AP Human Geography Notes PDF

AP Human Geography Notes Map Components Title: What purpose does it have Compass Rose: Cardinal and Intermediate Directions Legend and Key: Explains Symbols Scale: The Ratio of map units to real units Reference Maps Emphasize the location of spatial phenomena, such as countries,...

AP Human Geography Notes Map Components Title: What purpose does it have Compass Rose: Cardinal and Intermediate Directions Legend and Key: Explains Symbols Scale: The Ratio of map units to real units Reference Maps Emphasize the location of spatial phenomena, such as countries, cities, rivers, etc. Chances are the maps you use most in your daily life are reference maps (street maps) Thematic Maps Emphasize the spatial pattern of geographic attributes or statistics about places and relationships between places (a theme in relation to a geographic area). For ex, while a reference map might show the locations of cities, a thematic map might also represent the population of those cities. Choropleth Map Uses colors or shading to show value (typically, the darker shade = greater the value). Dot Map Uses uniform dots to show density and distribution (more dots, greater value). Graduated or Proportional Symbol Map Uses different sized symbols, often a circle, to show the value Isoline Map Uses lines to link areas that share equal value (line = change in data) Cartogram Distorts land area based on one particular variable: larger land area = greater the value. Types of Density Arithmetic Density: Number of persons per unit of land. Physiological density: Number of persons per unit of arable land. Agricultural Density: Number of farmers per unit of land. Projections Projections are methods of flattening the round Earth Map projections cause distortion of Shape, Area, Distance, and/or Direction Maps are most accurate in the middle Absolute Location EXACT, PRECISE Address Latitude and Longitude Rio de Janeiro is located at 23S 43W Relative Location Relationship to another place Absolute Distance Miles Kilometers Feet Precise Relative Distance Spatial Interaction: Connections, contacts, movement, and flow of things between places. Absolute Direction Cardinal Directions Exact and precise Relative Direction Remember, relative-relationships Turn left at the Target Clustering Close together Density - The number of something in a given area Dispersal/Distribution Far apart Distribution - The way something is spread out Patterns and Spatial Associations Indication that two (or more) phenomena may be related, associated, or correlated with one another Mercator Projection Good with direction, but distorts the size Azimuthal (Polar) Projection Good with direction, but distorts size from the center out. Equal Area (Orange Peel) Projection Good with size and shape but distorts direction and distance Robinson Projection Compromise between size and shape, but most accurate overall representation The concept of place Geography 3 ways to define place 1.Place names (toponym), 2. Site, 3. Situation Site vs. situation of place The site gives physical characteristics of a place, situation is the relationship of the location, how it is working in relation to something else Human activity or nature (defines where you are) Signs and clues to tell where you are based on culture. Placelessness example: you are driving down the highway and every exit looks the same like McDonald's signs. Distance decay The effect on distance cultural or spatial interactions. (time and distance) Time - Space compression The increasing sense of connectivity due to advances in tech. Human Environmental Interaction Natural Resources In order to maintain sustainability we have a responsibility to manage our natural resources We have to focus on renewable natural resources that will last us into the future We also have to end our reliance on nonrenewables like fossil fuels because they are finite and their impact on the environment Cultural Ecology The study of how humans interact or adapt to the environment What does where we live change what we do? Environmental Determinism: the idea the environment in which we live determines the types of lives we lead Are we limited by our environment? Possibilism: A more modern interpretation Acknowledges the limitations imposed by the natural environment, but focuses on the role of human culture to modify and respond to the environment to better fit human needs Scales of Analysis Global, Regional, State/Country/National, Sub-state, County, City/Local, and Sensus Tract Small Scale Map: show LARGE area with SMALL amounts of data. Zoomed out/BIG # on map Large Scale Map: show SMALL area with LARGE amounts of data. Zoomed in/SMALL # on map Global Scale Map National Scale of Analysis - Comparing and contrasting countries of the world 1.7 Regional Analysis Regions are defined as Formal, Functional, Perceptual. Formal- unified by one of more specific traits: a. economic b. Social c. political d. Environmental Functional- Organized around a central node and the relationship is typically based around economics. Perceptual- based on someone's perception of certain location. -informal -sense of place or cultural identity -boundaries often vary widely Unit 2 AP Human Geography Notes 2.1 Population Distribution: ○ Too dry, too cold, too wet, too high/hilly Where don’t people live? 1. Too Dry (20% of the Earth) a. 15N to 50N latitude b. Sahara, Arabian, Thar, Gobi; Australia c. Southwest U.S. d. 20S to 50S latitude 2. Too Cold a. Northern and Southern Polar Regions b. Interesting side note- Poles receive less precipitation than some deserts 3. Too Wet (Rain) a. Near equator to 20N/20S b. 50 inches a year/ Seasonal Rains c. Soil Leaching: run off of nutrients, especially with heat d. Southeast Asia advantages? 4. Too High/ 5. Too Hilly a. Mountains: steep, snow-covered, cold b. See Central Asia; Switzerland: 1/2 is more than 3,300 feet high; only 5% of the country lives there Important Word: Ecumene: Zone of inhabited world Where do people live? Environmental/Physical Factors, Mid latitudes, Low lying areas, Near fresh water, Human Geography Factors: ESPN, Economic, Social (Cultural), Political Ports are important Military Bases, Sacred Locations, Capital Cities, Freedom from persecution What do Regions have in common? Low-lying areas with fertile soil and temperate climate Close to oceans and feeder Rivers Mainly in the Northern Hemisphere Population Clusters These areas that are heavily populated illustrate the unevenness in global population Metacity: city with more than 20 million residents Megacity: city with more than 10 million residents 2.2 Consequences of Population density and distribution How does population distribution and density affect society? -Economic: 1. Competing for jobs 2. Urbanization due to manufacturing and industrialization 3. Uneven population distribution results in uneven development Population clusters/high-density Low population density +access to goods and services +Less competition for resources +more job opportunities +Less competition for jobs -More competition for jobs -Less access to goods resource -Crowded/overused infrastructure -Social Population clusters/high-density Low population density Positive - better access to schools /education Positive-Disease spread hit or miss Negative - more socially distant Negative-less access to health care -Natural/environmental/Physical -Carrying capacity: the maximum Population size an environment can sustain. -High population density= pressure on arable land to farm -Political Representation in Government -Electoral districts which have to be roughly equal in population size. -Determines how many representatives in Congress -Redistricting -> process of withdrawing electoral district boundaries after the census every year. Population Clusters/ high density Positive - More political representation (House of reps & Electoral College) Positive - More gov resources Negative - less autonomy Low population Positive - more autonomy Negative - less political reps Environmental Population clusters/high density Positive- potential for alternative energy Negative- creates more air and water waste 2.3 Population Pyramids Top, Bottom, Bulges, Indentations, Symmetry Males are always on the left, Females are always on the right 4 Types of Population Pyramids Rapid Growth ○ Wide-Base stepped pyramid base Slow Growth ○ Somewhat narrow base slightly pyramid shape or cylindrical (birth rate just over death rate) Stability ○ Pyramid will have even distribution across cohorts (birth rate and death rate are similar) Decline ○ Very narrow base or appears top heavy (low birth rate and negitave population growth) 2.4 Population Dynamics Fertility ○ Crude Birth Rate (CBR) The number of live births occurring in one year per 1000 people ○ Total Fertility Rate (TFR) Average number of children who would be born per woman during her childbearing years Globally TFR has been significantly decreasing over time Mortality ○ Life Expectancy The number of years the average person will live This has been steady increasing over time, which has contributed to population growth ○ Crude Death Rate (CDR) The number of deaths occuring in one year per 1000 people Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) ○ The number of children who die before one year of age ○ Typically when IMR goes down, life expectancy goes up which leads to higher population growth How do geographers calculate population growth and decline? Natural Increase Rate (NIR) or Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) (same thing) ○ Does not account for migration ○ Can be a negative number, indicating population decrease ○ Usually expressed in a percentage ○ CBR - CDR divided by 10 Population Growth Rate More accurate measure because it accounts for migration Immigrants - people who moved into a country Emigrants - people that move out of the country United States - 0.72% Doubling Time: the number of years in which a population will double assuming the growth rate stays the same Today, most population growth is happening in LDCs - specifically in Asia and Africa 2.5 Demographic Transition Model (DTM) Demography: the study of population statistics Demographic Transition Model (DTM): Model used by geographers to analyze and predict trends in population growth and decline including patterns of births, deaths, and natural increase rates Epidemiological Transition Model (ETM): Predictable stages in disease and life expectancy that countries experience as they develop which corresponds with the stages of the DTM Periphery/Semi-Periphery/Core Periphery: Little tech, aqri, little education, provide, raw materials Core: Hight tech, well developed. Ex: US, UK Characteristics Stage One Reasons for CBR ○ High TFR because children are not likely to survive long term; High IMR and CMR ○ Need for child labor in agricultural societies Reasons for CDR ○ Short life expectancy ○ Famine, poor diet, inadequate housing, disease, warfare Natural Increase Rate ○ Low growth Examples: No countries are in this stage Historic stage Characteristics Stage Two Reasons for CBR ○ Remains the same as previous stage  Reasons for CDR ○ Still a low life expectancy, but… ○ Improved nutrition, sanitation, and medicine Natural Increase Rate: Rapid Growth Examples: LDCs, Niger, Mali, South Sudan Characteristics Stage Three Reasons for CBR ○ Urbanization reduces the need for child labor - children $$, Smaller living spaces ○ Increase in healthcare, female employment and education Reasons for CDR ○ Life expectancy increases due to the progression of advancements from previous stage National Increase Rate: Growth Slows Examples: Many Semi-Periphery countries like Turkey, Mexico, Indonesia, India Characteristics Stage Four Reasons for CBR ○ Same as previous stage Reasons for CDR ○ Life expectancy continues to increase Natural Increase Rate: Falls and then stabilizes at low growth Examples: Majority of MDCs: China, Australia, Canada, South Korea, US Characteristics Stage Five Reasons for CBR ○ Replacement Level (TFR: 2.1) OR Zero population growth (ZPG) Reasons for CDR ○ Most medically advanced Natural Increase Rate: Negative or very low Ex. Japan, Germany 2.6 Population Theory Thomas Malthus ○ Malthus’ 3 assumptions (Industrial Revolution) Food production increases arithmetically (problematic) Population increases exponentially (WAY off) Countries are closed systems (incorrect) Outcome of this situation? ○ Positive checks = increase CDR War, Disease, Natural Disaster, Famine ○ Preventative checks = lower CBR Marrying later, Birth control, Moral restraint (he didn’t anticipate)  Carrying Capacity: The amount of population that a location can support without harming the environment ○ Geographers' way of saying “overpopulation” Poor Ben and Poor Ester ○ “Observations concerning the increase of mankind” ○ Disagreed with Malthus: Wealth restraints growth, not morality Food production stays ahead of population growth Poor Ester ○ “Conditions of agricultural growth the economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure” (1965) ○ Population density -> more agricultural output She is a possibilist Creative solutions to population pressure Criticisms of Malthusian Theory: ○ Factors that have slowed population growth: Contraceptives Educations and advancement of women ○ Factors that have increased the efficiency of farming: Mechanized Farming Hybrid Seeds Chemical Fertilizers ○ New Technologies and Inventions More efficient travel to deliver food to a wider range of consumers without spoiling Refrigeration in trucks and railcars as well as homes to preserve food Tin Cans to preserve food food for longer time periods Neo Malthusian Geeks = is Earth a closed system? ○ Global limit on population (higher than Malthus est.) ○ Gap between resources and pop. (and wealth) wider than Malthus assumed (some cases) ○ Broader problem: Environmental Degradation 2.7 Population Policies Pro-Natalist Policies ○ Polocies to promote birth ○ Supports higher birth rates ○ Found in: countries with low or negative NIR and an elderly population Pro Natalist General Strategies ○ Increased maternity leave ○ Governments subsidized child care ○ Family allowances ○ Banning contraception ○ Priority housing Why would a country want a pro-natalist country? ○ Use ESPN Anti-Natalist Policies ○ Policies to restrict birth ○ Found in countries with high CBR and high rates of NIR Anti-Natalist General Strategies ○ Access to low cost contraception ○ Easy access to family planning clinics ○ Use of media to promote smaller families ○ Free education for smaller families ○ Promotion of sterilization programs ○ Loss of maternity leave after a certain number of children ○ Education of women Pro-Natalist Countries ○ Singapore, Finland, Denmark, Sweden, Estonia, France USSR Motherhood Metals  ○ They awarded medals to women in order to encourage a high fertility rate Anti-Natalist Policies ○ China One child policy ○ India Promotion of sterilization ○ Bangladesh Education of women One Child Policy Rewards ○ Free medical care ○ Free daycare and schooling ○ Guaranteed job for child ○ Bonuses for parents ○ Extra maternity leave ○ Better housing ○ Bigger old age pension One Child Policy Penalties ○ Must repay financial benefits ○ Educational, Medical benefits, and guaranteed jobs are withdrawn Immigration Policies ○ Quotas (US) = law establishing a maximum limit on # of people who can immigrate into a country ○ Guest worker programs (Europe) = people from poorer countries were allowed to immigrate temporarily to obtain jobs ○ Influenced by the following factors Public opinion Economic Resources International relations ○ Un Classifies Immigration Policies in 4 ways Maintain current level of immigration Increase the level Reduce the level No policy Why would a Country want a pro-natalist country? ECONOMIC SOCIAL  Replacing retiring folks in the workforce Increase majority/minority percentages Support the increasing number of seniors Help develop the resources of a state Lead to economic growth POLITICAL DEMOGRAPHIC Build up the military Replaces those lost in war and civil unrest occupy parts of a country that are virtually Issues concerning aging population empty Why would a Country want an anti-natalist country? ECONOMIC SOCIAL Boost the economy Allow more women in the workforce Cannot afford to provide for them Provide more opportunities for (education, medical care) education Limited available resources Greater access to healthcare POLITICAL DEMOGRAPHIC Repress a group of people Overpopulation concerns 2.10 Causes of Migration Push factors: Negative events/situations or conditions in a place that someone currently lives that causes them to want to leave ○ Typically involves movement from one country/city to many countries Pull factors are positive events, situations, or conditions that draw people to new destination ○ Typically involves movement from many countries to one city/country Economic Factors: The most common reason people migrate is because they are in search of employment ○ Push Factors Unemployment in current location High personal or business taxes ○ Pull Factors Jobs available in a new location Low tax rates in a new location  Social/Cultural Factors: Includes issues related to religion, race, gender, ethnicity, etc. ○ Push Factors Religious Persecution Lack of available healthcare ○ Pull Factors Freedom of religion Access to healthcare Political Factors: Include reasons for migration relating to the government or politics ○ Push factors Political Persecution Warfare or threat of warfare ○ Pull factors Political Freedom Fair laws Environmental Factors: Includes any migration related to the natural world ○ Push factors Drought Human damage to the environment ○ Pull factors Farmable land available Healthy, safe environment Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities ○ Intervening festivals are negative circumstances or features that hinder migration ○ Intervening opportunities are positive circumstances or features that hinder migration Economic (Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities) ○ Financial issues can hinder a migrant’s journey Intervening Obstical: Migrant runs out of money to complete the journey Intervening Opportunity: Jobs available in a closer location Social (Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities) ○ Include issues related to religion race etc Intervening Obstible: Migrants face discriminatory practices that prohibit migration Intervening Opportunity: Healthcare or education being made available closer to home Political (Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities)  ○ Government and political Intervening Obstacles: Lost or missing paperwork Intervening Opportunity: Political situation in original destination calms down before migrant has a chance to make a final step Environmental (Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities) ○ Natural World Intervening Obstible: Ocean crossing Intervening Opportunity: More favorable land available closer to the place of origin Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration: 1. Migration is typically short in distance 2. Migration occurs in steps 3. Urban areas attract both long-distance and rural migrants 4. Every migration generates a counter-migration 5. Young, Single, adult males are more likely to migrate than females a. Women will migrate shorter distances 6. Most migration is due to economic factor 2:11 Forced and Voluntary Migrations Forced migrations include slavery and events that produce refugees, internally displaced persons, and asylum seekers Internally Displaced Persons ○ Those who have fled their homes because of natural or man-made disasters, violence, or persecution. Refugees ○ Those who have fled their country because of violence, conflict, or fear of persecution Asylum ○ The protection granted by a country to someone who has left their native country as a political refugee Types of voluntary migrations ○ Transhumance The action or practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle, typically to lowlands in winter and highlands in summer ○ Internal In the country ○ Chain  Term used to refer to the social process by which migrants from a particular town follow others from that town to a particular destination The destination may be in another country or in a new location within the same country ○ Step Gradual migration From farm to village to town to big city It happens in a series of steps It is a common way by which rural families arrive in an urban setting Or someone moving from 1 urban setting to another to another… ○ Guest worker H-2A Visa for temporary, seasonal agricultural workers in the US ○ Rural to Urban Less rural, more people want to move to Urban areas The Economic Effects of Migration ○ Receiving Countries: Immigrants are a source of labor for less desirable and low paying work Agriculture, construction, service industries, etc. ○ Countries of Origin: Decrease in unemployment, Less strain on recourses, etc. Brain Drain: Loss of trained or educated people to emigration Social and Demographic Effects of Migration ○ Demographic Change: Unbalanced sex ratio: Young men are typically more likely to migrate to find work Often the elderly and young are left behind ○ Relief from overcrowding Unit 3 AP Human Geography Notes 3.1 Culture - the sum of all the typical activities of a group of people Shared Practices ○ Religion, Language, Government, Education Technologies ○ Communication, Transportation Attitudes ○ Age of maturity, gender roles and equity, mental health Behaviors ○ Greetings, manners/norms, rituals  Material ○ Tangible Artifacts ○ Physical object humans create ○ Buildings/houses, clothing, cars, food, etc Non-Material Culture ○ Non-Tangible Mentifacts ○ Abstract human creations ○ Beliefs, practices, values, political and economic systems, etc Trait, Local Culture Global culture table Cultural Traits are the smallest expression of a culture and help us interpret culture. They include things such as food preferences architecture and land use Food ○ Influenced by physical geography, agricultural products, religion and local customs Architecture ○ Incfuenced by history, aesthetics, avaliable building materials, religion and physical geography Language ○ Influenced by location and interaction Clothing ○ Influenced by wealth, climate, religion, occupations, tribal identification and aesthetics Land Use ○ Influenced by religion, governments and community function 3.2 Cultural Landscapes What to look for in a Cultural Landscape? Architecture, Language, Ethnicity, Sequent Occupancy, Gender Roles, Rural vs Urban, Agricultural vs Industrial, Historical Architecture - Buildings and other physical structures on the cultural landscape ○ Local Culture - Materials from physical environment ○ Global Culture - Materials from factories and manufactured Language ○ Toponyms Town name, Street names, Metro station names, Graffiti, etc. Religion ○ Houses of worship ○ Cemeteries ○ Religous Symbols and Icons ○ Stores designated for sales of religious goods ○ Sacred Sites  Ethnic Neighborhoods ○ Resturaunts/Food, Toponyms, Architecture, Signage/Flags, etc Sequent Occupancy - Refers to fact that many places have been controlled or affected by a variety of groups over a period of time; these groups have reshaped the functions or meanings of those places and left behind layers of meaning Gendered Landscape ○ Cultural norms of gender are seen in the cultural landscape ○ Women are usually seen as the primary caregiver for children 3.3 Cultural Patterns Sense of Place - Unique attributes of a specific location Realm - Areas of the world that share cultural traits such as language families, religious traditions, food preferences, architecture, and/or a shared history. Regional Patterns ○ Anglo-American Language: English Religion: Christianity Shared History: European settlement and colonization Ethnicity: Indigenous, European, African, Hispanic ○ Latin American Language: Spanish Religion: Catholicism Ethnicity: Hispanic, Afro-Caribbean and Afro-Latino Shared History: Colonized by Europeans Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces ○ Cultural Factors such as language, ethnicity, and religion Centripetal: Characteristics that unify a country and provide stability Centrifugal: Characteristics that divide a country and create instability 3.5 Imperialism: economic and political control (remember the goals and lecacy) Impact of Imperialism on Spread of Cultural Traits: ○ British South Asia South and East Asia ○ American Philippines Canada ○ English speaking majority, French largest minority, Indigenous langs Lingua Franca: a common language used by speakers of two different languages for communication. Usually for business, trade, commerce, or in popular culture. World Lingua Franca: English Language Replacement ○ Stronger culture forces lang in less advanced people ○ Colonialism's Linguistic Legacy: USSR Africa UK today Latin America Pidgin ○ Mixture of 2 or more languages; allows communication between speakers of different languages ○ AKA Contact Language 3.7 Diffusion of Language and Religion Linguistic Geographers: Study the hearths and diffusion of languages as well as their distribution and relationships between one another Classifying Languages ○ Language Family: Largest group of related languages which are connected through a common, ancient ancestry and trace back to a common hearth ○ Indo-European is the largest language family with about 3.2 billion speakers around the world ○ Sino-Tibetan is the second largest with 1.4 billion ○ Language Branch: Collection of languages that share a common origin from thousands of years ago Romance Branch: Spanish, French, etc Germanic Branch: German, English, etc. ○ Dialect: Variation of a standard language distinguished by differences in vocabulary and word choice, pronunciation, speed, and spelling Isogloss: A geographic boundary within which a particular linguistic feature occurs Ethnic: Smaller diffusion and overall distribution from hearth, Restricted to Relocation Diffusion (Born into practice) Universalizing: Widely diffused from the hearth through both expansion and relocation diffusion. 3.8 The Effects of Diffusion How does Diffusion change the cultural landscape? ○ Businesses ○ Resteraunts  ○ Styles of Architecture ○ Language and Houses of Worship Acculturation ○ Adopting some of the elements of a different culture, usually the most prominent ○ This tends to occur in order to fit in ○ Done voluntarily ○ Easy to separate old culture from new Assimilation ○ When a minority culture adopts the cultural of the majority group. This can be voluntary or forced Syncretism ○ The blending and merging of different cultures ○ Happens in different areas of culture ○ Ex. (Tex-Mex, Asian Fusion) Multiculturalism ○ When society has a variety of cultures present ○ Usually a direct result of immigration ○ Countries that have more open immigration histories/policies tend to be tolerant of multiple cultures Cultural Sustainability ○ Exposure to pop culture is a threat to folk culture ○ Dominance of a Western Perspective Unit 4 AP Human Geography Notes Basic Vocab: State vs. Nation: ○ Nation: group of people unified by Shared cultural traits Language Religion Ethnicity Shared history/experiences Examples: Japanese, Han Chinese, Swedish, Israelis ○ State (Country) = political entity with: 1. Defined territory/boundaries 2. Permanent Population (50% of countries have fewer than 5 million people) 3. Organizational structure or Government 4. Sovereignty = control over internal/external affairs a. Control $$$ (no external taxes) b. Regulate Immigration  c. Police Territories/Enforce Laws d. Exceptions: Extraterritoriality 4.2 Political Processes and the Contemporary Map Sovereignty: the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any interference from outside sources or bodies Nation-States: a state in which a great majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it Devolution: Due to centrifugal forces, power is shifted from the central government or administration to regional authorities which are usually reflective of nations Colonialism vs Imperialism: ○ A simple way to distinguish between the two is to think of colonialism as practice and imperialism as the idea driving the practice Modern Colonial Independence Movements: ○ Colonial subjects desires during the early 20th century ○ The independence movement that occurred in India ○ Impact of WW2 on European empires abilities to keep control 4.3 Territoriality ○ Historic and cultural links ○ Governments ○ Economics ○ Boundaries ○ Sovereignty ○ Defense and Military Neocolonialism: The use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures in order to control or influence other countries ○ Semi-Periphery and Periphery Countries ○ Former African Colonies - reliant on outside investments for economic security Kenya - 3.8 Billion dollar railroad - Chinese government-owned company ○ Political Influence - US Wars in the Middle East 4.4 Political Boundaries Political boundaries and divisions of governance between states and within them reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed. There are several types. Physical Boundaries  Physical feature separates ○ Mountains ○ Water Geometric Boundaries ○ Follows a straight line (Latitude and Longitude) Subsequent Boundaries ○ After Settlement (cultural landscape) Consequent Boundaries ○ The result of differences (ethnicity, language, religion, etc.) boundary that is drawn to accommodate existing differences among people Superimposed Boundaries ○ Forced upon ○ Boundary that is drawn by outside powers and tends to ignore existing boundaries of ethnic and cultural differences Relic Boundary ○ Ceases to exist (although still significant) ○ Boundary that no longer exists but still holds significance Definitional: boundary dispute over the legal terms set forth Example-Chile and Argentina separated by the physical boundary of the Andes mountains but there are disputes over the southern end and it was never clearly defined Locational: boundary dispute over the physical location Example-Post WWI boundary between Poland and Germany line drawn in the Treaty of Versailles with ethnic Germans in the Polish side led Germany to dispute the boundary Operational: boundary dispute over how the boundary ought to function Example-during the Syrian conflict the refugees fled to neighboring countries which caused disputes about who would be responsible for them  Allocational: dispute over the distribution of natural resources (boundary creates an invisible wall from land to sky) Example-in 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait stated they were drilling for oil on the Iraqi side which broke the boundary 4.6 Internal Boundaries Internal Boundaries and Scale ○ Boundaries b/t Federal OR State Congressional Districts ○ Boundaries b/t Provinces/States ○ Boundaries b/t Countries ○ Boundaries b/t Census Tracts/Zip Codes Internal Boundaries and Redistricting ○ Every 10 years boundaries of congressional districts redrawn ○ Rules: Every district should have = #’s Electoral Geography ○ Requirements for Voting Districts Similar population size Contiguous- a single, unbroken shape Compact- smooth rather than contorted boundaries and should cluster around a central core, rather that dispersing outwards ○ Packing: Clustering like-minded voters in a single district, thereby allowing the other party to win the remaining districts ○ Cracking: Dispersing like-minded voters among multiple districts in order to minimize their impact and prevent them from gaining a majority ○ Representative District: The ideal, in which the voting districts are equal in population, contagious, and compact. They are truly representative of the people living in the district Impact of Gerrymandering: ○ Election Outcomes Changed ○ EXTREME left and right reps ○ SOME minority representation (not proportional) 4.8 Devolution Devolution is the process in which regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing autonomy at the expense of the central government What Factors Lead to the Devolution of States?  Physical Geography ○ Regions that are separated from the central state due to physical features such as mountain ranges, deserts, or bodies of water ○ Fragmented states like Indonesia or the Philippines ○ Distance Decay Ethnic Separatism ○ People of a particular ethnicity in a multinational state identify more strongly with their ethnic group than as citizens of the state ○ Many times result of mistreatment or disparity between dominant ethnic group and minority ethnic group within a state Ethnic Cleansing ○ State governments attack an ethnic group in an attempt to try to eliminate them through expulsion, imprisonment, or mass murder ○ Similar to genocide (the Holocaust) Terrorism ○ Organized violence aimed at government and civilian targets intended to accomplish political aims ○ Most commonly utilized by non-government groups with no army, in order to achieve recognition or power Economic or Social Problems ○ Uneven development, different levels of economic activity/productivity, and conflict over the allocation of funding from the central level of government ○ Example: Scotland in the UK Irredentism ○ A majority ethnic group wants to claim territory from a neighboring state due to a shared culture with the people residing across the border ○ Reunification of multistate nations 4.9 Challenges to Sovereignty Challenges to Sovereignty: ○ Devolution ○ Advancements in Communication Technology ○ Supranational Organizations 4.10 Consequences of Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces