Human Geography Notes PDF

What is Geography? Study of spaces and places people create and their interactions with the environment. Focus on mass, energy, people, capital, and information flows shaping Earth's biophysical and human environments. What is Human Geography? Examines organization, conne...

What is Geography? Study of spaces and places people create and their interactions with the environment. Focus on mass, energy, people, capital, and information flows shaping Earth's biophysical and human environments. What is Human Geography? Examines organization, connection, and creation of spaces and places, and their influence on lives locally and globally. Space vs. Place: Space: Abstract, physical dimension where things exist. Place: Space imbued with meaning and significance. Importance: Understanding this distinction reveals how people interact with and shape their environments. What is Geography? Literally: "Earth Writing." Definition: Study of spaces and places people create and their interaction with the environment. Space vs. Place: Space: Abstract, measurable physical area. Place: Space with meaning and significance. Key Difference: Reveals how humans shape and interact with their environments. Human Geography (GPHY-121D-001) Introduction (August 26, 2023) Key Topics: What is Geography? ○ Literal Meaning: "Earth Writing." ○ Definition: Study of spaces and places created by people and their interactions with the environment. Space vs. Place: ○ Space: Abstract, measurable physical area. ○ Place: Space imbued with meaning and significance. ○ Importance: Understanding this distinction reveals how humans shape and interpret their environments. Cultural Diffusion 1. Contagious Diffusion: Spread via person-to-person contact (e.g., disease). 2. Hierarchical Diffusion: Spread through a hierarchy, reflecting power distributions in political, social, or economic systems. 3. Relocation Diffusion: Spread of ideas or traits as people move. 4. Expansion Diffusion: Innovation remains strong at its origin (hearth) while spreading outward. 5. Stimulus Diffusion: Two cultural traits blend to form a distinct trait. Core Human Geography Concepts: Location, Human-Environment Interactions, Regions, Place, Movement, Diffusion, Scale, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Map Projections. Scale in Geography: Refers to map distance vs. Earth distance or spatial extent (e.g., city, state). Scale interactions influence processes across different levels. Modified Areal Unit Problem emphasizes the importance of analysis scale. Cartography: Art and science of making maps, reducing and symbolizing information. Formats include physical, digital, and mental maps. Edward Tufte’s Principles: ○ Clear labels and proper units. ○ Emphasize data variation over design. ○ Avoid irrelevant design elements ("chartjunk"). Human Geography (GPHY-121D-001) Introduction (August 30, 2024) Core Concepts in Human Geography: Location, Human-Environment Interactions, Regions, Place, Movement, Diffusion, Scale, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Map Projections. Cartography: The art and science of making maps by reducing, selecting, and symbolizing information. Maps are abstractions of reality, useful in physical, digital, or mental formats. Size and Scale: Refers to the degree of generalization in geographic representation. Understanding scale is critical for geographic analysis. Map Projections: Projecting a 3D Earth onto 2D surfaces causes distortions in: ○ Area, Distance, Direction, and Shape. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS integrates hardware and software to analyze and visualize geographic data. Applications include Apple Maps, Google Maps, and Garmin GPS. Tools for mapping patterns and processes in human and physical geography. GIS Data Types: 1. Remote-Sensed Data: Raster grids, point clouds (e.g., LiDAR). 2. Vector Data: GPS-based or hand-digitized. 3. Volunteered Geographic Information: Platforms like OpenStreetMap, Yelp. 4. Qualitative Data: Mental maps, interviews, relationship networks. Human Geography (GPHY-121D-001) Population & Health (September 4, 2024) Topics Covered: 1. Review of GIS and Cartography 2. Population and Health ○ Measurement and density ○ Present population distribution Types of Spatial Data: Vector Data: ○ Points, lines, and polygons. ○ Nodes/edges tied to absolute locations (latitude/longitude). Raster Data: ○ Grid overlay on Earth’s surface. ○ Cells assigned attributes (e.g., urban or forest). ○ Spatial resolution defines cell size (e.g., 50 km x 50 km). ○ Commonly derived from remote sensing. Remote Sensed Data Notes: Physical data collected via satellite or aerial methods. Climate Data Examples:  CMIP-6 Climate Projection: 100 x 100 km resolution. ERA-5 Climate Record: 25 x 25 km resolution. New 2050 Projections: 5 x 5 km resolution. Human Geography (GPHY-121D-001) Population & Health (September 9, 2024) Topics Covered: 1. Demographic Transition Model (DTM): ○ A model of predictable changes in birth and death rates during economic development. ○ Stages: Stage 1: High birth and death rates, stable/low growth. Stage 2: Birth rates increase; death rates decline, rapid growth. Stage 3: Both decline, moderate/low growth. Stage 4: Low birth and death rates, stable/declining population. 2. Population Composition: ○ Structure by age, sex, and traits like education/marital status. ○ Visualized through population pyramids (age-sex cohorts). 3. Natural Increase Rate (NIR): ○ Formula: CBR (Crude Birth Rate) - CDR (Crude Death Rate). 4. Africa’s Demographics: ○ Population: 1.3 billion, youngest globally. ○ Trends: Rapid growth and urbanization without proportional economic development. ○ Future: Projected 1+ million urban residents added annually by 2050. 5. Health Indicators: ○ IMR (Infant Mortality Rate): Infant deaths per 1,000 live births. ○ MMR (Maternal Mortality Rate): Maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. 6. Disease Classification: ○ Vector vs. Non-Vector Diseases: Spread via carriers (e.g., mosquitoes) vs. direct means. ○ Infectious vs. Chronic Diseases: Contagious (e.g., flu) vs. long-term (e.g., heart disease). Human Geography (GPHY-121D-001) Migration (September 11, 2024) Topics Covered: 1. Migration Basics: ○ Defined as the movement of people from one place to another. ○ Includes voluntary and forced migration. 2. Types of Migration:  ○Internal Migration: Movement within a country (e.g., rural to urban). ○International Migration: Movement across national borders. ○Temporary vs. Permanent Migration: Short-term labor flows or relocation for settlement. 3. Remittances & Labor Flows: ○ Remittances: Money sent by migrants to their home countries, often critical to local economies. ○ Labor Flows: Migration for economic opportunities, shaping global labor markets. 4. Ukraine Refugee Crisis: ○ A significant example of forced migration caused by conflict. ○ Highlights the challenges faced by displaced populations and host countries. Key Activity: Migration Simulation: Students with last names A–G switched seats, simulating internal migration. ○ Discussed emotional and social impacts of movement (e.g., displacement and community integration). This session provided foundational understanding of migration processes and their societal effects. Topics Covered: 1. Examples of Migration: ○ Overseas Chinese Migration: Millions fled famine and political strife in southern China during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Migrated to Southeast Asia as contract laborers. Their descendants now form a significant minority in Southeast Asian nations. ○ Internal Migration (U.S.): The Great Migration (1900–1970): African Americans moved from the rural South to urban centers in the North and West. Recent shifts include migration from the Rust Belt (declining industrial regions) to the Sun Belt (southern states offering more economic opportunities). 2. Motivations for Migration: ○ Economic opportunities, political instability, environmental factors, and social betterment. 3. Legal Immigration to the U.S.: ○ Approximately 1,000,000 people immigrated legally in 2019. 4. Migration and Crime in the U.S.:  ○ Data indicates that Mexican and Central American immigrants, particularly those with low education levels, are significantly less likely to be incarcerated compared to U.S.-born men with similar educational backgrounds. This lecture expanded on migration examples, motivations, and the impact of migrants on host societies. 1. Refugees: ○ The United Nations was established in the context of displacement and post-WWII destruction, focusing on refugee issues. ○ The International Refugee Organization (1946) aimed at repatriation of displaced Europeans. ○ The UNHCR (1950) shifted focus to resettlement, with the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees defining the legal rights of refugees. Refugee Protections under the 1951 Convention: Protection from expulsion and punishment for illegal entry Rights to housing, education, work, and public assistance Freedom of religion and access to courts The 1967 Protocol expanded the definition by removing temporal and geographic constraints. No enforcement mechanism in the Convention. 2. Migrant vs. Refugee: ○ A migrant may leave for reasons such as employment or study, and retains protection from their home government. ○ A refugee, on the other hand, flees to escape persecution and cannot return safely to their country. 3. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): ○ IDPs are individuals who have been forced to flee within their own country. ○ Unlike refugees, IDPs stay under their home government’s protection, which may be the cause of their displacement, leaving them vulnerable with fewer rights. 4. Three Categories of Political Migrants: ○ Refugees: Forced to migrate to avoid persecution, cannot return safely. ○ Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): Flee within their own country, still under the protection of their government. ○ Asylum Seekers: Migrate in hopes of being recognized as refugees in another country. 5. Case Study - US Withdrawal from Afghanistan (2021): ○ Chaotic withdrawal of US forces in 2021 led to a significant number of Afghan evacuees (68,000+), with further resettlement expected. ○ Political controversy arose over resettling refugees, such as the 75 Afghans in Montana. ○ Contrast to the Vietnam War (1975): The Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act was passed to assist refugees from South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos with a $405 million program for evacuation and resettlement. This lecture discussed the distinctions between refugees, IDPs, and asylum seekers, as well as the complexities and political challenges surrounding refugee resettlement, with real-world examples from Afghanistan and Vietnam. Human Geography (GPHY-121D-001) Culture (September 20, 2023) Topics Covered: 1. Refugees and Asylum Policy in the USA ○ A claim for asylum in the U.S. must be based on one of five protected grounds: race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group. ○ Asylum seekers must apply within the U.S. or at one of its 328 official ports of entry (rather than from abroad). ○ U.S. immigration law and international agreements like the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol outline the right to asylum. ○ Current backlog: Asylum applicants face long delays, with the average wait time for a hearing being 1,424 days. 2. Cultural Landscapes of Popular Culture ○ Globalization has led to the convergence of cultural landscapes, spreading popular culture worldwide. ○ This has contributed to a homogenization of culture, often reflecting a Western-centric viewpoint. 3. Culture: Definitions and Concepts ○ Culture can be defined as: Growth (as crops in soil) Development in a controlled setting (like a lab) Intellectual improvement (manners, mind) A condition created by special training or circumstances A stage of development, including skills, arts, and abilities ○ Synonyms for culture: Civilization, Society, Traditions, Ethnicity, Customs, Philosophy, and the Arts. ○ Culture components: Culture is learned (not biological) through imitation, instruction, and example. Culture is not homogenous: It varies across time and locations. Culture is mobile: It spreads with people and diffuses from the hearth. 4. Cultural Traits ○ Sociofact (What we do together): Example - Pond Skim at Big Sky. ○ Artifact (What we make): Example - Skis. ○ Mentifact (What we believe): Example - Belief that burning skis in the fall will bring snow. This lecture discussed U.S. asylum and refugee policy, the impact of globalization on culture, and various definitions and components of culture, including cultural traits such as sociofacts, artifacts, and mentifacts. Identities Across Scales Different identities at different scales: ○ Individual: Roles like daughter, sister, teacher, student. ○ Local: Identifying as a resident of a specific neighborhood. ○ Regional: Regional identifiers such as Southerners. ○ National: Identifying as American or as a college student. ○ Global: Broader identities such as Western or free. Identity is contextual: The appropriate identity emerges depending on the scale or context, but defining identity in terms of space can oversimplify or reduce the complexities of identity. Identity is also influenced by place. Race and Class Origins of Racial Ideas: Many modern assumptions about race are tied to the period of European exploration and colonialism. European colonists often saw themselves as superior to those in the colonies, and this shaped racial categorizations. Race as a Social Construct: "Race" is more about a combination of physical characteristics in a population rather than biological differences. For example, skin color is not a reliable indicator of genetic closeness. Classifying Race Governments and Race: Racial classifications are not fixed and can be created or changed by governments. In the United States, the Census plays a key role in defining and tracking racial classifications. Hispanic/Latino: The term "Hispanic" is problematic because it lumps together diverse groups with different cultures and national origins. Additionally, the term "Hispanic" does not account for non-Spanish-speaking Latin American countries like Brazil. Future Demographics: Projections suggest that the non-Hispanic White population in the U.S. will be surpassed by the "everyone else" category around 2042. Racial and Ethnic Identities and Power: Racial and ethnic identities are often tied to systems of power and historical social dynamics. Ethnicity  Greek Origins: The concept of ethnicity comes from the Greek word "ethnikos," meaning nation or shared identity. Definition: Ethnicity refers to a socially defined group based on shared social experiences, ancestry, or common traits, such as language, religion, and customs. Unlike race, which is tied to perceived biological differences, ethnicity is more about shared cultural identity. Defining Ethnicity: The Case of “Latinx” "Latinx": A gender-neutral term created to describe people from Latin American backgrounds in the U.S. It is widely used in media, academia, and some governmental sectors, but only 23% of U.S. adults who identify as Hispanic or Latino are familiar with the term, and just 3% use it to describe themselves (Pew study link). The U.S. by Race & Ethnicity The spatialization of race and ethnicity refers to how race and ethnicity are mapped or distributed in geographic space. These distributions influence identity and experiences, particularly in urban areas. Spatialization of Race & Ethnicity Residential Segregation: This refers to the degree to which different racial or ethnic groups live separately in urban areas. It highlights how race and ethnicity shape where people live and how they experience society. Race & Ethnicity and Place Ethnicity as Tied to Place: Ethnic identity is often tied to a specific location over time, as places are infused with memories, experiences, and meanings for people. Cultural Groups and Ethnicity: Ethnic identity is often invoked when race cannot explain differences. It is often rooted in economic, political, religious, linguistic, or historical distinctions between groups. Ethnicity reflects how groups view their distinctiveness in the context of these factors. Identities across Scales  Different identities at different scales: ○ Individual: daughter, sister, teacher, student ○ Local: residents of a neighborhood ○ Regional: Southerners ○ National: American, college students ○ Global: Western, free The appropriate identity is revealed at the appropriate scale. Identity in space can be reductionist and is influenced by place. Race and Class Many modern assumptions about race grew from European exploration and colonialism, where colonists were encouraged to view themselves as superior to the colonized populations. What society typically calls a "race" is a combination of physical attributes within a population. Skin color is not a reliable indicator of genetic closeness. Classifying Race Governments can create and change racial classes. The role of the Census in racial classification. The problematic nature of the term "Hispanic." The difference between race and ethnicity, especially in relation to terms like Hispanic/Latino/a. Projections show that the population of "everyone else" will surpass the "White, non-Hispanic" population in the U.S. by around 2042. Racial and ethnic identities are often rooted in systems of power. Ethnicity The Greek concept of ethnikos refers to a shared national or social identity. Definition: Ethnicity is a socially defined group that identifies based on shared social experience or ancestry, often including shared languages, religions, and customs. Ethnicity differs from race, which is a social construction focused on perceived biological differences. Defining Ethnicity: The Case of “Latinx” “Latinx” is a gender-neutral, pan-ethnic label for people of Central/South American origin in the U.S. It is primarily used by left-leaning media, academics, environmental groups, and some local governments. However, only 23% of U.S. adults who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino have heard of the term, and just 3% use it to describe themselves. The U.S. by Race & Ethnicity Spatialization of Race & Ethnicity: ○ Race and ethnicity are shaped by the spaces people occupy, and this influences their identities and experiences. ○ Residential segregation: the degree to which different racial and ethnic groups live separately from one another in urban areas. Ethnicity and Place Ethnic identity is often shaped by the notion that people are related to a particular place over time. Ethnicity can be influenced by the “sense of place,” where places are infused with meanings, memories, and experiences. Cultural groups may use ethnicity to explain differences and conflicts, often due to economic, power, language, religion, lifestyle, or historical factors. Identity and Space Sexuality and Space: ○ Research by Gary Gates and Jason Ost shows concentrations of same-sex households in major U.S. cities with established gay and lesbian neighborhoods. ○ The idea of queer theory, developed by Glen Elder, Lawrence Knopp, and Heidi Nast, explores how heteronormative ideas influence the development of places and how people who do not conform to these ideas shape their spaces. ○ Dr. Susan Cassels of UC Santa Barbara studies HIV transmission patterns through network models, gathering field data in both Ghana and the U.S. Power Differences among Groups Power relationships can subjugate entire groups, reinforcing societal ideas about how people should behave and where they belong. ○ Examples: Jim Crow Laws (race), Belfast (religion), Israel/Palestine (nationality). Areas of Dislocation Israel/Palestine: ○ Zionism sought a national homeland for Jews, leading to the displacement of Palestinian Arabs. ○ This has created long-standing refugee issues and territorial conflicts. ○ As of 2020, 1.9 million Arab-Israeli citizens live in the region, often facing tensions around identity and power. Shifts in the Power of Identity Over Space and Time  Identity changes can be both top-down (government-imposed) and bottom-up (new identities emerging organically, often through migration). These shifts are reflected in both space and place and can lead to tensions between groLanguage Language as a Cultural Practice: ○ Language encompasses words, vocabularies, accents, dialects, etc. ○ It plays a crucial role in shaping identity. Key Question: What Are Languages, and What Role Do Languages Play in Cultures? Definition of Language: ○ Language is a set of sounds and symbols used for communication. ○ It is integral to culture. Language and Culture Language Reflects Culture: ○ Language provides insight into where a culture has been, what it values, and how people within the culture think, describe, and experience events. ○ Language helps cement cultural identity and enables individuals to make sense of themselves. Language Diffusion and Change There are three critical influences that perpetuate and spread (or restrict) a language: 1. Writing: Leads to standardization and sharing through educational systems. 2. Technology: Promotes interaction and diffusion through publications and delivery systems, extending language influence to areas far from its origin. 3. Political Organization: Language diffusion is influenced by government policies, which may either encourage or restrict a language's use. Political power can also impact the acceptance or prohibition of a language, fostering nationalistic feelings. Standardized Language A standard language is widely distributed, published, and intentionally taught. Governments may support a standard language by making it official and requiring literacy for government jobs (e.g., Ireland). The choice of a standard language often reflects historical power dynamics. For example, in countries with multiple dialects, the standard language typically reflects the group that had the most influence when the language was standardized. Example: Canada has two official languages: English and French. Influence of Language on Culture’s Geography Once a language becomes established in a region, it becomes an integral part of that area’s cultural identity. Linguistic landscapes are created through the written and spoken language. Language conveys information about a place and shapes perceptions; naming places is part of this process. Enforcing the use of a language by one group over others can be viewed as a power play, a way to assert control over a population. ups with differing identities. Language Language as a Cultural Practice: ○ Language encompasses words, vocabularies, accents, dialects, etc. ○ It plays a crucial role in shaping identity. Key Question: What Are Languages, and What Role Do Languages Play in Cultures? Definition of Language: ○ Language is a set of sounds and symbols used for communication. ○ It is integral to culture. Language and Culture Language Reflects Culture: ○ Language provides insight into where a culture has been, what it values, and how people within the culture think, describe, and experience events. ○ Language helps cement cultural identity and enables individuals to make sense of themselves. Language Diffusion and Change There are three critical influences that perpetuate and spread (or restrict) a language: 1. Writing: Leads to standardization and sharing through educational systems. 2. Technology: Promotes interaction and diffusion through publications and delivery systems, extending language influence to areas far from its origin. 3. Political Organization: Language diffusion is influenced by government policies, which may either encourage or restrict a language's use. Political power can also impact the acceptance or prohibition of a language, fostering nationalistic feelings. Standardized Language  A standard language is widely distributed, published, and intentionally taught. Governments may support a standard language by making it official and requiring literacy for government jobs (e.g., Ireland). The choice of a standard language often reflects historical power dynamics. For example, in countries with multiple dialects, the standard language typically reflects the group that had the most influence when the language was standardized. Example: Canada has two official languages: English and French. Influence of Language on Culture’s Geography Once a language becomes established in a region, it becomes an integral part of that area’s cultural identity. Linguistic landscapes are created through the written and spoken language. Language conveys information about a place and shapes perceptions; naming places is part of this process. Enforcing the use of a language by one group over others can be viewed as a power play, a way to assert control over a population. Religion Religion Definition: A religion is “a system of beliefs and practices that attempts to order life in terms of culturally perceived ultimate priorities.” ○ Religions establish standards for how people "should" behave. Religion and Its Cultural Significance Cultural Religious Manifestations: ○ Cultural landscape: Includes structures like churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, cemeteries, shrines, statues, and mausoleums. ○ Prayer and Rituals: These practices often take place at regular intervals during significant life events, such as: Birth, marriage, and death. Attainment of adulthood. Religion in Conflict and Identity Palestinian-Israeli Conflict: ○ What aspects of identity explain the Palestinian-Israeli conflict? ○ Can Israel be an "occupier" and Hamas be a terrorist organization simultaneously? Where does religion fit into this conflict? The intersection of religion, national identity, and territorial disputes plays a significant role in this ongoing conflict. Political Geography  Remaining Points on Religion: ○ A link discusses how climate change is addressed in religious settings, noting that some U.S. Catholics hear about it in sermons, where it is presented as part of the duty to care for God's creation. ○ The connection between group identity and biological imperatives in the context of community belonging. Political Identity Political Identity Questions: ○ iClicker questions: How do students identify politically (liberal, conservative, neutral, etc.)? Party affiliation (Democrat, Republican, etc.)? ○ Backgrounds and Identity of Class: 94% support government policies for wildlife health. 96% support conservation efforts. A mix of students from urban and rural areas, with different views on public land access and gun purchasing policies. Concepts of Political Geography States vs. Nations vs. Nation-States vs. Multinational States: ○ State: A political entity with defined borders, government, and sovereignty. ○ Nation: A group of people with shared cultural identity, often linked by ethnicity, language, or history. ○ Nation-State: A state whose boundaries largely coincide with the territory of a nation. ○ Multinational State: A state containing multiple nations or ethnic groups, each with their own cultural identity and sometimes, their own political aspirations. World Systems Theory: A theory that explains global inequality in terms of the historical and economic relationships between countries, highlighting the core, semi-periphery, and periphery nations and their roles in the global economy. Political Geography Review of Montana Politics: ○ Legislative Districts in Montana:  1. The criteria for redistricting include equal population (with a deviation of no more than 1% where allowable), protection of minority voting rights, compactness, and contiguity. 2. The commission aims to minimize dividing cities, towns, counties, and federal reservations. 3. Communities of interest (such as neighborhoods, tribal interests, and rural/urban distinctions) should be considered during redistricting. World Systems Theory (Continued): ○ Key Tenets of World Systems Theory (as defined by Immanuel Wallerstein): 1. The world economy has one market and a global division of labor. 2. Capitalism drives the exchange of goods and services for profit. 3. Commodification is the process of pricing goods, services, or ideas for trade. State Devolution: ○ Discussion of how states experience decentralization of power to local or regional governments, often due to pressures from separatist movements or political fragmentation. Boundaries: ○ The ways in which political boundaries are established and their implications for governance, identity, and international relations. Supranational Organizations: ○ Organizations that extend beyond the national level, such as the European Union (EU), the United Nations (UN), and others, and how they influence political geography. Urban Geography Remaining Politics Slides: ○ Continued discussion on supranational organizations, such as the European Union (EU), and their impact on political geography. Overview of Trends: ○ Urbanization, with fast-growing populations in cities, particularly in developing countries. ○ The shift from rural to urban living, with projections showing nearly 75% of the global population will live in urban areas by 2050. What is ‘Urban’ & What is a ‘City’: ○ Understanding the definitions and distinctions between "urban" areas and "cities." ○ Urban centers have expanded dramatically since the Industrial Revolution, with population distribution patterns being a key factor in geography. Hearths of Urbanization: ○ The origins and historical development of urban areas, beginning with early hearths of civilization. Urban Morphology + Site/Situation: ○ Urban morphology refers to the form and structure of urban spaces.  ○ Site and situation explain how cities are located geographically and how their positions influence development. Urban Geography & Supranational Organizations Urbanization Trends: ○ Rapid growth of urban populations since the Industrial Revolution. ○ 50% of the world’s population is urban; projected to reach 75% by 2050. ○ Fastest urbanization occurring in developing countries. Supranational Organizations: ○ United Nations (UN), European Union (EU), and other organizations promote international cooperation. ○ EU formed in 1992; not all member states use the euro. ○ Brexit controversy: reflects devolutionary movements within the EU. Impact of Urbanization: ○ Urban centers have become more dominant in population distribution. ○ Urban growth affects human and environmental well-being. North American City Models Homer Hoyt: Sector Model ○ Cities grow outward from the center, forming pie-shaped sectors: high-rent, intermediate-rent, low-rent residential, education/recreation, transportation, and industrial. ○ Example: Chicago, Calgary. Chauncy Harris & Edward Ullman: Multiple Nuclei Model ○ Recognizes multiple urban centers (nuclei) instead of a single dominant CBD. ○ Edge cities are large urban areas with offices and retail on city outskirts. ○ Example: Chicago. Galactic City Model ○ A complex urban area where city functions are spread across multiple locations, not centered in one place. Political and Economic Policies Shaping Cities Zoning Laws ○ Divide cities into zones for specific types of development (e.g., residential, commercial). Redlining ○ Now-illegal practice where banks refused loans in predominantly Black neighborhoods, contributing to racial wealth gaps. Blockbusting & White Flight ○ Realtors encouraged white residents to sell homes by claiming neighborhoods were deteriorating with Black residents moving in, leading to white flight to suburbs. Gentrification Gentrification ○ Renewal of lower-income areas into middle- to upper-class neighborhoods, increasing property values. ○ Leads to displacement of lower-income residents due to rising costs and taxes, contributing to homelessness. ○ City governments often promote gentrification to revitalize downtowns. North American City Models Homer Hoyt: Sector Model ○ Cities grow outward from the center, forming pie-shaped sectors: high-rent, intermediate-rent, low-rent residential, education/recreation, transportation, and industrial. ○ Example: Chicago, Calgary. Chauncy Harris & Edward Ullman: Multiple Nuclei Model ○ Recognizes multiple urban centers (nuclei) instead of a single dominant CBD. ○ Edge cities are large urban areas with offices and retail on city outskirts. ○ Example: Chicago. Galactic City Model ○ A complex urban area where city functions are spread across multiple locations, not centered in one place. Political and Economic Policies Shaping Cities Zoning Laws ○ Divide cities into zones for specific types of development (e.g., residential, commercial). Redlining ○ Now-illegal practice where banks refused loans in predominantly Black neighborhoods, contributing to racial wealth gaps. Blockbusting & White Flight ○ Realtors encouraged white residents to sell homes by claiming neighborhoods were deteriorating with Black residents moving in, leading to white flight to suburbs. Gentrification Gentrification ○ Renewal of lower-income areas into middle- to upper-class neighborhoods, increasing property values.  ○ Leads to displacement of lower-income residents due to rising costs and taxes, contributing to homelessness. ○ City governments often promote gentrification to revitalize downtowns. Development Geography - Overview What is "Development"? ○ Development refers to advances in technology that allow for increased food production, creation of new products, and accumulation of material wealth. ○ However, these advancements do not always lead to increased happiness. Development & Malthus ○ Norman Borlaug: Argues that those advocating for environmental sustainability in wealthy nations may be disconnected from the reality of poverty in developing countries. He believes technology (like tractors, fertilizer, and irrigation) is essential for alleviating hunger. ○ Amartya Sen: Contrasts Borlaug’s view, asserting that starvation is not due to a lack of food, but because of poverty and structural inequality. Starvation results from being unable to access food due to economic disparity. Key Points: Development involves more than just material wealth; it also relates to social, economic, and political dimensions. Structural inequality and poverty contribute significantly to hunger, not just food scarcity. Development (cont’d.) - October 25, 2024 Progress in Global Health: ○ Under-five mortality rate: Decreased by 59% from 1990 to 2019 (93.0 to 37.9 deaths per 1,000 live births). ○ Global under-5 deaths: Declined by 58%, from 12.5 million in 1990 to 5.2 million in 2019. Challenges Amid Progress: ○ Climate Change: Despite progress in health, climate change continues to be a critical issue. ○ Food Insecurity: On the rise, adding another challenge to development efforts. Economic Growth vs. Environmental Impact: ○ GDP vs. CO2 emissions: Data shows that GDP growth can occur alongside a reduction in CO2 emissions. ○ Key question: How can we expand the economy and alleviate poverty without damaging the environment? Crucial Development Questions: ○ How do we ensure ecological sustainability while expanding economies and lifting people out of poverty? ○ Can we achieve economic equality and define what sustainability really means?  ○ Does material wealth equate to human well-being? Traditional Models of Development: Walt Rostow's Modernization Model: ○ Assumes that all countries follow a similar path of development in five stages: 1. Traditional society: Dominated by subsistence farming. 2. Preconditions of takeoff: New leadership promotes flexibility, openness, and diversification. 3. Takeoff: Industrial revolution-like growth with sustained economic development. 4. Drive to maturity: Technological advancements, industrial specialization, and expanding international trade. 5. High mass consumption: High incomes and widespread production of goods and services. This model suggests a linear path, with all countries eventually progressing through these stages. Reflection Questions: Can we find a balance between economic growth and environmental protection? How can we address the growing global inequality while fostering sustainable development? History of Agriculture: 1. Revolution 1: Early agricultural practices, involving the domestication of plants and animals, leading to settled farming communities. 2. Revolution 2: The Industrial Revolution in agriculture, where new tools, machinery, and technology increased food production efficiency. 3. Revolution 3: The Green Revolution, characterized by modern biotechnology, high-yield crops, and intensive farming practices aimed at feeding growing populations. The history highlights how agriculture has evolved, with each revolution improving efficiency and output but also introducing new challenges in sustainability and cultural impact. Agriculture Overview: ○ Definition: Agriculture is the purposeful cultivation of crops and livestock to produce food, feed, and fiber. ○ The transition from hunting to farming marks the First Agricultural Revolution. Agriculture Today:  ○ Farm Size: 84% of the world's 570 million farms are smallholdings (less than 2 hectares). ○ Small farms produce about 1/3 of the global food supply, often focusing on subsistence farming. ○ Smallholder Farmers: Approximately 2 billion people globally. ○ International Food Policy: Aims to keep people in farming or attract youth to the industry, with some advocating for technological solutions like farm mechanization to reduce labor requirements. Agriculture & Sustainability: ○ The focus is on balancing agriculture's role in food production with sustainability goals. Spatial Patterns of Agriculture: ○ Von Thünen Model: Analyzes the spatial layout of agriculture based on transportation costs and perishability of products. As one moves away from towns, different crops or commodities are grown in concentric rings. ○ This model helps explain land use patterns even when agricultural activities don't strictly follow these rings. GMOs Discussion: ○ iClicker Question on GMOs: Options range from seeing them as harmful to viewing them as part of the future of agriculture, reflecting varied opinions. This session delves into the spatial organization of agriculture, historical and modern trends in farming, and sustainability challenges. Industry (Economic Geography) - November 6, 2024 Announcements: ○ Quiz Update. ○ Exam 2 Overview. ○ Assignment 4 Overview. Agriculture Quick Review: ○ Requirements for Agriculture: Sunlight (energy), water, soil (nutrients), land, labor (or machines). ○ Acknowledgment that agriculture is not just about resources but also a cultural, identity, and environmental issue. Case Studies: ○ Climate Impacts and Food Security: Examining how distal factors like drought, global commodity markets, and political events (e.g., Arab Spring) affect food security. Evidence from media reports, such as the increase in bread prices in Cairo. ○ Amazon Deforestation: Analyzing the rapid deforestation of the Amazon for beef production. While the evidence is top-down (satellite imagery), the cultural importance of cowboy culture in ranching is bottom-up.  ○ Technology and Food Security: Exploring the use of mobile phone technology among Kenyan farmers to access climate services (weather and planting information). ○ Environmental Impact of Food: Studying the environmental consequences of food production, including greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and nutrient runoff. Modeling impacts varies by geography. The Industrial Revolution: ○ Cottage Industries: Before industrialization, families worked at home to produce goods, each creating components for a finished product. ○ Mass Production: The Industrial Revolution introduced mass production using machines instead of human labor, which lowered production costs and flooded global markets with inexpensive goods. ○ Technological Advancements: The steam engine and other manufacturing innovations facilitated mass production, and the expansion of trade networks, particularly with Western Europe, helped drive economic growth. ○ Transportation: Railroads and steamships further enhanced industrialization, allowing goods to be transported more efficiently. This session covers the historical development of industry, focusing on the rise of mass production and the complex issues tied to food security, technology, and environmental impacts. Industry (Economic Geography) - November 8, 2024 Review of Syllabus Globalization and Industry: ○ Globalization: A process that heightens interactions and increases connections across borders. It began with colonialism and the Industrial Revolution, but has accelerated in the 21st century. It fundamentally changed the movement of goods and services globally. ○ Example: An iPad costs only $0.05 to ship from Shanghai to Hamburg, illustrating the low cost of global transportation. Global Division of Labor: ○ Labor is concentrated in peripheral and semi-peripheral regions to benefit from lower labor costs, while research and development (R&D) are mainly in core regions. ○ Just-in-time delivery: Companies only keep necessary stock for short-term production needs, with new parts arriving quickly when needed. ○ Spatial Fix: Technological advances allow companies to shift production based on location-specific cost advantages. Flexible Production and Product Life Cycle: ○ Flexible production: Firms can select from multiple suppliers and production strategies, adapting quickly to changes in costs or demand.  ○ Commodification: Goods that were not previously bought, sold, or traded gain market value, such as virtual assistants like Alexa. ○ Product life cycle: The production process changes over time (e.g., the evolution of television production). ○ Homogenization of culture: Globalization leads to the spread of similar cultural products and consumer preferences. Rise of Multinational Corporations: ○ Outsourcing, previously the movement of production from core countries to peripheral ones, has become more complex. Economic activities now occur globally, and multinational corporations use various countries in their commodity chains. ○ China's Role: China has become a global leader in sourcing, benefiting from its position in global supply chains. Classical Location Theory: ○ Alfred Marshall: Proposed that similar industries tend to cluster in areas, leading to agglomeration. ○ Alfred Weber’s Least Cost Theory: Focuses on minimizing three costs for factory owners: Transportation Costs: The friction of distance (the increased time and cost associated with transporting goods over long distances). Labor Costs: The cost of workers in a given location. Agglomeration: The benefits of being near similar industries. Considering Global Location: ○ Today, companies must also consider: Labor and environmental regulations. Political stability. Exposure to natural hazards. Electricity and other resource costs. Conclusion: Although the global economy has become more interconnected and complex, location theory remains relevant for influencing the placement of nodes within supply chains. This session focuses on the role of globalization in shaping industrial geography, with attention to theories of location, the rise of multinational corporations, and the complexities of global production. From the information provided, it looks like the session will focus on using satellite technology to map and analyze global population and demographic structures. Here’s a breakdown based on your questions: 1. What do you notice? ○ The session is led by Andrew Zimmer, a research scientist in the Department of Earth Sciences, suggesting an emphasis on geospatial analysis.  ○ The main topic appears to be understanding global population dynamics, and how satellites can assist in mapping population distribution and demographic details. ○ The class will move beyond just population numbers, exploring broader demographic structures and their applications. 2. What do you wonder? ○ How exactly do satellites contribute to mapping population data? Are they used to track migration, density, or infrastructure? ○ What kind of applications or impacts will the mapping of demographic structures have on urban planning, resource distribution, or policy decisions? 3. What might be the impact of this? ○ Mapping global population and demographic structures can provide critical insights into urbanization, resource management, and global health issues. ○ Satellite data can improve decision-making, especially in areas like disaster response, healthcare distribution, and sustainable development. ○ It can also highlight inequalities in population distribution and help address challenges like overpopulation or depopulation in certain regions. This session seems to be building towards understanding how technological advancements, like satellites, can make our understanding of population and demographic changes more precise and actionable. What do you notice? The session focuses on understanding the factors that contribute to vulnerability to natural hazards. Key components like risk, exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity are introduced to explain how different populations may be affected by hazards. There is an emphasis on the complexity of socio-ecological systems and the importance of spatial scale in determining vulnerability. What do you wonder? How are vulnerability assessments conducted in different geographical areas? How do geographers integrate socio-ecological factors with physical data (like hazard likelihood) to assess vulnerability? How can adaptive capacity be improved in highly vulnerable areas? What might be the impact of this? By understanding vulnerability in a comprehensive way (including risk, exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity), geographers can better inform disaster preparedness, response, and mitigation strategies. This approach can help prioritize interventions, allocate resources, and guide policy decisions at various levels of government (local, national, or international).  Recognizing the complexity of socio-ecological systems can lead to more sustainable solutions that take into account not just the physical environment but also social, economic, and cultural factors in managing natural hazards. Vulnerability Review: Understanding how geographers quantify vulnerability to natural hazards, factoring in exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The iClicker question poses how vulnerability is calculated: ○ Correct answer: C. vulnerability = exposure + sensitivity + adaptive capacity. Human-Induced Changes: The Anthropocene: The Anthropocene refers to the current geological age viewed as the period during which human activity has been the dominant influence on climate and the environment. Climate Change: Geographers examine the greenhouse effect, where Earth's absorption of solar radiation leads to heat being re-radiated by greenhouse gases, contributing to rising global temperatures. The impact of this on human-environment interactions is significant, particularly through the increased frequency of extreme weather events and changes in global patterns of water and resource availability. NASA Project: Understanding Extreme Heat in Arabia: A three-year project, partnering with King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), focuses on studying extreme heat and land cover change in Saudi Arabia, providing insight into how changing climates affect land use and human populations in extreme environments. Resource Extraction (If Time): The impact of resource extraction on the environment, often contributing to land-cover changes and environmental degradation, could also be explored if time permits. Key Topics: 1. Time-Space Compression: ○ Definition: Time-space compression refers to the shrinking of the world due to faster communication and transportation, enabling greater interaction across distances.  ○ Digital Divide: Access to information technology is uneven, contributing to both the spread and inequality of globalization. The digital divide affects access to resources and opportunities, often along socioeconomic lines. 2. Social Networks: ○ Social media networks, like Facebook and Twitter, have been pivotal in facilitating movements like the Arab Spring and #MeToo. However, they can also be platforms for hate speech, terrorism, and misinformation. ○ Impact: These platforms have altered how people communicate, organize, and engage in global social movements. 3. NGOs and Development: ○ NGOs have become influential players in global development through networks that challenge traditional powers. The rise of participatory development emphasizes local involvement in creating development strategies. 4. Information Networks: ○ Six global media conglomerates control most media content: Time-Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom, News Corporation, and Vivendi Universal. ○ Vertical Integration: These companies own most points along the production and distribution of media, which helps them maintain control and promote their content. This reduces the number of gatekeepers and limits the diversity of information in the global flow. 5. Economic Networks: ○ Horizontal Integration: Major retail corporations typically operate across different sectors or locations but under the same parent company, ensuring dominance across various markets. This is a contrast to media companies, which are vertically integrated. 6. Disinformation: ○ Social media platforms can be used to spread misinformation about crucial topics like elections, climate change, and pandemics. This raises questions about the regulation of speech online, especially considering freedom of speech as a constitutional right in the U.S. In-Class Exercise Reflection: Reflect on your learning in the course so far. Think about how geography, particularly in relation to networks, has influenced your understanding of global issues.