) conformity with the socio-economic attributes of farmers. Anderson (1979) suggested that a technology must be tested in three conditions of: 1) resource appropriateness, 2) needs appropriateness, and 3) goal appropriateness. On the basis of the above definitions, the following are the characteristics of a technology. a. Science or scientific know- how b. Art of systematic knowledge c. Practical utility d. Production potentiality In a nutshell, technology refers to the art of systematic knowledge of science or scientific know -how, which may be practically utilized in the related field for the purpose of boosting the production potentiality. Technological development is the process of research and development of technology. Many emerging technologies are expected to become generally applied in the near future. The new technology development process leans on the development through the use of a technology (e.g. by introducing products that are based on the new technology in the market). The technology development stages include innovation, imitation, technological competition and standardization. Transfer of Technology Technologies are generated for their application in the appropriate field. This involves transfer of technology (ToT) which is one of the important functions of extension service. Transfer of technology is needed for improving the production potential and productivity in farming. Brooks (1966) defined “technology transfer” as the process by which science and technology are diffused through human activity. According to Shand (1976), ToT means translating the research findings or technologies into actual practice in the farms by recipients or farmers themselves. It implies the trial, evaluation and consequent adoption of technologies generated. The components of technology transfer are enlisted as: 1) Science or scientific know-how,2i) Dissemination, 3) Application or Utilization, 4) Adoption, and 5) Improved production. A technology may be viewed as an appropriate technology for a society if its design is relevant to the real needs of that society, its use is to fulfill those needs, its continuance and development are based on the society’s economic and technical ability to support, serve, maintain and even improve it. In farming, the number of potential adopters is very large and they live in different socio-economic and environmental conditions. So, in farming, location-specific technologies are more appropriate. Diffusion of farm technologies depend upon efficient functioning of four systems of transfer of technology. They are: 1) How the new technology (innovation) is evolved by the scientists (Technology Generating System (TGS)/Research system), 2) How it is transmitted (Technology Diffusion System (TDS) / Extension system), 3) How the farmers receive and adopt it (Technology Practicing System (TPS)/ Client system), and 4) How the situations help the farmers to adopt it (Support System). The feedback given by the client system on the performance of the new technology will help the research system to fine tune the deficiencies in the technology to make it more appropriate to the client system. Models of Transfer of Technology I. Top-down-model (Conventional model) Salient features ❖ Farmers act as passive recipients of technologies ❖ No contact between farmers and scientists ❖ Extension plays the role to persuade the farmers to adopt new technologies In this model, the client’s views and problems are not given due importance which is an inherent problem of this model. II. Feedback model Salient features ❖ Research values identification of target group and its problems. ❖ Close interaction between research and extension systems. ❖ Research is carried out both at research farms and farmers’ fields ❖ Researchers include extension personnel and social scientists to have a holistic understanding of farmers’ problems. III. Farmer- back to- farmer model (Farmer participatory model) ❖ An alternative to the two models discussed earlier. ❖ Here the underlying assumption is that research must begin and end with the farmer. ❖ The farmers must be incorporated as fully active members of the problem- solving team. Diffusion of Technology Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system. It is a special type of communication in the sense that the messages are concerned with innovations. Diffusion is a kind of social change. Elements of diffusion: a) Innovation b) Communication channels c) Time d) Social system Innovation. An innovation is an idea, practice or object perceived as new by an individual or others in a social system. Example: ▪ New methods of management decisions – soil testing; periodical monitoring of water quality parameters ▪ New farming systems Innovation means perceived newness, and this perceived newness of an idea for an individual determines his / her reaction to it. The newness may be expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion or a decision to adopt. Characteristics or perceived attributes of Innovations ❖ Relative advantage: It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes. The degree of relative advantage may be measured in economic terms, but social prestige, convenience and satisfaction are also important factors. Greater the perceived relative advantage of an innovation, the more rapid its rate of adoption by the audience. ❖ Compatibility: It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences and needs of potential adopters. It is positively correlated to the rate of adoption. ❖ Complexity: It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. New ideas that are simple to understand will be adopted more rapidly than innovations that require the adopter to develop new skills and understandings. ❖ Trialability: It is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented within a limited basis. Trialable innovations or innovations that can be experimented on a small scale have better chances for adoption. ❖ Observability: It is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others Communication Channels of diffusion  1.Interpersonal channels – neighbors, friends, local leaders, extension personnel, etc., 2.Mass media channels – radio, television, newspaper, etc., 3.Localite channels – They originate within the social system of the receiver Examples: neighbors, relatives, opinion leaders 4. Cosmopolite channels: Originate outside a particular social system – eg. Extension workers, consultants, sales personnel, technician, etc. , Time. The time dimension is involved in the following aspects: ❖ In terms of innovation-decision process by which an individual passes from first hearing / knowledge of an innovation through its adoption or rejection. Innovation- decision process (I-D Process) is a mental process through which an individual passes from first knowledge of an innovation to a decision to adopt, or reject, and to confirmation of the decision. ❖ in terms of innovativeness of an individual (i.e) the relative earliness-lateness with which an individual adopts an innovation when compared with the members of his social system. ❖ in terms of rate of adoption in a social system usually measured as the number of members of the system that adopt the innovation in a given time period. Social System. A set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem- solving to accomplish a common goal. The units may be individuals, informal groups, organization etc. Social system constitutes a boundary with in which an innovation diffuses. All individuals in a social system do not begin to adopt an innovation at the same time rather they adopt it in an ordered time sequence. On the basis of when they first begin using a new idea, they are classified into adopter categories. The adoption of an innovation over time follows a normal, bell -shaped course when plotted over time on a frequency basis. It the cumulative number of adopters is plotted, it results in an ‘S’ shaped curve. Adopter categories. The adopters in a social system can be classified into five categories on the basis of their innovativeness. They are : 1.) Innovators 2.) Early adopters 3.) Early majority 4. Late majority and Laggards Innovation-Decision Process The five stages of the innovation-decision process are as follows: 1. Knowledgeable. The individual is exposed to the innovation’s existence and gains some understanding of how it functions. 2. Persuasion. The individual forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation. 3. Decision. The individual engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation. 4. Implementation. This occur when an individual puts an innovation into use. 5. Confirmation. Decision is already made, but he or she may reverse this decision if exposed to conflicting messages about innovations. Innovators ❖ First to adopt an innovation in a social system; ❖ Venturesome, much ahead of other members in a community. ❖ Generally, very few in number ❖ May deviate from social norms and viewed as deviants by others. ❖ Mentally alert, oriented to take risk, have large enterprises and rich financial resources ❖ Generally, more literate ❖ Have good contact with cosmopolite sources of information, research stations/ organization and high level of extension functionaries. Extension Program Planning Program planning is a procedure of working with people in an effort to recognize unsatisfactory situations or problems and to determine possible solutions or objectives and goals. It is a conscious effort to meet the needs, interests and wants of the people for whom the program is intended.  Extension Program According to Kelsey and Hearne, Extension Program is a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions. It is relatively permanent but requires constant revision. It forms the basis for extension plans. Plan: Deciding in advance; A predetermined course of action. Program Planning (PP) 1. Program Planning is a continuous series of activities or operations leading to the development of a plan of action to accomplish particular objectives. 2. Program Planning is a decision -making process involving critical analysis of the existing situation and the problems, evaluation of the various alternatives to solve these problems and selection of the relevant ones, giving necessary priorities based upon local needs and resources by the co-operative efforts of the people both official and non-official with a view to facilitate the individual and community growth and development. Some of the technical terms used in program planning are given below. Situation: It is a statement of affairs that includes the cultural, social, economic and physical conditions in which a particular group of people find themselves at a given period of time. Aim: Aims are generalized and broad statement of directions with respect to given activities. Objectives: Objectives are expression of the ends towards which our efforts are directed. Three levels of objectives: 1. Fundamental or all-inclusive objectives 2. General but more definite social objectives 3. Working or specific objectives Goal: It is a distance in any given direction one expects to go during a given period of time. Problem: It is an undesirable or unsatisfactory condition that people after study want to change. Solution: It is the course of proposed action to change an unsatisfactory condition, to one that is more satisfying. Project: It is a specification of work to be done ,or procedure to be followed in order to accomplish a particular objective. Plan: A plan is a pre-determined course of action. It involves pre- determining a course of action to be taken but also includes mentally searching for possibilities of future problems that might appear. Plan is usually an annual schedule of work when used in program planning context. Program: It is an over- all, long ranged schedule or broad outline of things that need to be done and methods of doing them. Plan of work: It is an outline of activities so arranged to enable efficient execution of the entire program. It answers the questions of what, when, where, by whom and how the job will be done. Calendar of work: It is a plan of activities to be undertaken in a particular time sequence. It is the time schedule of work. Need: It is the gap between what is the existing situation and what ought to be the desirable situation. Felt need: A consciously recognized need or kind of need which the people are aware of. Unfelt need: An unrecognized need. Principles of Extension Program Planning 1. Extension Program should be based on an analysis of the past experience, present situation and future needs. 2. It should have clear and significant objectives which could satisfy the important needs of the people. 3. It should fix up priorities on the basis of available resources and time. 4. It should clearly indicate the availability and utilization of resources. 5. It should have general agreement at all levels. 6. It should involve people at the local level. 7. It should involve relevant institutions and organizations 8. It should have definite plan of work. 9. It should provide for evaluation of results and reconsideration of the program. 10.It should provide for equitable distribution of benefits amongst the members of the community. Nature of Program Planning 1. Educational in design 2. Continuous  3. Flexible 4. Democratic in method 5. Co-operative endeavour 6. Balanced 7. Integrated approach 8. Bottom- up, involving local people The principles of program help us to develop the logical steps in program planning process. The Extension Program Process has eight steps which form a continuous cycle of program determination and program implementation in extension. 1. Collection of facts: ❖ Collection of pertinent data from available records and by survey. ❖ Information relating to social, economic cultural and psychological and value aspects of people, levels of technology, institutions, and organizations, leadership pattern, resources, facilities for marketing, input supplying facilities, infrastructure etc. 2. Analysis of situation: ❖ Analysis should be carried out in an unbiased way. 3 Identification of problems: ❖ Correct analysis and interpretation of data shall help to identify the problems correctly. ❖ Problems to be selected on the basis of urgency, significance, solution with available resources and time limit. ❖ Selection of large number of problems to be avoided as this may lead to failures and frustration on the part of the people. 4 Determination of objectives and goals ❖ Objectives are set forth on the basis of significant needs identified. ❖ Objectives should be direct and to be stated in clear terms. To be stated in realistic and actionable manner in terms of goals. 5 Developing a plan of work and calendar of operations ❖ The plan of work should be in written form and should answer the questions of who, what, how etc. ❖ The calendar of work should be prepared on the basis of plan of work and should answer the question ‘when’ for all the operations. 6. Follow through plan of work and calendar of operations ❖ Conducting training programs, demonstrations, campaigns, communication of information, making regular visits and monitoring are some of the functions performed by extension functionaries. ❖ Work should include solving unforeseen problems and taking corrective steps wherever needed. ❖ Involves a lot of co-ordination among various organization and institutions involved ❖ Performance of extension agent and the organizational support received is crucial at this stage as these may determine the success/ failure of the program. ❖ Obtaining feedback from the stakeholders on the developments is important at this stage. 7. Evaluation of progress ❖ It is the process of determining the extent to which the objectives have been realized. ❖ All programs must have an in-built system of evaluation to know how well the work is done. ❖ Evaluation may be formal or informal 8. Reconsideration and revision of the program ❖ On the basis of evaluation, the program should be reconsidered or revised if needed ❖ Reconsideration shall help in making corrections and modifications in the program. ❖ Emphasis should be on removal of technical defects, obtaining more co-operation and involvement of the participants and various organization.  Characteristics of a good program 1. It should clearly state the situation, major problem areas, important problems or needs of the people 2. It should state clearly and meaningfully the objectives of the program, (ie) both long- term and short- term which are socially and economically significant to people. 3. It should clearly state the subject matters, organizations and work for each objective 4. It should include the summary of the long- term program and that should be made available to all the members of the planning groups. 5. It should be used as a basis for annual plan of work. 6. Participation of the local community, both local leaders and members, in all the stages of program planning and implementation will make the program a successful one. Participatory planning process In many societies, development program are constructed as external intervention, may be, from government or other agencies. Though development program are meant for the development of the community, in many instances, the community is not a part of it, in its conception. Since, the development programmers are meant for the progress of the community, participation of the community in the implementation of the program is a prerequisite for the program to make it a sustainable one. Earlier, participation of the community in program development and implementation was very minimal. They were involved as a source for collecting some primary data for the program or engaged as labor during implementation phase of the program. This has resulted in many programs not yielding the anticipated results as in many instances people did not identify themselves with such programs. Of late, this gap has been well realized and now the concept of decentralized planning ie, planning at the grass roots level is gaining importance. Thus, in simple words, participatory planning process is involving people (for whom the programs are evolved), in the planning, implementation and evaluation process of the program to make it people oriented and sustainable one. Participatory planning can be defined as joint actions of local people and project staff with the objective of formulating development plans and selecting the best available alternatives for their implementation. There are several types of participation of the local community in programs depending on the level of participation; basically there are two types of participation. ❖ Passive participation: People participate by being told that what is going to happen (ie) creating an awareness about the implementation of the program. ❖ Interactive participation: People participate in joint analysis which leads to locally formulated action plans. In participatory planning, two-way learning takes place. Officials/ scientists/ development workers learn from the local community, their real- life situation, needs and aspirations. People, in turn, are empowered on planning, implementation and evaluation processes. The basic assumptions in participatory planning are: ❖ Participatory approaches facilitate the process of local empowerment by creating opportunities for specific disadvantaged groups. ❖ This will enhance political commitment and institutional support for local planning by building common understanding between institutions and local groups. Purpose of participatory planning The purpose of participatory planning is to create a platform for two-way learning. This process is expected to enhance: a. Identification of felt needs b. Bringing forth conferences c. Empowerment of local disadvantaged group. d. Integration of local knowledge system to project design. e. Two-way learning process between the project at local people f. Political commitment and support g. Accountability in local governance h. Sustainability of the program Common tools available for participatory planning process include:  ❖ Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA): it is a qualitative survey methodology using multi- disciplinary team to formulate problems for research and development. It involves external experts teaming up with local community in a process of knowledge sharing. ❖ Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): It evolved from RRA. PRA, which is also called as PLA (Participatory Learning and Action), is a growing family of participatory approaches and methods that emphasize local knowledge and enable local people to make their own appraisal, analysis and plans. It is efficient in terms of both time and money. Program Appraisal In the implementation of the program, the extension workers should constantly consider whether the program is going in the right direction, and what measures to be taken to adjust it. The extension workers should know if the plan identifies the job to be done, persons responsible, methods to be used, data for events and activities, and also sees if the plans are being followed. The extension workers should also note if the methods are effective and suited to the people involved in relation to their educati on and interest. It is also important that the extension workers should know if the program meets the needs of the people, if it is flexible and could be adjusted, the extension workers should also cooperate their efforts with those of other agencies. Analysis of Accomplishment The extension worker should determine if the changes have taken place, in any? 1. Physical situation. For example, increased fishpond production, improvement of conditions or practices. 2. People. i.e., changes in behavior, knowledge, attitude, skills and by what means have the changes are reasonable and attainable within the time limit set in the objectives. 3. Preparation of evaluation reports. Some of the most favored ways of presenting evaluation reports are; Narrative description, tables, graphs and charts. Current Status of Women in Extension Services Women are noticeably absent from fisheries extension services. In Thailand, for example, even though 17% of fisherfolk in 1970 were women, there were no female extension agents. Although a high percentage of university graduates in fisheries were women, that the extension directors claimed that no woman can qualify for the extension service (Hourihan, 1986). A project to prepare and implement a training program for women fisheries extension workers was developed in India. Although women in India play an important role in fish marketing for local consumption, fish curing, shrimp processing, and net making, it was found that extension work related to these specific technologies had been geared towards men. In India cultural problems related to village women being approached by strange males prevent access to information on new technologies. The Fisherwomen Extension Service of the Department of Fisheries in Tamil Nadu developed a program to train two fisherwomen to function as group organizers and to train link workers to serve as liaisons between fisherwomen and government officers and institutions. The specific functions of link workers are: to mobilize fisherwomen for constructive group action, to improve their social and economic conditions, to create an understanding of the need for change in socio- cultural attitudes among men and women, to encourage women to utilize the services of governments and other institutions, and to stimulate government institutions to respond to the objectives and felt needs of target groups. Women trainees were selected based on: literacy, marital status (married below the age of 40), acceptance by all women in the village, willingness to participate in residential training course, awareness that training did not guarantee employment, and willingness and interest to work with groups of women. Twenty-three women participated in the 10-week course. Course participants were trained in the basics of group dynamics. Field visits were organized and the residential training was followed by 2 months of on-the-job training. Link workers assisted individual women in determining their most urgent needs, identified means of meeting their needs, and registered cooperative societies of fisherwomen. The Department of Fisheries provided continuous close support through the Fisherwomen Extension Service. As a result of this project, more than 250 women from five villages received loans of Indian Rupees 200-500 each at 4% interest. Some cooperatives started savings deposits and others joined educational programs. The FAO project in the Côte d'Ivoire has 3 women professionals in a total staff of 11. The extension agent who has won the national competition (based on the highest total fish production by farmers under her care and for general excellence) in the past 3 years has been a woman, even though only 8-9% of all extension agents were women. Although women are integrated into the project staff, only 2 of 2000 fish farmers are women. Positions held by women have included: Deputy Director in charge of technical coordination, station head in charge of fingerling production, head of fish culture sector in charge of evaluation, implementing and follow-up of projects, and assistant to the public relations director. There are no programs designed specifically for rural women, but women are integrated into the project on the same level as the men. In Jamaica, the US AID Fish Production Development Project awarded 4 scholarships to women for MS-level training at Auburn University in the United States. Upon their return, these 4 women held the positions of farm manager, station head of research, chief of marketing extension, and extension chief. Of the total project staff, 40% were women. Even though less than 10% of the Jamaican fish farmers were women, approximately 15% of the extension agents were women. Recent budget cuts have severely reduced the program and most project staff have transferred to other positions. Although the Government of Kenya maintains that fish farming is men's work, the FAO Lake Basin Development Authority Project is working with 396 female farmers and 161 women's groups of a total of 3,615 farmers. Extension agents are selected by Lake Basin Development Authority Project personnel without consultation with FAO experts, and all are men. Most of the women fish farmers have expressed a desire to receive technical advice from female extensionists. In Nigeria there is one trained woman working in the fisheries extension service. As women's traditional roles in the fisheries sector have been in fish marketing and fish processing, extension efforts currently seek to enhance these roles. In 1986, there were 54 women working in fish culture in rural areas of Panama. The emphasis of the extension program was on pond fertilization, fish feeding, pond management, stocking, partial harvest, community marketing, and fish preservation. In Panama, 33% or 48 of 146 government employees in aquaculture were women in 1986. There were 6 female extension agents working full-time in 3 different provinces of Panama. Women participate actively in aquaculture extension in the Philippines. Nationwide, 44% of all extension agents in 1986 were women, Table 5. In some regions, 70% of extension agents were women. Women also dominated in the fish processing extension services. A total of 99% of all extension agents working in this area were women in 1986. US AID has funded a fish culture development project in Rwanda. The emphasis of the project is on production, training, and extension. About 300 women were directly reached by the Rwandan fish culture project's extension service in 1985. This included 2 women who inherited ponds from deceased husbands, 10 women's cooperatives with a total of 173 members, and 18 mixed women/men cooperatives including 113 female and 145 male members. There were also 15 women-oriented institutions with fish ponds including health centres, schools, a prison, and community development groups. Approximately 50-100 women per year per institution participate in the project. In addition to these institutions, 10% of fish farmers reached by project extension agents were women, although many women managed ponds classified as belonging to husbands. Project extension agents are all male and are encouraged to try to augment the number of women- owned fish ponds. Agents are at an advantage in working with women because women tend to follow t heir advice better than the men; the agents themselves are evaluated on the basis of their farmers' productivity. Most local officials are amenable to including women's groups in assigning pond construction sites. Female Extension Agents in the Philippines by Region, 1986 Region Aquaculture Fish Processing No. of Women Total % Women No. of Women Total % Women I 12 26 46 7 7 100 II 3 21 14 9 10 90 III 21 35 60 11 11 100 IV 24 40 60 26 26 100 V 8 23 35 5 5 100 VI 23 33 70 17 17 100 VII 21 40 52 15 15 100 VIII 8 12 67 10 11 91 IX 7 24 29 15 15 100 X 13 32 41 11 11 100 XI 10 36 28 15 15 100 XII 9 37 24 15 15 100 TOTAL 159 359 44 156 158 99  As most rural women cannot leave their families for a week at a time due to their substantial workload and responsibilities around the house, project directors plan to implement training programs to reach the women where they gather at health and nutritional centers. The project plans to train female health and nutritional link workers (monitrices) to work with fish farmers in pond management, fish preparation, and fish preservation. Constraints for Women in Training and Extension Training and extension services are male-oriented and are traditionally carried out almost exclusively by men. In Madagascar, for example, a main condition for extension agents was that they be male. Of 158 candidates, 5 were women. Only 1 woman of 76 applicants took written exams but was not requested to take oral exams (Claeys, 1986). There is consequently a shortage of trained female extension personnel at all levels of most extension services. Preconceived notions on the part of middle administrators, planners and project directors can prevent assistance from reaching women. If they perceive aquaculture as strictly men's work, program and project resources will not be advertised nor made available to women (Hourihan, 1986). For this reason, simple promotion of aquaculture will not necessarily draw in more women. In many cases there are socio-economic constraints which must be overcome first (Yap, 1980a). Women's access to training, credit, and extension information is often hindered by attitudes that aquaculture is men's work and of no interest to women. For cultural reasons men cannot work with women in many areas of the world (FAO, 1986b). For example, purdah in Moslem nations prevents women from talking with unknown men. When invited to training courses women are expected to, and do, act reticently and deferentially to males. Trainees are hesitant to ask questions of a male instructor (Hourihan, 1986). In areas where aquaculture is not a traditional activity, teaching by example is the most effective way of reaching the rural poor. Yet many extension agents, particularly women who have not been encouraged to participate in field work, may lack the practical experience to carry out this type of program (FAO, 1986a). Time is a crucial issue. Time spent away from the household must be justified in terms of the increased income (Acharya and Bennett, 1.982). They can find time only by placing greater household burdens on their children or by working on tasks which can be accomplished simultaneously with household work (Scott and Carr, 1985). It is difficult to get women off the farm; women responsible for households, children, and small animals cannot leave for long periods of time. Demonstration farms located at research and training centers are often not accessible to women for these reasons (Hourihan, 1986). Dormitory facilities sometimes lack facilities for women. These problems tend to make formal training program inaccessible to many women. Available jobs are often limited and most women, with some exceptions, have not had a basic education. Language problems can be important barriers. Many women have not learned to ride bicycles or motorcycles, and are not attracted to extension work because it is not considered fashionable. Survey of Women in Training and Extension A survey was conducted of a sample of women aquaculturists from various nations to identify recommendations for increasing women's participation in training and extension services. The following is a summary of their responses. Aquaculture, in most countries, was considered men's work. Women in aquaculture must constantly prove themselves; their work may be more carefully examined. It may be more difficult for women to advance in the field of aquaculture because of their gender. At the same time, the few women who are self-confident enough to pursue a career in aquaculture have often become prominent persons in the field. Others, however, do not continue in aquaculture even when trained because t-.hey see little chance for advancement. Women need to be aware that aquaculture is a field with potential for them. Both men and women need to be educated about the accomplishments and activities which women have already achieved in aquaculture. Successes and opportunities for women in aquaculture should be publicized so that others will be attracted. Women have been confined mostly to the "safety" of laboratory work and experimental ponds with few venturing into commerical aquaculture. Most women are channeled into laboratory research during their training and are less prepared than their male counterparts for extension work which requires substantial field experience. Specific barriers to women's participation in aquaculture which were mentioned included: (i) girls are taught early on to dislike fish, (ii) many trainers discourage women and do not take them seriously, (iii) people are often surprised and doubtful of the qualifications and knowledge of women in the field, and (iv) there is aversion to hiring women for work on a fish farm. Directors of institutions should give equal opportunities to men and women to be trained. Women need to be trained in field skills and specifically in the use of machinery and heavy equipment, aerator maintenance, pump and generator maintenance, mowers, chain saw handling, and repair of tools, cars, and tractors. Fish farms which are owned and operated by women could serve as effective demonstration units. Women should be offered internships concentrating on field activities. Women -only training sessions may be necessary to provide women with particular skills which in general women lack, such as equipment operation and maintenance. On-the-job training programs or volunteer work during high school and early college years should be developed. Women need farm exposure and strong mathematical skills. Successful women need to be found and made visible to younger women to serve as role models. The women surveyed indicated a need for more women to get involved as trainers. Women trainers would serve as role models for female trainees. Other means suggested included: promotion of aquaculture at the high school level through field trips to private farms and hatcheries, establishment of scholarships for women, and letters and personal contacts explaining the potential benefits of aquaculture. Although fewer women are involved in extension than in training, greater numbers are needed, especially in countries where women are responsible for growing and selling fish. In Nigeria, for example, women play a prominent role in marketing and preservation of fish, and it is necessary to have women in the extension services to transfer new technologies in these areas to the women. Women should be actively recruited for extension programs. Incentives must be offered because extension agents are of ten asked to go into depressed areas. Most of the women surveyed had no experience with women extension agents, but pointed out the importance of individual differences. Whether the clientele is male or female will influence the effectiveness of individual extension agents; there are situations in which women are more effective than men, and vice versa. Recommendations 1. The training programs of on-going projects should be evaluated to determine their accessibility to women. Periodic reviews should be conducted which gather and evaluate the following types of data: ❖ numbers and percentages of women applying for fellowships for national or international training, ❖ numbers and percentages of women receiving fellowships for national or international training, ❖ numbers and percentages of women trained at fisheries centers, ❖ numbers and percentages of women graduates of fisheries training centers who continue to work in aquaculture, ❖ numbers and percentages of women graduates of fisheries training centers employed to work with fish farming families, ❖ potential for women to participate in refresher courses, ❖ potential for women study tours and women's training groups (FAO, 1979b). 2. Efforts should be made to utilize more women trainers in on-going training program. 3. The feasibility of village-level training programs should be evaluated in all aquaculture projects which have a significant training component. Training in specific production, processing, or marketing technologies should be integrated with literacy and numeracy training (Acharya and Bennett, 1982; Engle, 1982). Slide shows, video presentations, and hands-on demonstrations are extremely valuable (Hourihan, 1986). Provision for child care, programs which enable women to acquire tools, representation of women on project committees, and support for hiring women, are critical considerations for the success of training programs (Scott and Carr, 1985). 4. Extension activities must focus on generating income for women. 5. Current extension services must be evaluated to determine their effectiveness in transferring technology to women. A major overhaul of the current male-oriented approach to agricultural extension is long overdue (Acharya and Bennett, 1982). An extension service for and by women may be required in some areas to let fisherwomen benefit from technical improvements in fishing activities traditionally carried out by women. Special sections for rural women may need to be created and staffed by female extension agents. Existing women's extension program must be expanded (FAO, 1986). 6. Female extension agents should be recruited, trained, and incorporated into extension services. As cultural perceptions of women talking to men are not nearly so intense as men talking to women, female agents can deal directly with both men and women farmers. There is a need for more active recruitment of women at the pre-college level. Women extension agents from other fields could also be trained in fisheries skills (Hourihan, 1986). 7. Female village-level extension agents (link workers) must be trained and employed in mobile training program. 8. Contacts between male extension agents and women need to be improved. Male extension workers at all levels must be made aware of women's major role in agriculture and of the need to reach women as well as male farmers (Acharya and Bennett, 1982). Group meetings between male extension agents and small numbers of women at selected farms on a regular, steady basis should be organized. The first few visits should include a female extension agent. Summary The role of women in aquaculture around the world has gone largely unrecognized. For this reason, little effort has been made to incorporate women into training program and extension services. Approximately 10-15% of trainers and trainees are women with even fewer women involved in extension services. Although aquaculture in most countries is considered "men's work", it is often the women who are responsible for managing the ponds and often repaying loans. Yet these women have virtually no access to information on new technologies. Even in activities where women visibly predominate, such as in marketing and fish processing, extension efforts are generally directed towards men. Case studies have shown that the effectiveness of technology transfer in aquaculture depends on the development of means of reaching women. These include training women extension agents, utilization of female link workers, and men/women team approaches to extension activities. Efforts must be made to publicize the work which women are doing in aquaculture through research, pamphlets, newspaper articles, and other media. By increasing people's awareness of women's roles, the involvement of women in on-going training program and extension services will increase. As more women participate in these key components of development, higher rates of project success and technology transfer can be expected. Role of women in Decision making Type and Activity Level of involvement 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% I Fishing: Selection of - Fishing vessel - Fishing gear - Fishing grounds - Other gadgets - Boat crew II Aquaculture Activities - Fish pond technician - Fishpond caretaker  - Fishpond operators - Stocking - Feeding - Harvesting - Marketing III Post - harvest operations - Handling of fish on vessel - Landing center - Trading - Money collection - Processing/products preparation IV Extension agency contact V Participation in social organizations VI Availing credit/loan from - Govt. institutions - Bank - Private lending VII Repayment of loans availed VIII Family affairs - Food - Clothing - Children’s education - Extra-curricular activities - Employment - Health- care - Savings - Investment - Tours IX Others