Neuropsychology Lecture Notes PDF

EPSK 425 Neuropsychology Lecture Notes Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CHAPTER 1a Introduction to Neuropsychology Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  What is the meaning of neuropsychology?  Neuro comes from ancient Gr...

EPSK 425 Neuropsychology Lecture Notes Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CHAPTER 1a Introduction to Neuropsychology Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  What is the meaning of neuropsychology?  Neuro comes from ancient Greek (neûronnerve)  In Latin language nervus nervous system  First used in the 17th century to introduce the term neurology  Psychology  Psyche means breath, life, soul  Logia means to examine, research  Psychologythe branch of science that examines the mind/soul/life  The first letter of the word psychology in Latin language, is used as the symbol of psychology.  What is neuropsychology?  Interdisciplinary branches such as neuropsychology, cognitive sciences, physiological psychology and biopsychology:  It deals with the body and mind under an integrative approach and examines the relationships between these two elements with scientific approaches and techniques.  The science of Neuropsychology Neurology and Psychology.  Neuropsychology is neither the study of only neural structures and processes, nor only mental/cognitive processes and behaviors.  Neuropsychology the 'relationship' of these two fields is examined.  What is neuropsychology?  The term neuropsychology was first used in the title of D.O.Hebb's book published in 1949: 'The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory’.  Hebb used the term to represent the common interest of neurologists and physiological psychologists in the functions of the brain.  What is neuropsychology?  'Neuropsychology' is a branch of positive science.  Neuropsychology draws on knowledge from many disciplines – anatomy, biology, biophysics, ethology, pharmacology, physiology, physiological psychology, and philosophy.  Neuropsychology has been greatly influenced by 2 theories of brain function.  Brain theory: The brain is the source of behavior.  Neuron theory: The element of brain structure and function is the neuron (nerve cell). APA explanation of Neuropsychology  Neuropsychology  A branch of science that studies the normal and abnormal (as a result of brain damage) physiological functions of the nervous system and relates them to behavior and cognition.  Clinical Neuropsychology; Cognitive Neuropsychology; Comparative Neuropsychology; Experimental Neuropsychology; Pediatric Neuropsychology; Rehabilitation Neuropsychology; School Neuropsychology.  Subfields of Neuropsychology  Clinical neuropsychology  Represents the applied practice of neuropsychology and deals with the evaluation and rehabilitation of brain injuries that impair a person's ability to function healthily.  The aim of clinical neuropsychology is to examine the changes in the mind, cognitive processes; or behaviors that occur as a result of congenital, traumatic, tumoral and infectious injuries to the body.  Cognitive Neuropsychology  Studies the structure and functions of the brain that are involved in perception, remembering, inferring and all other forms of knowing and awareness.  Subfields of Neuropsychology  Experimental Neuropsychology  Uses experimental methods that study physiological structures and processes of the nervous system and their relationship to cognition and behavior.  For example, experimental neuropsychologists may investigate how recognition/recall memory is affected by various probes (measurements) in individuals with and without schizophrenia (to identify which memory processes are vulnerable to impairment in schizophrenics and to determine how schizophrenics can best remember).  Experimental Neuropsychology covers the functioning of the brain in different areas, both healthy and defective, and relies on a variety of techniques, such as laboratory research, neuropsychological testing, brain imaging, EEG, and qualitative analysis.  Subfields of Neuropsychology  Comparative neuropsychology  Study the relationship between behavior and neural mechanisms in different animal species and compare them with those in humans (especially the relationship between the effects of brain damage on behavior and neural mechanisms).  Subfields of Neuropsychology  Pediatric neuropsychology  Investigates children's cognitive and behavioral abilities in terms of neural mechanisms (brain activity, especially brain damage or neurological diseases).  Applies these studies in clinical pediatric neuropsychology. Works on the evaluation and treatment of children with autism, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, language and learning disorders, problems in the development of motor skills and similar problems.  Subfields of Neuropsychology  Rehabilitation Neuropsychology  Studies and treats the cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and social distress that follows stroke, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, and other neurological injuries.  The goal of Rehabilitation Neuropsychology is to do the best for patients to have a healthy, independent (able to live on their own) and quality life.  This specialty is also interdisciplinary. It is related to community psychology, clinical psychology, counseling psychology, family medicine/counseling, health psychology, neurology, and psychiatry.  Subfields of Neuropsychology  School Neuropsychology  A School Neuropsychologist conducts research to help educators, such as teachers and principals, better understand the cognitive strengths and weaknesses of their students.  A School Neuropsychologist observes student behavior, subjects them to neuropsychology-related and standardized assessment tests, and interprets the tests. He/she uses student backgrounds, educational-teaching-based measures, and monitors their progress.  Although School Neuropsychology often focuses on children (especially those with learning and other difficulties), it also serves adolescents and families.  The science of tickling: why the brain won’t let us tickle ourselves  Ever tried tickling yourself? Next time you have a private moment, give it a go – you’ll find it next to impossible.  With a few well-placed wiggles of the fingers, most of us could send children, friends and even some animals like rats into fits of giggles.  The reason we can’t do the same to ourselves has long been a puzzle, but one that we may now be closer than ever to solving.  Understanding it requires a deep dive into the workings of the brain; for such a playful activity, the science of tickling is surprisingly sophisticated. RESEARCH LINE 1: how action affects Somatosensation  Since the early 70s, several studies have shown that self- generated touch – as when touching our hand with the other– systematically feels less intense, less pleasant and less ticklish than touch generated by another person or machine.  Computational theories of motor control suggest that this is because our brain predicts the sensory consequences of our actions using information from the motor command.  For example, when we move to touch our hand with the other, our brain predicts how we will feel before completing the movement and use this prediction signal to suppress the expected sensations. RESEARCH LINE 1: how action affects Somatosensation  One of the main research goals is to understand better this somatosensory attenuation phenomenon: when does it occur and what spatial and temporal conditions need to be fulfilled? How does the brain compute, maintain and update these predictions and what is their neurobiological basis? Are these predictions altered in clinical populations?  Scientists use behavioral (psychophysics and kinematics), physiological (electromyography), computational and neuroimaging methods (functional magnetic resonance, magnetoencephalography) to address these questions.  RESEARCH LINE 2: WHat is the basic Neuroscience of GARGALESIS  Tickle is one of the most enigmatic human sensations: we do not know how a touch can turn into tickle, and why our brain responds to other people’s tickles but not to our own. To date, there is no theory that can satisfactorily explain why touch on certain body areas feels more ticklish than on others, and why some people are more prone to be tickled compared to others. Despite this fundamental knowledge gap, experiments on tickle perception have been extremely scarce.  There is a new interdisciplinary data-driven approach to understand the neuroscience of human tickle perception, based on modern haptic technology, somatosensory psychophysics, physiology, kinematics, neuroimaging, and brain stimulation.  Resources  Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2021). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Worth Publishers. Newyork. (8th edition)  Stirling, J. (2002). Introduction to neuropsychology. NY: Taylor & Francis. Thank you for your attention. … EPSK 425 Neuropsychology Lecture Notes Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  Chapter 1 b Introduction to Neuropsychology Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut  Mind Body problem  The central topic in neuropsychology is how our brain and behavior are related.  It began with three classic theories — mentalism, dualism, and  materialism — representative of the many attempts scientists and philosophers have made to relate brain and behavior.  Contemporary brain investigators  the materialist view.  Many contemporary neuroscientists colloquially describe the goal of neuroscience as being to understand the mind  Psychology & the Mind-Body problem  The different approaches to psychology take contrasting views of whether the mind and body are separate or related.  Is the body/mind relationship examined by neuropsychology, which looks at the relationship between our brain (healthy or damaged) and our behaviors, a cause-effect relationship?  This is the question of the ages the body-mind problem  The philosophical discussions around the body-mind problem can be grouped under several approaches.  Monism, Dualism  Mind Body problem  ARISTOTLE: MENTALISM  Aristotle proposed nonmaterial psyche is responsible for human thoughts, perceptions, and emotions and for such processes as imagination, opinion, desire, pleasure, pain, memory, and reason.  The psyche is independent of the body, but Aristotle viewed it as working through the heart to produce action.  Mind Body problem  Aristotle: Mentalism  Psych, as in psychology, to label the study of behavior.  The word psyche was translated into English as mind, the Anglo-Saxon word for memory.  The philosophical position that a person’s mind is responsible for behavior is called mentalism, meaning “of the mind.”  Mentalism still influences modern neuropsychology: many terms — sensation, perception, attention, imagination, emotion, memory, and volition among them — still employed as labels for patterns of behavior have their origin in concepts originally developed within mentalism.  Mind Body problem  DESCARTES: DUALISM: The belief that the body is physical but the mind (or soul) is not.  In dualistic theories, the existence of both body and mind is accepted, but specialized theories falling within the scope of this general theory differ in terms of the relative role or influence given to body and mind.  EXAMPLE: Can “Consciousness” be considered separately from the body?  Descartes located the site of action of the mind in the pineal  body, a small structure high in the brainstem.  Blindsight phenomenon  Split brains Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 7  Mind- Body Problem  René Descartes “The human body is a machine”  Some movements of our body are automatic or involuntary, these movements are called reflexes.  Descartes was a dualist: The mind is completely unique to humans.  But there is a connection between the body and the mind. This interaction between the body and the mind takes place in the pineal gland.  The pressurized fluid called the animal spirit allows us to move. The fluid is located in thin tubes, which according to Descartes (nerve), the pineal gland is the valve of the pressurized system Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 8  Mind- Body Problem Known as the third eye in ancient times the link between the physical world and the spiritual world (Spirit and body) Connected to the eye retina by nerves  Blindsight phenomenon  Eye:  1)Primitive Visual System: Eye and head movements, reaching behavior with hands, and some other simple behaviors (Primitive behavioral mechanisms)  2)Mammalian Visual System: Speaking and thinking with words (and consciousness). Other complex behaviors (Relatively newer evolved mechanisms) Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 10  Split Brains  The brain areas involved in verbal behavior may contain structures responsible for consciousness.  Surgeries to control seizures in advanced epilepsy patients have opened new avenues for studying the functions of the cerebral hemispheres.  The brain-splitting operation involves cutting the corpus callosum with a special knife.  After the operation, the sensory mechanisms, memories, and motor systems in the hemispheres can no longer exchange information with each other.  The cerebral hemispheres receive sensory information from the opposite side of the body. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 11  Split Brains  The left hemisphere controls speech.  The right hemisphere can understand verbal instructions but is completely incapable of producing speech.  Many split-brain patients find the book they read boring when they hold it with their left hand.  The olfactory system is an exception to the cross- representation of sensory information.  When the left nostril is blocked, the split-brain patient cannot tell that what he smells is a rose; however, he can distinguish between the options by touch when he smells it with his left hand. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 12  Split Brains  When Sperry and Gazzaniga stimulated the right visual field, which is controlled by the left brain lobe, they found that the patient's response was normal. However, when the left visual field, which is controlled by the right brain lobe, was stimulated, the patient said that he "didn't see anything." However, this patient, who claimed to see nothing, was able to draw the shape he "didn't see" with his left hand.  What's going on? The left brain hemisphere cannot see objects in the left visual field, and when something is shown to the left visual field, the patient, as expected, says that he can't see anything. The right brain hemisphere sees this object and, as expected, sends a command to the left hand in the left body hemisphere that it controls, allowing the object Dr. Öğr. Üyesi to be drawn. Ferihan Tanrıkut 13  Split Brains  University of Amsterdam: It was tested whether they could respond correctly with their right hand, which is controlled by the left hemisphere, to objects in their left visual field, which is controlled by the right hemisphere.  Surprisingly, the two split-brain patients tested had different results than Sperry and Gazzaniga.  These patients reported that they could see objects in their left visual field, contrary to previous experiments, and they were able to point to these objects with their right hand.  Videos Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 14  Mind- Body Problem  DARWIN: MATERIALISM  The idea is that rational behavior can be fully explained by the workings of the nervous system.  According to materialism, there is no need to refer to a nonmaterial mind.  Materialism has its roots in the evolutionary theories of two English naturalists, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) and Charles Darwin (1809–1892).  All organisms, both living and extinct, are descended from an ancestor that lived in the remote past.  Mind- Body Problem  Charles Darwin  We cannot say that any physiological mechanism has a purpose in a living creature,  But we can say that they have a function.  Mutation  Maladaptive trait (unable to adapt to the environment) Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 16  Mind- Body Problem  Mendel environment has an effect on genetics  A tall growing plant will shrink in size when planted in bad soil.  Experience changes the expression of genes. For example, a child who receives education is better at adapting to society.  Epigenetics Environment genetically affects behavior.  Genes are affected by many life experiences, habits, and environments.  Memetics Mems  Epigenetics  The environment epigenetically governs not the DNA sequence in the chromosome, but which parts of the sequenced DNA are open and which parts are closed, and therefore which genes are active and which are inactive.  For example, situational variables such as smoking, alcohol, or very innocent eating habits, and even access to nutrients, periods of scarcity or abundance, make epigenetic modifications in people's genetics and genomes.  Epigenetics  These epigenetic modifications continue in subsequent generations. For example, in a society with abundance during one period, such epigenetic modifications occur that the incidence of cardiovascular disease increases in children three generations after that period.  You can no longer say, "I did the harm to myself, let no one interfere", it may come from your grandchildren. We have the chance to directly modify our own genetic code with what we eat and drink.  Micro RNA  Micro RNA molecules have been identified.  They can regulate our normal genes.  One study found a lot of rice micro RNA in the blood of Chinese people.  And it was found that this rice micro RNA also functionally regulates genes.  The environment plays a big part in genetics, and our genetics play a big part in our response to the environment, and the two are completely intertwined.  Neoroplasticity  Environment and experience are very important in how animals and humans learn and adapt.  Adaptation and learning are enabled by the brain's ability to form new connections and pathways.  Neuroplasticity theoryThe brain can change physically and chemically.  Neuroplasticity theory The potential for the nervous system to change is to increase its adaptation to the environment.  NeuroplasticityExplains how the brain compensates for damage.  Mind Body problem  Monistic theories argue that there is only one entity.  There are two basic types of monism: Materialism and Phenomenalism (experimentstroke, phantom limb)  Those who accept the existence of the body are materialists,  Those who accept the existence of the mind are panpsychists.  Modern science adopts a MONIST approach not DUALİST  Studies on the functional structure of the human nervous system also support this view.  Psychology & the Mind-Body problem  Behaviorists “observable actions,” namely stimulus and response. They believe that thought processes such as the mind cannot be studied scientifically and objectively and should therefore be ignored. Radical behaviorists believe that the mind does not even exist.  Biologists mind does not exist because there is no physical structure called the mind. Biologists argue that the brain will ultimately be found to be the mind. The brain, with its structures, cells, and neural connections, will, with scientific research, eventually identify the mind.  Mind Body problem  Since both behaviorists and biologists believe that only one type of reality exists, those that we can see, feel and touch, their approach is known as monism.  Monism is the belief that, ultimately, the mind and the brain are the same thing. The behaviorist and biological approaches believe in materialism and monism.  Mind Body problem  However, biologists and behaviorists cannot account for the phenomenon of hypnosis.  Hilgard and Orne placed participants in a hypnotic trance and, through unconscious hypnotic suggestion, told the participants they would be touched with a “red hot” piece of metal when they were actually touched with a pencil.  The participants in a deep trance had a skin reaction (water blisters) just as if they had been touched with burning metal. This is an example of the mind controlling the body’s reaction. Similar results have been found in patients given hypnosis to control pain.  This study supports the idea of dualism, the view that the mind and body function separately.  But, contradicts the monism, as the body should not react to unconscious suggestions in this way.  Mind- Body Problem  Paul Broca  Broca observed the behavior of individuals with brain damage.  When he performed an autopsy on a patient who had lost the ability to speak, he found damage to the left side of the cerebral cortex due to bleeding.  Gustav Fritsch & Eduard Hitzig  In his studies on dogs, he electrically stimulated the brain to understand the physiology of the brain.  As a result of their studies, they discovered the primary motor cortex. For example, they found that the motor cortex, which controls the muscles we use when speaking, such as the lips, tongue and larynx, interacted with Broca's area. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 26  Palmaris Longus Muscle The Palmaris Longus muscle, found in quadrupedal mammals, has no function in humans. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 27 Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 28 Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 29  Resources  Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2021). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Worth Publishers. Newyork. (8th edition)  Stirling, J. (2002). Introduction to neuropsychology. NY: Taylor & Francis. Thank you for your attention. … EPSK 425 Neuropsychology Lecture Notes Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CHAPTER 2 Nervous System Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  EUKARYOTE OR PROKARYOTE  All cells on Earth can be classified into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic or eukaryotic.  Organisms with prokaryotic cells (prokaryotes) include bacteria and archaea. While bacteria are found virtually everywhere on Earth, archaea are typically found in extreme environments, such as hot springs.  Organisms with eukaryotic cells (eukaryotes) include protists, fungi, plants, and animals—including humans! Amoeba eukaryote or Prokaryote? Brain eating Amoeba.  Some protozoans are considered plant-like, such as algae, and others are considered animal-like. The amoeba is considered an animal-like protist because it moves and consumes its food, but it is not classified as an animal because it consists of a single cell; it is unicellular.  Viruses neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic. Because they are not living being. They only replicate themselves in living organisms. They are not cells.  EVOLUTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM The change of organisms from the simplest system to the most complex system. Diffuse Nervous System: Most animals belong to the invertebrate class. Neurons are grouped together to form Ganglia. They are found in coelenterates, such as jellyfish, sea anemones, corals. Throughout evolution, nerves have concentrated in the head region through a process called cephalization. Centralized nervous system, Cephalized: The first organism to have a nervous system under brain control is the flatworm. Ganglia are concentrated in the head. Flatworms and roundworms have a non-segmented nervous system. In other words, they act as a single unit. Earthworms have a segmented nervous Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkutsystem. 4 Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 5  EVOLUTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM Vertebrate system: The vertebrate nervous system is divided into two parts: the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, consisting of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Encephalization: Early in evolution, the sensory system merged with parts of the brain; the olfactory system in the forebrain, the eye in the midbrain, and hearing in the hindbrain. Advances in these areas led to the development of the brain regions we now see in humans. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 6  Organization Of Nervous System  The peripheral nervous system brings various information to the central nervous system.It consists of nerves that connect the spinal cord and brain to other parts of the body.  The central nervous system integrates incoming information, reacts, interprets and directs it to the peripheral nervous system to produce certain behaviors. Autonomic Nerves: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic  They are the nerves of the internal organs, endocrine glands and blood vessels.  They operate organs such as the heart and intestines that work against our will and without being subject to our commands.  The sympathetic nervous system is the part of the nervous system that acts with emotions. Fight or flight.  It is activated in situations such as fear, joy, excitement, blood pressure increases, the heart rate increases, the pupils dilate, the blood sugar level increases, the skin sweats, and digestion slows down. Autonomic Nerves: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic  The parasympathetic nervous system balances the sympathetic nervous system. It brings signals to the central nervous system via sensory nerves and takes reactions to the organs related to them via motor nerves.  When the parasympathetic nervous system is effective, reactions that help the body recover, such as slowing down the heart and breathing, and activating digestion and glands, occur.  Breathing Exercizes  Parasympathetic Nervous System  What is the vagus nerve? The vagus nerve also helps us avoid extreme stress, known as the ‘fight or flight’ response, by activating the parasympathetic nervous system.  Breathing is one of our bodily functions affected by the vagus nerve. There is a lot of evidence that breathing slowly and exhaling even more slowly stimulates the vagus nerve.  Breathing Exercizes  Parasympathetic Nervous System  Chamomile tea breathing: 4X7X8 or 4X8 breathing (For sleeping and relaxing)Breathe for 4 seconds, hold for 7 seconds, release the breath you took in for 8 seconds as if blowing a candle or blowing a balloon. Or apply 4X8. Repeat this 10 times in a row.  Single nostril breathing: If you want to go to sleep mode, the left side of the nose, where you will use the calming yin energy, should be activated.  The right nostril of the nose is closed with the thumb and balanced, deep, slow breaths are taken and exhaled from the left nostril. After a while, you may notice that your nervous system has relaxed and you have calmed down.  Breathing Exercizes  Sympathetic Nervous System  Breathing exercise to activate the sympathetic nervous system  Coffee Breath: Exhale as if sneezing 20 times in a row. Or dog breath. You can do this 3 times in the morning, afternoon and evening. You can do this breathing technique when you are tired or have obsessive thoughts in your head.  Single nostril breathing  If you want to start an energetic and vigorous day, this time the right side of the nose, where you will use the yang energy, should be activated.  Water Breath: A breathing exercise that you can do 4X4 at any time, to be in balance.  CRYING IS GOOD: Parasympathetic Nervous System  A good cry (i.e. full of emotion) is healthy, restorative, and cleansing. Crying heals us and increases our hope.  A good cry activates the parasympathetic nervous system, which is part of the autonomic nervous system, which sends a message of relaxation to the internal organs, and breathing and heart rate slow down, and digestion returns to normal.  The parasympathetic nervous system activates the lachrymal glands so that our eyes produce tears.  It also stimulates salivary and digestive secretions. Finally, a good cry clears away toxic stress hormones and is calming and relaxing (Judith Kay Nelson, 2010)  Somatic nervous system  Sensory nerves-Afferent: They receive information from the physical world. They transmit the information received from the sensory organs to the brain and spinal cord.  Motor nerves-Efferent. They transmit the signals they receive from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles or other response organs.  Interneurons: They are located in the brain and spinal cord. They perform the task of establishing a connection between two nerve cells. However, they are located in the central nervous system  Nervous System  Various information is received from the outside world through the nervous system, evaluated, and as a result, thoughts and behaviors that adapt to the environment emerge. Many vital behaviors, such as breathing, smelling a flower, thinking, and moving the thumb, occur through nerve cells.  Theory of Neuron  There are 3 characteristics of the neuron theory.  (1) Neurons are discrete, autonomous cells that communicate with each other but do not physically touch each other  (2) Neurons send electrical signals, but the basis for this is chemical.  (3) Neurons use chemical signals to communicate with each other.For half a century, neuroscientists have said that there are 100 billion nerve cells in the human brain.  But neuroscientist Suzana Herculano-Houzel has developed a new method to count cells in the brain (brain soup)  Number of neurons, 86 Billion; Number of glial cells is almost the same as neurons (84/85 Billion)  Cells of Nervous System  Nerve cells (neurons) are the basic building blocks of the nervous system that process information in the central nervous system.  Nerves work with electrical impulses.  They communicate with each other through chemical signals.  Dendrites, and Axon.  Dendrites  They are short and close to the body of the nerve cell, which collect information-stimuli.  Ribosomes are found  Rarely covered with myelin  Has a recessed surface  Dendrites bring the information-stimuli they receive to the body of the nerve cell. Thus, the stimuli are evaluated in the body of the nerve cell.  Axons  They are long (usually 1 m) conductive fibers like an electric cable that come out of the nerve cell body and carry information out and away.  Axon is usually found in one nerve cell.  Usually there are no ribosomes  Usually covered with myelin  Has a smooth surface  There are branches at the ends of the axons.  Axons send the messages they receive from the nerve cell body to the dendrites of the nerve cell they end in or to the body cell.  There are gaps between the axons called nodes of Ranvier. So that ions can pass through this gap into the cell.  The Structure of Neuron Çekirdek, Hücre gövdesi, Dendritler –alıcılar, Akson uçları- transmitter, Myelin, Schwann hücreleri, Akson, Ranvier boğumu The Structure of Neuron The Structure of Neuron  Neurons  Neurons are classified according to their function, location, the neurotransmitters they synthesize and release, and their shape.  Sensory, motor, interneuron  Histology is the branch of science that examines brain tissue and all tissues microscopically.  Neuroglial Cells  It is one of the cells in the nervous tissue that acts as an adhesive and unites the nervous system.  It supports neurons and maintains homeostasis by providing the necessary nutrients for structural integrity and the nervous system and by detecting damage.  Homeostasis: Keeping the internal environment of the organism constant  Glial Cell Types  Astrocytes-CNS: Responsible for maintaining the external chemical environment around nerve cells. No mitosis  Oligodendrocytes-CNS: Insulate axons by wrapping them and form myelin. 1 OD 50 wraps the axon. Mitosis is present.  Schwann cells-CNS: Perform the same function as oligodendrocytes. Insulates a single axon. Plays a role in the functioning of neurons and the protection of axons Glial Cell Types  Glial Cell Types  Microglia-CNS: Macrophages that work in the immune system. They protect neurons. They proliferate in the event of brain damage.  They clear waste products from the nervous system through a process called phagocytosis.  Radial Glial Cells-CNS: Temporary cell populations involved in the formation of the CNS.  Gliosis is a response of the CNS to brain or spinal cord injury. Any CNS injury can cause gliosis.  Gliosis is a prominent feature of many diseases of the central nervous system, including multiple sclerosis (MS) and stroke.  INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  Imagine unconsciously pulling your hand away when a needle is stuck in your hand, or reaching out to take another sip of your tea, or just think.  All of these actions, whether voluntary or involuntary, occur thanks to the firing of neurons.  The 86 billion neurons in the human brain perform information processing tasks, and each neuron establishes up to 30,000 connections with other neurons.  Resting Membrane Potential  The cell membrane sometimes remains at rest, and stops receiving information from other neurons.  It depends on the amount of ions on both sides of the membrane.  The important point here is that potassium-K⁺ is more concentrated inside, 20 times, sodium-Na⁺ is more concentrated outside, 10 times (in polarized state)  The values ​of these concentrations are adjusted by mechanisms called ion pumps.  Video  Action Potential  In the resting state, the inside of the neuron, that is, the cytosol-inside the cell is -, and the outside is + electrically charged.  The action potential (that is, when the nervous system transmits information) is the exact opposite of this situation momentarily, that is, the inside of the neuron is charged with positive electricity compared to the outside.  The value of the action potential is the same along the axon, its value and strength do not decrease or increase along the axon.  Synaptic Transmission  Most connections in the mammalian nervous system are formed by chemical synapses.  In chemical synapses, the presynaptic and postsynaptic regions are separated by the synaptic gap (20-50nm).  The presynaptic region is usually the axon terminal and contains synaptic vesicles (bulbs) with a diameter of 50nm. These vesicles contain mitochondria and neurotransmitters.  Synaptic Transmission  Neurotransmitters are chemicals that communicate with the postsynaptic cell. These neurotransmitters are received by the receptors on the opposite side  The postsynaptic cell can be a muscle cell, a gland, or another neuron. Here, with the postsynaptic receptors, the effect of neurotransmitters and their release allow the ion channels to open rapidly  Synaptic Transmission  One of the most important features of synapses is that they are the main area where psychoactive drugs act.  Neurotransmitter synthesis, loading into synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitter release and binding to receptors, etc. are chemical processes and therefore are easily affected by certain drugs or toxins.  The drugs used generally have two effects: either they prevent a task from being done or they trigger/ensure that a task is done.  Synaptic Transmission  Some drugs prevent proteins involved in synaptic transmission from performing their functions, these are called Exhibitor/inhibitor drugs.  EXAMPLE: Curare  This poison was mostly used by South American natives to paralyze their prey. Curare binds tightly to the Ach (Acetylcholine) receptors in skeletal muscle, preventing Ach from doing its job, thus preventing muscle contraction and paralyzing the prey.  EXPERIMENT  A study conducted in Japan has shown that when people pet and caress a cat, the amount of hemoglobin that carries oxygen in the brain increases. This indicates activity in the brain. Researchers have said that petting and caressing a cat stimulates the brain. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 40  Resources  Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2021). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Worth Publishers. Newyork. (8th edition)  Stirling, J. (2002). Introduction to neuropsychology. NY: Taylor & Francis. Thank you for your attention. … EPSK 425 Neuropsychology Lecture Notes Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CHAPTER 3a Brain parts and Neuropsychological Diseases Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CASE  STROKE  R.S. One day while repairing the roof of his garage, he felt numbness in his left hand, then collapsed and fell.  He had had a stroke, a brain injury that kills the brain when blood flow to the brain is cut off. It causes sudden onset of behavioral symptoms.  Ischemia, inadequate blood flow to the brain due to functional narrowing of a blood vessel by a clot.  A CT scan showed R.S. had damage to his right frontal cortex. Strokes are the third leading cause of death in the United States.  CASE…….  Strokes can occur at any age. Reduced smoking, improved nutrition, and control of blood pressure reduce the chance of stroke.  R.S. received no medical treatment for the stroke and regained his ability through rehabilitation. He could walk, although his left leg was stiff. His left arm was stiff and pliable, but he made no attempt to use it.  He appeared indifferent (disinterested, unfeeling) to his family.  He no longer enjoyed gardening or was interested in gardening. He no longer engaged in his old job, talked about movies, or watched television.  R.S., who used to be talkative, did not initiate conversations and when he did speak, he had no effect.  CASE………..  Ten years after the stroke, despite neuropsychological evaluation and repeated attempts at behavioral and physical therapy, R.S. has not changed.  Unlike the more severe type of stroke, hemorrhagic stroke caused by a burst vessel, cerebral hemorrhage,  Ischemic stroke can be treated with good results when the drug t-PA is used. It is administered within 3 hours. Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) breaks up clots and restores normal blood flow to the affected area.  CASE……  R.S. was not given any medication for 3 hours after the stroke. The doctor was not sure whether his fall from the garage roof was due to an ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke.  An anticoagulant drug reduces tissue death in an ischemic stroke but worsens cell death in a hemorrhagic stroke.  In R.S., the part of the brain damaged by the stroke is the precentral gyrus. This area is responsible for the decreased motor ability.  Electrophysiologists refer to the precentral gyrus as the primary motor cortex, or M1, which is also called the “somatomotor strip” or “motor.” Top view of a dog's brain. Different parts of the dog's frontal cortex (Fritsch and Hitzig, 1870) Sequential Production of Movement (A) Movements, such as reaching for a cup, involve many nervous system components, from visual receptors to brain circuits to muscles. (B) Major regions of the motor system involved in all movements.  Anatomical Terms  Nucleus: Nucleus is a group of neurons that can be easily separated from other parts. For example, the lateral geniculate nucleus is a group of cells located in the brainstem that transmits information from the eye to the cerebral cortex, and these neurons can be easily separated from other neurons around them.  Substantia: These are groups of neurons located in the inner regions of the brain but cannot be separated from each other with as sharp lines as the nuclei. For example, substantia nigra (black matter) is the name given to the group of cells located in the brainstem that control voluntary movement.  Anatomical Terms  Locus: Small and well-defined group of cells. For example, the locus ceruleus is the group of cells in the brainstem that controls waking.  Ganglion: Groups of neurons found in the peripheral nervous system.  Gyri, Sulci and Fissures: The bumps are called gyri, and the grooves between the bumps are called sulci/groove-trough. If the grooves are very deep, they are called fissures/large grooves. For example, the gap separating the two lobes is called the sagittal-longitudinal fissure/groove.  Anatomical Terms  The part that shows our nose is called anterior, meaning front, and the back part is called posterior, meaning back.  The part that shows the upper part is called dorsal, meaning back, and the part that shows down is called ventral, meaning belly.  Medial and Lateral?  For example, the nose is in a medial position relative to the eye.  Functions of the Cerebral Hemispheres LEFT LEFT Newton’s Physics, Prefer writing and speaking Materialist Following spoken instructions Piecemeal, sequential Prefer true/false, multiple choice, Mental, intellectual and matching tests Organization Taking few risks Analytical Looking for details Logical Controlling the right side of the Rational body Remembering names Mathematical thinking Reasonable, Concrete thinking Solving problems by breaking Language learning skills them down into parts Act with thought. Linear thinking and Mathematic Using oral language Auditory  Functions of the Cerebral Hemispheres RIGHT RIGHT Quantum physics, subatomic Preferring written exams Holistic Taking many risks (with little Intuitive control) Spontaneous, immediate Looking for similar characteristics Creative/sensitive, sensitive Controlling the left side of the body Emotional Random and open-ended thinking Remembering faces Abstract thinking and mathematic Going with feelings Musical abilities Solving problems by looking at Simultaneous thinking the whole Interpreting gestures, facial Thinking in three dimensions expressions, emotions and body Visual language Preferring pictures/drawing and Navigation skills objects to be touched Following written or proven instructions  Central Nervous System  Basic structure of the brain  Responsible for organizing our behavior  Contains 86 billion nerve cells, each connected to 30,000 other nerve cells (according to new information)  The brain consists of 3 main parts: Forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain  The Hindbrain  The hindbrain is adjacent to the spinal cord, it has two large sections  MYELENCEPHALON  Spinal medulla = Medulla oblongata  The region between the brain and spinal cord, which is part of the brain stem. It provides the connection between the brain and body organs.  In this part of the brain, the centers that control reflexes such as respiration, constriction and expansion of blood vessels, regulation of heart rate, vomiting, swallowing, chewing, coughing, sneezing, salivation are located in this part.  The Hindbrain  METENCEPHALON  Cerebellum  Integrates motor coordination and motor functions with mental processes  Ensures that muscle movements are regular and balanced. Stimuli from receptors in muscles and balance-related parts of the ear reach the cerebellum.  A damage to the cerebellum disrupts motor coordination, preventing movements requiring balance such as standing, walking, and writing. It causes posture disorders.  It also plays a role in motor, emotional, and cognitive association-associative learning. Damage to cerebellum Processing speed decreases, and learning is difficult.  Cerebellum  Functions: movement control, posture, walking, executive function, communication with PFC, speed in grasping.  Problems: Coordination, poor thinking, slow speech, poor handwriting, trouble learning routines, disorganization, sensitivity to noise and touch, clumsiness, sensitivity to light  Diagnosis: Trauma, autism, asperger, alcoholism, some types of ADHD, sensory adjustment problem, coordination problem  Balancing: Recovering from brain damage, sleight of hand games, staying away from alcohol and toxic substances, coordination exercises such as dancing or table tennis,  The Hindbrain  Pons (bridge): connects the two brain hemispheres. Thus, it transmits the information received from the hemispheres to the cerebellum, ensuring that the muscles on both sides of the body are regular and balanced. It also includes centers that control sleep and wakefulness.  The raphe system is an important part of the body's internal clock, consisting of a series of nuclei located between the midbrain and the medulla.  Damage to this area can cause permanent loss of consciousness.  The pons and the medulla are considered parts of the brainstem. The brainstem is one of the most primitive parts of the mammalian brain and the most important part for life.  Mid Brain  MEZENSEFALON  Mid Brain: Two subdivisions: a posterior sensory component, the tectum, which is the roof of the third ventricle, and a motor structure located anteriorly, the tegmentum, which is the "floor" of the third ventricle.  The tectum contains two sets of bilaterally symmetrical nuclei that receive sensory information from the eyes and ears.  The superior colliculi, receive projections from the retina of the eye.  The inferior colliculi, receive projections from the auditory receptors of the ear.  Behaviors mediated by the colliculi include finding objects in the surrounding space and orienting to those objects (visual or auditory). These structures also mediate simple pattern recognition of visual or sound stimuli.  They are the main sensory areas of animals that do not have well- developed neocortices (such as fish and reptiles). Figure 3.19 A Figure 3.19 Midbrain  Mid Brain  The nuclei that make up the tegmentum are involved in motor function (Figure 3.19B). The red nucleus controls limb movements and plays a role in coordinating limb movements for walking. The substantia nigra ("black matter") connects to the forebrain, particularly the basal ganglia.  It is important for movement, as is shown by the difficulty of movement seen in people with Parkinson's disease. In this disease, substantia nigra cells are destroyed.  Substantia nigra projections to the forebrain are also important for valuing rewarding things and for acquiring both good and bad habits related to valued objects.  These substantia nigra projections also play a role in drug addiction and compulsive gambling.  The periacqueductal gray matter (PAG), composed of cell bodies surrounding the cerebral aqueduct, contains circuits for controlling species-specific behaviors (e.g., sexual behavior) and for regulating pain responses.  Resources  Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2021). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Worth Publishers. Newyork. (8th edition)  Stirling, J. (2002). Introduction to neuropsychology. NY: Taylor & Francis. Thank you for your attention. … EPSK 425 Neuropsychology Lecture Notes Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CHAPTER 3b Brain parts and Neuropsychological Diseases Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  FOREBRAIN It consists of two parts, the diencephalon and the telencephalon. FOREBRAIN Diencephalon: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus Pituitary Gland Telencefalon: Limbic system, Basal Ganglia, Cerebral cortex  FOREBRAIN: THALAMUS THALAMUS: It consists of two egg-shaped clusters of 20 nerve cell nuclei located just above the brainstem, within the cerebral hemispheres. It acts as a station for the senses. The thalamus also has an important role in providing and regulating functions such as being aware of what is happening in the environment, being alert to these situations and attention.  FOREBRAIN: HYPOTHALAMUS  HYPOTHALAMUS: It is located between the thalamus and the pituitary gland. The nuclei here have receptors that perceive the internal state of the body.  The hypothalamus is the center where "excitement" and "desire" are controlled. Desires such as sexual behavior, eating, drinking, body temperature, emotional behavior and movement are managed by this center.  The hypothalamus connects to the pituitary gland and interacts with it to control many endocrine functions.  For example, if the body gets too hot, the hypothalamus senses this and causes the capillaries in the skin to dilate, which cools the body. It also controls the pituitary gland.  FOREBRAIN: EPITHALAMUS  THE EPITHALAMUS consists of nuclei in the posterior part of the diencephalon. One of its structures is the pineal gland  Instead of serving as the center of the mind as Descartes suggested, it secretes the hormone melatonin, which influences circadian and seasonal body rhythms.  Melatonin secretion during the dark part of the day-night cycle contributes to the feeling of tiredness associated with our motivation to sleep.  Another structure called the habenula regulates some aspects of hunger and thirst.  FOREBRAIN: PITUITARY GLAND PITUITARY GLAND: It is an endocrine gland that produces hormones, also known as the “Turkish saddle” (Sella Tursica) under the brain. It determines how much we will grow. It consists of two sections, the anterior-front region secretes hormones that regulate the secretions of other endocrine glands. The posterior-back region secretes the hormone oxytocin, which controls the continuation of uterine contractions during labor in women and prostate contractions in men. And it secretes antidiuretic hormone, which protects body fluids by allowing the kidneys to retain water. It is also the conductor of the orchestra, sending signals to organs such as the adrenal glands, thyroid and ovaries, how much and when to secrete, and providing the prolactin hormone, which will provide the milk secretion necessary for breastfeeding in women.  FOREBRAIN  FOREBRAIN  Telencefalon:  Limbic system,  Basal Ganglia,  Cerebral cortex  FOREBRAIN: LIMBIC SYSTEM  Limbic System: Hippocampus, Cingulate cortex, and Amygdala. It is related to functions such as feelings, behaviors, and memory.  The Amygdala controls learned behaviors and emotions such as excitement, fear, and anger.  The hippocampus has an important role in learning and memory events.  The Anterior cingulate gyrus is important in sensory processing and experiencing pain  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  Functions: Mood control, loaded memories, softens motivation, sets emotional tone, bonding, sense of smell, libido.  Problems: Depression, sadness, focus on negativity, irritability, low motivation and energy, blame, guilt, social disconnection, loneliness, lack of self-esteem, low libido, lack of interest in fun, feeling worthless, helpless, boredom, dissatisfaction.  Diagnosis: Depression, cyclical mood disorder.  Balancing: Intense aerobic exercise, cognitive-behavioral strategies against negative thoughts, balanced diet - Barry Sears' The zone diet book  Supplements: DL-phenylalanine, SAMe, L-tyrosine, omega-3.  For informational purposes only, it is essential to advise people to consult their physicians when recommending these supplements.  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  AMYGDALA  If the brain perceives information as a threat, it takes action very quickly.  It scans incoming perceptions for the possibility of danger.  This mechanism of the brain allows someone crossing the street to run to avoid being hit by a car that suddenly jumps out onto the road.  It perceives the approach of this unexpected car from its peripheral vision and reacts spontaneously without even realizing that it is afraid.  These are self-protective reactions that do not wait for conscious thought  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  AMYGDALA  From the first day of infancy, a large file is formed, a file that consists of memories that indicate possible dangers.  Although some fear reactions are instinctive, most are related to personal memories.  Interactions provided by stories or photographs experienced with these, such as mother, father, sibling, teacher, friend.  It shapes the person's personal reactions to things that are dangerous or wrong to do.  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  DAMAGE TO AMYGDALA  Klüver Buck Syndrome  Hyperorality: not being able to keep your mouth shut  Hypersexuality: excessive sexual desire, promiscuous sexual behavior, impulses cannot be suppressed, tumor in the temporal region! Effect of depressive illnesses!  Rule breaking  Dangerous work  Benzodiazepine  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  Klüver Buck Syndrom  Bilateral lesion in the temporal lobe, amigdala and related pathways. The most common cause of this is brain inflammation caused by the Herpes Simplex virus.  Also, a stroke due to a blockage or bleeding in the vessels feeding it, or Alzheimer's disease.  A mental disorder characterized by memory loss.  An increase in the urge to eat or abnormal eating behaviors (such as eating wool, orlon, dowry), hyperorality, i.e. putting objects in the mouth to recognize them, and hypersexuality, i.e. increased sexual urges or showing paraphilic behaviors (feeling sexual attraction to inanimate objects such as cars). If the anterior part of the temporal lobe is also affected, visual agnosia may also develop.  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  The amygdala and the neurobiology of fear  Focusing attention too much on fearful stimuli Amygdala activation  Stimuli of fear are first processed in the amygdala,  Then the response to fear is regulated in the PFC sections  Increase in cortisol secretion  Cortisol is a stress hormone, responsible for managing the stress that occurs at the time of threat, a natural protective response secreted when our body perceives a threat.  A rapid increase in cortisol increases the chance of survival in the face of danger.  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  The amygdala and the neurobiology of fear  Respiratory changes that occur during the fear response (shortness of breath, asthma flare-ups, false choking sensations)  Autonomic symptoms that occur in response to fear (such as increased pulse and blood pressure)  Anxiety can be triggered not only by an external stimulus, but also by a person's memories.  Traumatic memories stored in the hippocampus can activate the amygdala, which in turn can activate other brain regions and produce a fear response.  This is how re-experiencing occurs in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  Disorders of Amygdala  In schizophrenia, the orbitofrontal cortex and its connections with the amygdala are associated with aggressive and impulsive symptoms.  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM  ANTERIOR CINGULATE GYRUS  The cingulate ("girdle") is a three-layered strip of limbic cortex located just above the corpus callosum along the medial walls of the cerebral hemispheres, it plays a role in sexual behavior, social interactions, and decision-making or executive function.  FOREBRAIN:LIMBIC SYSTEM ANTERIOR CINGULATE GYRUS Functions: Calmness, flexibility of perception, cooperation, changing ideas, seeing options and mistakes, agreeing. Problems-excessive ACG activity: Negative thoughts and behavior, sadness, distress, holding grudges, obsessions with the past, being rigid, being selfish, constantly opposing everything, getting angry if things don't go the way you want, getting angry if things aren't right, not liking changes, saying no without thinking, seeing too many mistakes, constantly criticizing, eating disorders, chronic pain-pain fixation, crankiness, premenstrual tension. Diagnosis: OCD, oppositional disorder. Balancing: Intensive aerobics, anger management, hypnosis, distraction, low protein-high carbohydrate diet, 5-hydroxytryptophan - 5-HTTP, St. John's wort, serotonin-increasing substances such as inositol. For informational purposes, it is essential to tell people to consult their doctors when recommending these.  FOREBRAIN: BASAL GANGLIA  BASAL GANGLIA: Caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus.  Other structures such as the substantia nigra and nucleus accumbens-NA are also included in this system.  Controls learning, sensory experiences and movement.  (1) They connect the sensory areas of the cortex to the motor areas of the cortex,  (2) They organize movement so that it is fluent.  (3) They are involved in associative learning, which is necessary for the coordination of sensory and motor skills, where one stimulus or event is associated with another.  Nucleus accumbens-NA: It is thought to play an important role in reward, laughter, pleasure, addiction, fear and the placebo effect.  FOREBRAIN: BASAL GANGLIA  Damage to the lower regions of Basal Ganglia, i.e. neuron loss, results in motor disorders (such as Huntington's, Tourette's and Parkinson's disease).  Huntington's disease, a genetic disorder, causes the basal ganglia cells to gradually die, and many involuntary body movements - twitching, convulsive movements and tics - occur almost constantly in relation to this cell death.  The most common symptoms of Tourette's syndrome, are involuntary motor tics, especially of the face and head, and complex movements such as hitting, lunging or jumping.  Repetitive simple behaviors such as blinking, clearing the throat, sniffing, coughing, shrugging, shaking the head, sneezing, biting the nails and biting the lips.  Tourette's syndrome is also characterized by involuntary vocalizations, including swearing, foul language and animal sounds.  Tics occasionally change location or may decrease or increase in intensity.  FOREBRAIN: BASAL GANGLIA  Parkinson's disease is characterized by a number of symptoms, including muscle rigidity and difficulty initiating movement.  The patient may have difficulty rising from a chair or reaching for an object, and may shuffle.  The patient may also have rhythmic tremors in the hands and legs at rest.  Parkinson's disease is associated with loss of connections to and from the basal ganglia, particularly connections from the substantia nigra of the midbrain.  FOREBRAIN: BASAL GANGLIA  It supports associative learning.  For example, a bird learns through a series of experiences that brightly colored butterflies taste bitter.  The basal ganglia are critical for learning the relationship between taste and color and for avoiding eating insects.  Similarly, many of our actions are responses to sensory cues—for example, pushing a button to turn on a light or turning a knob to open a door.  People with basal ganglia disorders may have difficulty performing these types of stimulus-response actions.  Many of the bad habits we acquire through associative learning involve the basal ganglia, including addictions to drugs, gambling, or food. Forebrain: Basal Ganglia  FOREBRAIN: BASAL GANGLIA  Functions: Integration of emotions, thoughts and movements, body cavity regulator, smooth movement, pleasure mediator, motivation modulator  Problems-when there is excessive BG activity: High anxiety, Panic, excessive attention, muscle tension, avoiding conflict, always thinking the worst, excessive fear of judgment from others, freezing in fearful environments, shyness, nail biting, pinching the skin, excessive motivation-difficulty stopping work, headaches and stomach aches, insecurity  Diagnosis: Anxiety, workaholic.  Balancing: Excessive BG activity, Hypnosis, meditation, relaxing music, reducing caffeine and alcohol, cognitive therapy to suppress negative thoughts, GABA, kava kava, valerian root, omega-3.  For informational purposes, it is essential to tell people to consult their doctors when recommending these.  Pleasure and brain functions  Internet addiction affects the reward center NA in the brain responsible for pleasure and increases the release of dopamine.  With the increase in dopamine, the release of morphine and other substances also increases.  Over time, this increase becomes insufficient and tolerance develops and in order to provide more dopamine and morphine increase, the brain needs to be stimulated for a longer period of time and this leads to not being able to quit the internet. ​  During the game, the center of the reward system in the brain, NA, is overfilled with dopamine. The hippocampus remembers this pleasurable event for a short time, and the amygdala records it through conditioning. This overstimulates the dopaminergic regions and the NA dopamine center is stimulated. The brain compulsively turns to the addictive thing. Almost every entertainment tool causes an increase in the dopamine level in NA.  Resources  Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2021). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Worth Publishers. Newyork. (8th edition)  Stirling, J. (2002). Introduction to neuropsychology. NY: Taylor & Francis. Thank you for your attention… EPSK 425 Neuropsychology Lecture Notes Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CHAPTER 3c Brain parts and Neuropsychological Diseases Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CASE: Neuropsychological Disorders, Development of Abnormal Brain  A Life Without Reading  A 19-year-old Ms. P. was working as a nursing assistant and found her job so enjoyable that she was considering entering a nursing program. Because she had not finished high school and had a poor academic record in general, she went to a psychologist for guidance on whether she could pursue nursing.  Ms. P. had difficulty with language skills and her reading skills were so poor that she could not read.  She failed the written exam to get her driver's license.  Given Ms. P.'s interest in furthering her nursing education, she was tested on her reading skills and given a full neuropsychological exam.  CASE: Neuropsychological Disorders, Development of Abnormal Brain  A life without reading books  The results confirmed that she had difficulty reading. Her general IQ was 85 on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. But there was a 32-point difference between her verbal IQ of 74 and her performance (nonverbal) IQ of 106.  Special tests of left hemisphere function confirmed this discrepancy:  Although her verbal memory, verbal fluency, spelling, reading, and arithmetic scores were extremely low; her spatial skills and nonverbal memory were good, as were his performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the Semmes Body Placement Test.  In short, her language skills were those of a 6-year-old (despite 11 years of schooling). Her other abilities were those of other people her age.  CASE: Neuropsychological Disorders, Development of Abnormal Brain  A life without reading books  Considering her inadequate language skills, Ms. P. is told that it is not possible to pursue a nursing program and develop the necessary skills.  Ms. P. is told that she is not mentally disabled in any way. It is also explained that just as some people have poor musical talent, her verbal skills are also poor and that this can be compensated for (she is arranged to take the driving test orally and passes the test).  All of Ms. P.'s brothers and sisters have reading problems.  Reading and Brain A result of many fMRI studies: "classical" pattern of activation in the reading brain. Specifically, three regions across the four lobes are involved in decoding or sight recognition reading: (a) the left inferior frontal gyrus in the frontal lobe, (b) the left temporo-parietal cortex, and (c) the left occipito-temporal region  FOREBRAIN: CEREBRAL CORTEX  CEREBRAL CORTEX: The cortex is the center of thought. It manages high-level mental functions such as seeing, hearing, speaking, creating, and thinking. This is the center where we bring together what we perceive through all our senses and produce "meaning".Its thickness is between 2-4 mm and covers the outer surfaces of the brain hemispheres. While it has a flat surface in the newborn, folds form as the brain develops and the cortex expands.There are millions of axons under the cerebral cortex, connecting neurons to the cortex. The cerebral hemispheres manage the opposite side of the body. Each hemisphere is divided into 4 regions: Frontal, Temporal, Parietal, and Occipital.   CEREBRAL CORTEX: Frontal Lobe  It has motor, premotor and prefrontal regions and connections that are structured from simple to complex.  It is the largest of the four lobes that make up the brain structure. One of the important structures here is the primary motor cortex. It is responsible for the voluntary control of certain body movements.  Its front part is the prefrontal cortex-PFC. PFC plays an important role in perception and personality formation. It is associated with perceptual analysis, abstract thinking and social behavioral competencies. It organizes and regulates the information transmitted from all senses.  Lesions in the left frontal lobe can cause Broca's aphasia: The person cannot perform the speech process. Lesions in the right frontal lobe can lead to emotional complexity.  For example; a person can shout to his friend but not shout in the library. You answer the phone in your own house but not in your neighbor's house. Knowing the order of the stores they go to and the items they buy...  CEREBRAL CORTEX: PreFrontal Cortex-PFC Functions: Paying attention, sustaining and directing; impulse control, organization, detailed thinking, solving problems, planning ahead, designing, setting goals, judgment, decision, empathy, common sense, morale, emotional control, understanding, patience, learning from mistakes. Problems: Short attention span, aimlessness, sudden action without thinking, lack of forethought, disorganization, procrastination, poor judgment, lack of empathy, inattention to details, lack of understanding, failure to learn lessons… Diagnosis: ADHD, brain trauma, schizophrenia, depression, anti-social personality, behavioral disorders, mental illness due to poor judgment Balancing: Organizational support, intense aerobics, setting goals, planned exercise, high protein diet. L-tyrosine, Phenylalanine, L- Theanine, SAMe increase dopamine or norepinephrine in the brain. For informational purposes only, it is essential to tell people to consult their doctors when recommending these.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Frontal Lobe  1-In order to press the button on the TV remote control, we first hold it with our hands, this grasping movement activates the motor area-motor neurons,  2-After the object is held, it is necessary to know what it does in order to use it for its intended purpose.  In order to hold and operate the remote control like a remote control, we need information to do this, this information is acquired by the premotor area neurons located in front of the motor area.  Motor area and Premotor area.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Frontal Lobe  3-After turning on the TV using the remote control and finding a channel, that is, after we have succeeded, we plan when to end this, after we have achieved our goal, we make the decision with the prefrontal areas located in front of the premotor area.  The prefrontal area is also called the social brain  Some cases cannot use the remote control. ‘’I take the remote control and hold it but I cannot use it ‘’ (premotor is weak)  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Frontal Lobe  If the side surface is affected, the object cannot be grasped, even if the process is started. Basic motor area.  The frontal lobe section is responsible for our gross movements.  When this function is impaired, weakness and paralysis occur.  The premotor area is related to premotor skills.  If there is a dysfunction in the premotor area, Apraxia occurs, there is no movement towards operating the remote control.  The prefrontal area is a decision and control function.  Dysfunction in this area causes problems in starting and controlling the movement.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Frontal Lobe  PFC VE BIPOLAR DISORDER  It is thought to develop due to the inadequate performance of the PFC's regulatory effect on subcortical and limbic structures.  Increased activity and agitation: PFC  Extremely irritable mood: Amygdala  Grandiose, flight of ideas, risk taking, pressured speech: Nucleus accumbens  Decreased need for sleep: Thalamus, hypothalamus  Distraction, poor concentration: PFC  Depressed mood: Amygdala and PFC  Grandiose is a type of psychotic delusion found among the symptoms of some diseases in psychology. Grandiose comes from the English word "grand" meaning big, and is a person's belief that they are overconfident, very strong, talented and knowledgeable, and that they are superior in many ways. There are two types: Grandiose delusion of ability: The person believes that they have special powers or talents. Grandiose delusion of identity: The person believes that they are very famous.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Frontal Lobe  PFC VE ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR  Studies in developmental neuroscience have found that neural connections in the PFC develop significantly during adolescence and early adulthood, and this is associated with increased emotion regulation via the amygdala and decreased cortisol levels.  In rare cases of early (e.g. childhood) damage, high levels of antisocial behavior and impaired moral judgment have been seen  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Frontal Lobe  PROSOPAGNOZI  Face blindness... People with this disease cannot recognize human faces. In other words, they know that there is a human face, they can understand the emotions of that person from their face, but they cannot recognize whose face they see. They do not know their relatives or ancestors.  Two British sisters who are victims of prosopagnosia Donna Jones and Victoria Wardley  This disease can be genetic, as well as developing due to trauma or tumor. It can be caused by damage to the face recognition areas (Fusiform Gyrus) in the brain or by a lack of gray matter.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Temporal Lobe  It is located on both sides of the brain under the lateral sylvian fissure. It is the primary hearing area.  Left temporal lobe, speech;  Wernicke's area: Plays a role in understanding and comprehending sounds. Speech and sound information reaches Wernicke's area, where the content is evaluated and interpreted after the meaning of the words and transferred to Broca's area for syntax analysis, plays a role in the formation of speech.  Wernicke's aphasia: The inability of a person to understand what is being spoken.  Right temporal lobe, emotional-melodic sounds; Perceiving and expressing melodic, emotional and environmental sounds. Damage; the person cannot understand or express the emotional content of melodies and speech.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Temporal Lobe  Functions: Understanding and using language; anger, moodiness; memory; correcting words; reading; recognizing words and objects; emotional balance; reading faces and social cues; rhythm; spiritual experiment  Problems: Problems with verbal and short-term memory; problems with visual, spatial, musical and facial recall; language problems- dyslexia; difficulty finding the right word; mood instability; fear for no reason or very little reason; difficult-to-diagnose headaches or stomach aches; difficulty reading social cues; dark, bad, scary thoughts; harming oneself or others; learning problems; visions-seeing or hearing shadows, distortions; excessive focus on religious ideas.  Balancing: Anger management, increased protein diet, GABA, valerian, omega-3, gingko biloba for memory, huperzine A, phosphatidylserine-  For informational purposes, it is essential to tell people to consult their doctors when recommending these.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Parietal Lobe  The parietal region is located between the occipital and the central sulcus. It integrates sensory information from various parts of the body, such as spatial awareness and orientation. The optic nerves pass through the occipital and parietal lobes. The functions of the parietal lobe include information processing, movement, spatial orientation, speech, visual perception, recognition, perception of stimuli, pain and tactile sensations, and cognition. Damage causes abnormalities in spatial processing and body image.  Left Parietal Lobe Damage; Gerstmann syndrome, aphasia (language disorder), and agnosia (abnormal perception of objects).  Right Parietal Lobe Damage; Impaired self-care skills and difficulty in drawing-apraxia.  Bilateral Parietal Lobe Damage; Characterized by visual, attention, and motor activities. Causes Balint syndrome.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Parietal Lobe  Apraxia is a motor disorder that occurs as a result of damage to the posterior parietal cortex in the brain. Individuals have difficulty making the motor planning that will produce the movement, even though they understand the movement or command requested of them. The severity of the brain damage determines the severity of apraxia.  Muscle weakness, dyskinesia, abnormal tone, cognitive dysfunction, decreased comprehension, and inability to cooperate are not observed in apraxia.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Parietal Lobe  GERSTMANN SYNDROME  It is not hereditary, it can be seen in very active, highly intelligent children or people who have suffered brain damage.  Left parietal lobe in the region of the angular gyrus.  Symptoms:  1-Dysgraphia or agraphia, known as difficulty or loss of writing ability.  2-Finger agnosia, known as loss of skills in the hands and fingers.  3-Dyscalculia or acalculia, known as coordination disorder in mathematical calculation and processing.  4-The right and left parts of the brain take on different functions, and in this syndrome, the right and left parts of the brain cannot make this distinction.  It often occurs in dyslexia or reading problems.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Parietal Lobe  Balint syndrome is essentially a visual perception disorder. Patients are unable to perceive and identify more than one object at a time.  It is a rare syndrome that affects the ability to perceive the visual field, most commonly following damage to the bilateral occipital and parietal areas.  Parietal Lobe Functional Test  Thanks to the processes in the parity region, we can distinguish two separate points that are close to each other and touch our skin to a certain degree.  We can measure the person's 2-point sensory threshold on the skin. This process is called the Two-Point Discrimination Test.  There are more sensory receptors in different areas of our body, so they are more sensitive in perceiving two separate points that are close to each other.  We can test the participant's sensory threshold using an esthesiometer, compass, or paper clip.  The participant closes her/his eyes and we do the application. For example, for the finger, we first try by opening the compass 5 mm.  If she/he knows 2/3, we move on to a smaller measurement (4 mm). Or if she/he cannot know 2/3, we find the smallest sensory threshold.  CEREBRAL CORTEX: Occipital Lobe  It is the area where visual information is processed, transforming visual signals from the eye into images.  The functions of the occipital lobe include visual reception, visuospatial processing, motion and color recognition.  Occipital lobe Disorders can cause visual illusions.  Video Painter Eşref Armağanoğlu  Summary of the DSM-5 Classification of Common Neurodevelopmental Disorders Diagnostic Definition category Intellectual Impairment affecting adaptation in conceptual (language), social disability (interpersonal), and practical (self-management) areas Communication Impaired verbal and nonverbal communication Disorder Autism spectrum Impaired social interactions, including repetitive patterns of behavior disorder (ASD) Attention Deficit Impaired attention to detail and/or hyperactivity; excessive talking, Disorders fidgeting, or inability to sit in appropriate positions (ADHD) Specific learning Persistent difficulties in reading, writing, arithmetic or mathematics disorder Reasoning skills during formal education  ABNORMALITIES IN THE AUTISTIC BRAIN  How does neural development deviate from the norm in autistic brains?  Analysis of post-mortem autistic brains, neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), in vitro (think petri dish) studies where neurons may be programmed from patients’ other cells such as blood or skin cells, and animal models, for example, looking at brains of mice with certain autism-related mutations.  Result is that multiple stages of neuronal development are disrupted, including those in the cortex, with neurons less able to coordinate their actions with other cells in their surroundings.  ABNORMALITIES IN THE AUTISTIC BRAIN  The frontal lobe of the cortex performs complex mental functions such as reasoning and decision-making, and also contains the motor areas, which plan and execute voluntary movements. The prefrontal cortex is tied to executive functioning (the process guiding goal-directed actions and the ability to handle novel situations), attention, mental flexibility, problem-solving, verbal reasoning, working memory and the ability to switch back and forth between different tasks.  When the cortical neurons are not properly connected, these all- important processes, which are deficient in autism cases, are compromised.  Also, when projection neurons become overactive where there is not enough inhibition, epileptic seizures can result.  Babies born without cerebral cortex  CASE: JAXON  About 1 in 4,859 babies are born with anencephaly each year in the U.S. These babies cannot live long.  Amazingly, Jaxon Buell (boy born with part of brain missing) lived 5 years.  His father: "He is truly teaching himself how to communicate with us in his own way... He is so normal in so many ways. He is a baby who is dealing with teething, he cries when he's hungry, he hurts from gas pains, he throws ups, he cries, he poops, he sleeps, he repeats.’’  Babies born without cerebral cortex  CASE: NOAH  A British boy born with just 2 percent of his brain defied the odds and is now a happy 6-year-old — after it “grew back.”  Shelley and Rob Wall, from Cumbria, in northwest England, were advised to terminate the pregnancy five times after finding out that their baby had “no brain.” Dad Rob said that many doctors believed his unborn son had not developed a brain.  Incredibly, however, by the time Noah was 3 years old his brain had grown to 80 percent of the normal size.  Now doctors believe Noah’s brain had actually just been squashed into a small space — and that after he had a shunt fitted, it grew back to where it should have been. What is lissencephaly (smooth brain)?  Lissencephaly is a rare congenital condition that causes a developing brain to appear smooth instead of having normal bumps and folds. Lissencephaly is often caused by a genetic mutation, though non-genetic factors can also cause it.  Lissencephaly is caused by non-genetic and genetic factors and develops in fetuses between the 12th and 24th weeks of pregnancy.  Capgras Syndrome  This syndrome is linked to brain damage in the bifrontal, right limbic, and temporal regions. The damage leads to aberrant memory functions, self-monitoring, and reality perception. Such neurophysiological deficits cause an inability to integrate emotional information processing and facial recognition correctly.  Capgras Syndrome  Almost half of the patients get this syndrome due to head trauma. The syndrome involves a great delusion and great paranoia.  Patients see their closest relatives (mother, father, sibling, spouse) as frauds. They say that they look like their relatives but they are not their relatives.  For example, due to brain damage in a traffic accident, they may say that their spouse was kidnapped by demons and that the person next to them looks like their spouse but is not her/him.  There are patients in the literature who say that both their mother and father are frauds and cut off their parents.  Charles Bonnet Syndrome  Charles BonnetHe discovered it by observing his grandfather.  Patients with vision problems experience hallucinations.  A Charles Bonnet patient may be completely blind or may have a certain amount of vision impairment.  It is seen in people with cataracts, glaucoma, and macular degeneration.  The patient suddenly sees geometric shapes, strange people with crooked teeth, cartoons, etc. in front of their eyes like a silent movie. These shapes may repeat continuously and silently.  However, they are different from psychiatric hallucinations. Psychiatric delusions are usually in communication with the patient.  A kind of dysfunction of the Fusiform Gyrus is the factor in this.  16 years old: Brain trauma at 7 years old, dropping out of school, drugs, anger, low left PFC activity.  Age 48: Football accident at age 16, major problems expressing emotions (alexithymia - defined simply as difficulty in recognizing, recognizing, distinguishing and expressing emotions), low activity in left PFC and anterior left temporal region Age 48: Fell from a roof from 7.5 meters. Speech, attention, memory, concentration, and anger problems began.  Support and Protection of the Brain and Spinal cord  The brain and spinal cord are supported and protected against infection and injury in four ways:  1. The brain is surrounded by a thick layer of bone; the skull and spinal cord are surrounded by a series of interlocking bony vertebrae. The CNS is surrounded by bone.  The parts of the PNS that lack bone protection are more vulnerable to injury but can regenerate themselves. Self-repair is much more limited in the CNS.  2. A series of three-layered structures are located within the bony sheath surrounding the CNS. Figure 3.4 shows.  Figure 3.4 Brain Safety: The meninges are a three-layered membrane that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. They are contained in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that acts as a buffer.  Support and Protection of the Brain and Spinal cord  3. The brain and spinal cord are resistant to shock and sudden events thanks to the CSF. CSF continuously circulates through the four ventricles of the brain, the spine and the subarachnoid space in the meninges of the brain. CSF is constantly produced and discharged through the channels between the ventricles. If the outlet in these channels is blocked, a congenital condition called Hydrocephalus (a result of CSF pressure) occurs, which can cause serious mental disorders and even death.  4. The blood-brain barrier protects the brain and spinal cord by limiting the movement of chemicals from the rest of the body to the CNS. The CNS protects it from toxic substances and infections. Glia cells, Astroglia, stimulate capillary cells (very small blood vessels) to form very tight connections with each other. In this way, harmful substances cannot pass through these tight capillaries to the CNS tissues.  Visual neglect patient  A visual neglect patient  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymKvS0XsM4w  Phantom organ: Mirror video  Phantom Limb Mirror Box video  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gc3CmS8_vUI  Mirror therapy: Used to help paralyzed patients move their hands.  Mirror Therapy to improve hand function after stroke  www.youtube.com › watch › v=up9sR6rjTwg  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TXB4TrbVRco  Resources  Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2021). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Worth Publishers. Newyork. (8th edition)  Stirling, J. (2002). Introduction to neuropsychology. NY: Taylor & Francis. Thank you for your attention. … EPSK 425 Neuropsychology Lecture Notes Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  CHAPTER 4a Neurotransmitters Asst. Prof. Ferihan Tanrıkut  NEUROTRANSMITTERS  Chemical substances that mediate communication between nerve cells are called Neurotransmitters.  Criteria for classifying a neurotransmitter as a biochemical substance.  1)The substance must be packaged in a synaptic vesicle and present at the presynaptic nerve ending  2)The substance must be released from the nerve ending when depolarization or an action potential occurs at the presynaptic membrane  3)Specific receptors for the substance must be present on the postsynaptic membrane  NEUROTRANSMITTERS  Neurotransmitters used to calm the brain and provide balance are called inhibitory neurotransmitters.  It is related to many problems related to mental health and balance. The decrease in inhibitors, which are the balance of mood, reveals a negative mood.  If excitatory neurotransmitters are activated more, the number of inhibitory neurotransmitters decreases. Serotonin, Acetylcholine, GABA, Endorphin, Dopamine, Taurine  NEUROTRANSMITTERS  Neurotransmitters used for the physical functions of the body are called excitatory neurotransmitters.  Contractions in the continuous heartbeat are necessary for the brain to control the muscle system we use when walking or running, that is, repetitive functions.  Dopamine, Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline), Epinephrine  NEUROTRANSMITTERS  Eating: The digestive system starts when food is chewed.  The moment you start chewing, the nerves under your teeth send a message to your brain. This message passes from one nerve to another.  Neurotransmitters are what ensure the continuity of these signals. When one signal passes to another, the Neurotransmitter creates an electrical connection in the two nerve cells with a chemical reaction.  Neurotransmitters carry the signal they receive from one nerve cell to another, ensuring that the process is not interrupted.  The speed in this wonderfully designed system varies between 1 m/sec and 12 m/sec.  Amino acids  GABA-gamma-aminobutyric acid- SEDATIVE: CNS, Inhibitory,  30-40% in all synapses and very high amounts in the brain  BG, Hypothalamus, Hippocampus, Substantia nigra and globus pallidus nuclei,  Glutamate------> GABA  “nature’s calming substance”.  Many mental disorders have been found to be related to GABA  Dysfunction, seizures, anxiety..  Basic foods: Almonds, lentils, brown rice, tomatoes, beans, melons, watermelons, etc.  WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU DRINK ALCOHOL  Alcohol reduces CNS activity. It affects the CNS by blocking some neural receptors and stimulating others. For example, some receptors are stimulated by GABA. GABA neurotransmitters have a special key and only open the appropriate locks-receptors.  Alcohol molecules act like GABA keys and open GABA locks- receptors. In other words, since GABA neurons are stimulated, neural activities decrease, which reduces the person's anxiety and tension. In other words, alcohol imitates GABA and fools GABA receptors. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ferihan Tanrıkut 8  Amino acids  GLYCINE: Inhibitor,  Found in spinal cord, brain stem, and retina  Found only in vertebrates  A basic building block of proteins  It is suppressed by strychnine. This substance binds to the glycine receptor and prevents the opening of the chloride ion channel, thus stopping the inhibitory effect of glycine. Overstimulation of the spinal cord results in poisoning  Amino acids  GLUTAMATE (GLUTAMIC ACID)-MEMORY: CNS, Excitatory  It is the basic building block of proteins  It is the most abundant stimulant neurotransmitter in the brain (such as the Amygdala and Basal Ganglia). It plays a very important role in synaptic plasticity, learning and memory.  Its stimulant role is stopped by the reabsorption of aspartate and glutamate into the presynaptic membrane and by a chloride-independent membrane transport system  Monoamines  SEROTONIN- Happiness = 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)- Inhibitor,  Tryptophan (amino acid) ------> Serotonin  Serotonin plays an important role in the regulation of anger, violence, mood, sleep, body temperature, sexual orientation, respiration, perception of pain, vomiting and appetite, and immune system function.  It is found in the brain stem and is also produced by bacteria in the intestines.  Adequate levels of serotonin are necessary for a balanced mood. Foods such as turkey, milk, bananas.  Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are used in the treatment of depression. Substances such as amphetamine, cocaine, Ecstasy, block the reuptake of serotonin.  5HTP  5 HTP is the active metabolite of the amino acid L- Tryptophan. The activity of 1000 mg of L-Tryptophan in the body is equivalent to the activity of 100 mg of 5-HTP.  For this reason, the 5-HTP form is preferred in supplements.  L-Tryptophan is an amino acid that participates in the production of serotonin in the body.  Studies show that L-Tryptophan deficiency leads to a decrease in serotonin levels, thus increasing the sensitivity to depression in individuals.  For this reason, L-Tryptophan has a field of use in disorders such as depression, anxiety and nervous disorders.  5HTP  Appetite and weight control; Studies have shown that obese people have low serotonin levels. It has been noted that low serotonin levels increase carbohydrate and alcohol consumption, especially in obese people. In line with this data, three studies conducted on obese people have shown that 5-HTP helps reduce food intake and alcohol consumption and helps with weight loss.  Behavioral disorders; It has been determined that the amount of serotonin in the brain is low in disorders such as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, aggressive behavior, eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia.  Painkiller; It has been observed that low serotonin levels reduce pain tolerance in individuals. For this reason, it is thought that L- Tryptophan, which has a serotonin-increasing feature, may be an effective substance in relieving and reducing pain.  5HTP  Tryptophan is an essential amino acid and is converted to 5-HTP. It is structurally converted to serotonin in the presence of vitamin B6 and enzymes.  When tryptophan concentrations increase, an increase in serotonin is observed. Since it supports the increase in serotonin, 5-HTP can be used for anxiety.  The first study to examine its effectiveness on mood was conducted at Osaka University in Japan. Mood problems were improved in amounts used between 50-300 mg.  In 4-week studies, SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors), tricyclic antidepressants and 5-HTP were found to be as effective as antidepressants according to the Hamilton scale.  The components that must be present for 5-HTP to convert to serotonin are; Vit C, Vit B6, Zn and Mg.  In the absence of any of them, serotonin cannot be produced even if there is 5-HTP in the environment (rate-limiting step).  Monoamines  MELATONIN  Obtained from serotonin in the pineal gland and retina  Epiphyseal parenchymal cells secrete melatonin into the cerebrospinal fluid and blood  Sleep-wake cycle  Acts as an inhibitor in the secretion and synthesis of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and GABA  Monoamines  Noradrenaline-Attention: DopamineNoradrenaline Stimulant (Excitatory)  It affects the brain's response to the environment and to always be attentive.  Together with adrenaline, it applies the "flight or fight" logic by increasing heart rate, removing stored glucose and accelerating blood flow to skeletal muscles.  It also plays a role in the formation of adrenaline.  If high production occurs, it causes anxiety and mood disorders. If production levels decrease, fatigue, insomnia and focus problems occur.  Monoamines  Dopamine - pleasure: It functions as a neurotransmitter by activating dopamine receptors. It is also secreted from the hypothalamus and from there it mixes with the blood and functions as a neurohormone.  As a neurohormone, it works to prevent the secretion of prolactin from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.  It affects the sympathetic NS, and is generally used in drugs for this purpose to speed up the heartbeat and increase blood pressure.  It has been found that the number of receptors is higher in people with high social status. These individuals are happier with their experiences.  The precursor chemical is tyrosine, an amino acid abundant in foods such as hard cheese and bananas. The enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase changes tyrosine into ʟ-dopa, which is sequentially converted by other enzymes into dopamine, Norepinephrine(NE), and finally Epinephrine (EP).  Monoamines  When dopamine is low or high, forgetting, not understanding, not being able to focus, low motivation.  Caffeine, which has a calming effect, increases the amount of dopamine in the synapses, increasing focus. However, a constant increase in the amount of dopamine causes a decrease in dopamine in the long term.  Excessive dopamine can lead to schizophrenia,  A deficiency of dopamine-producing cells can cause Parkinson's  Monoamines  Substances that increase dopamine levels in the body give the impression that time passes faster, while substances that decrease dopamine levels slow down the perception of time.  If we consider that dopamine is also known as the secretion of happiness, the fact that a substance that triggers happiness makes us think that time passes quickly actually brings us back to where we started. Why does time pass more quickly when we are happy?  Foods like hard cheese and bananas.  Vücutta dopamin seviyesini arttıran maddeler zamanın daha hızlı geçtiği izlenimi uyandırırken, dopamin seviyesini azaltan maddeler zaman algısını yavaşlatıyor.